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The Electronics Revolution: From E-Wonderland to E-Wasteland

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Abstract

Since the mid-1990s, electronic waste (e-waste) has been recognized as the fastest-growing component of the solid-waste stream, as small consumer electronic products, such as cellular phones, have become ubiquitous in developed and developing countries (1). In the absence of adequate recycling policies, the small size, short useful life-span, and high costs of recycling these products mean they are routinely discarded without much concern for their adverse impacts on the environment and public health. These impacts occur throughout the product life cycle, from acquisition of raw materials (2) to manufacturing to disposal at the end of products' useful life.
30 OCTOBER 2009 VOL 326 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org
670
POLICYFORUM
The Electronics Revolution:
From E-Wonderland to E-Wasteland
SCIENCE AND REGULATION
Oladele A. Ogunseitan,
1
* Julie M. Schoenung,
2 Jean-Daniel M. Saphores,
3 Andrew A. Shapiro
4
Discarded electronics present serious threats
to health and ecosystems, making e-waste
regulations a policy priority.
Since the mid-1990s, electronic waste
(e-waste) has been recognized as the
fastest-growing component of the
solid-waste stream, as small consumer elec-
tronic products, such as cellular phones,
have become ubiquitous in developed and
developing countries ( 1). In the absence of
adequate recycling policies, the small size,
short useful life-span, and high costs of recy-
cling these products mean they are routinely
discarded without much concern for their
adverse impacts on the environment and pub-
lic health. These impacts occur throughout
the product life cycle, from acquisition of raw
materials ( 2) to manufacturing to disposal at
the end of products’ useful life.
This creates considerable toxicity risks
worldwide ( 3, 4). For example, the mean con-
centration of lead in the blood of children liv-
ing in Guiyu, China, a notorious destination
for improper e-waste recycling ( 5), is 15.3 µg/
dl. There is no known safe level of exposure to
lead; remedial action is recommended for chil-
dren with levels above 10 µg/dl ( 6). Polybromi-
nated diphenyl ethers used as fl ame-retardants
in electronics have been detected in alarm-
ing quantities (up to 4.1 ppm lipid weight) in
California’s peregrine falcon eggs, raising the
specter of species endangerment ( 7, 8).
We recently estimated that each U.S.
household has at least four small (4.5 kg)
and between two and three large (>4.5 kg)
e-waste items in storage ( 9); this represents
747 million e-waste items, weighing over
1.36 million metric tons. Moreover, most peo-
ple (67%) in the United States are not aware
of e-waste disposal restrictions or policies
( 9). The United States, one the largest gen-
erators of e-waste in the world ( 4), does not
have legally enforceable federal policies that
require comprehensive recycling of e-waste
or elimination of hazardous substances from
electronic products. Without a coherent U.S.
policy, informed by challenges faced by simi-
lar efforts around the world, it will be diffi cult
to reach a global consensus.
Patchwork of E-Waste Standards
The European Union (EU) adopted two com-
prehensive directives for managing e-waste:
the Restriction on the Use of Hazardous Sub-
stances (RoHS), and the Waste Electrical and
Electronic Equipment (WEEE) ( 10). China’s
own WEEE regulations will take effect in
2011. The Basel Convention ( 11), which reg-
ulates movement of hazardous wastes across
international borders (and includes a technical
working group on e-waste), has been ratifi ed
by 169 of the 192 United Nations (UN) mem-
ber countries. Unfortunately, the United States
is the only member country of the Organisa-
tion for Economic Co-operation and Devel-
opment that has not ratifi ed the convention.
Within the United States, only 19 states have
e-waste laws (14 others pending), although
most do not provide suffi cient infrastructure
or dedicated revenue streams to enforce com-
pliance and to promote public participation
( 9, 12, 13). This uneven patchwork of poli-
cies has created “risk holes.” Poor communi-
ties and developing countries are dispropor-
tionately affected. Consequences are particu-
larly troubling in Africa, China, and India ( 4,
14, 15). Markets for second-hand electronics
thrive in such places, along with improper
recycling of domestic and illegally imported
e-waste to recover valuable materials.
Potential Action in U.S. Congress
The U.S. Senate is considering the Electronic
Device Recycling Research and Develop-
ment Act (S. 1397, a version of bill H.R.
1580 passed by the House of Representa-
tives) ( 1618). If made law, the act could fund
e-waste engineering research, development,
and demonstration projects; engineering cur-
riculum development; and research into non-
toxic, environmentally responsible alterna-
tive products. The bill would also call for the
U.S. National Academy of Sciences to inves-
tigate barriers and opportunities for reduc-
ing e-waste, decreasing the use of hazardous
materials in electronic products, and enabling
product design for effi cient reuse and recy-
cling. The act addresses an especially overdue
need: It asks the National Institute of Stan-
dards and Technology to establish a database
of physical properties of “green” alternative
materials for use in electronic products. Yet it
is unclear which properties will be available in
this database, or whether human and ecolog-
ical toxicity data, energy demand, and other
socioeconomic indicators will be included.
While developing and implementing
national policy in the United States, lessons
could be learned from challenges faced by
similar programs already under way. The
European Commission in 2007 began phas-
ing the REACH program (Registration, Eval-
uation, Authorization, and Restriction of
Chemical Substances) into enforceable law.
REACH addresses manufacturers’ respon-
sibilities to manage risks from chemicals in
1Program in Public Health and School of Social Ecology,
University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA. 2Depart-
ment of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Uni-
versity of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA. 3Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Department of
Economics, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
4Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sci-
ence, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
*Author for correspondence. E-mail: Oladele.Ogunseitan@
uci.edu
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www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 326 30 OCTOBER 2009 671
POLICYFORUM
their products. There has been some confu-
sion about the overlap of REACH and RoHS.
They have different approaches to risk char-
acterization and management, and they spec-
ify different processes by which they can be
implemented by different EU members ( 19).
Also informative, from a major U.S. state-
level effort, is the contentious intersection
of California’s RoHS-like Electronic Waste
Recycling Act (EWRA), and the broader,
REACH-like, California Green Chemistry
Initiative (CGCI). EWRA focuses on very
specifi c chemicals, but the same consumer
electronics are covered by the CGCI, which
focuses on more comprehensive assessment
of toxic chemicals in consumer products and
comparative assessment of alternative chemi-
cals through the kind of database outlined in
S. 1397. Had it been signed into law, Califor-
nia Assembly Bill 147 would have required
manufacturers to declare hazardous materials
content in consumer electronics, a specifi ca-
tion that was not part of the original EWRA,
but that is essential for the CGCI ( 20).
Research Needs
Technology is available to recover precious
materials from e-waste, but the bottleneck is
consumer participation, collection, disman-
tling, and sorting to separate the material
components (e.g., plastics, different types of
metals, and glass). So, to make a difference in
confronting the global e-waste challenge, S.
1397 must call for policy research to charac-
terize the factors that motivate consumers to
recycle. For example, Californians are will-
ing to pay extra for “green” electronics prod-
ucts (e.g., containing fewer toxic substances,
capable of being economically recycled) and
to drive up to 8 miles to drop-off products for
environmentally sensitive recycling ( 21, 22).
In addition, political mandates and economic
incentives are key tools for engaging manu-
facturers, who will need to assume greater
responsibility for designing electronic prod-
ucts that contain safer materials and are eas-
ily managed after consumers no longer want
them ( 23, 24). Research to advance recycling
technology, such as through improved sorting
and labeling, and logistics of product take-
back, are necessary to make e-waste recy-
cling economically viable ( 25).
To have a larger impact, research must go
beyond management. Solutions to the e-waste
problem should not be developed as “end-of-
the-pipeline” treatments of hazardous waste;
the entire life cycle must be included in the
solution. There is a promising collaboration
between the UN Environment Programme
(UNEP) and the Society for Environmental
Toxicology and Chemistry to produce guide-
lines for product social life-cycle assessment.
Integrating the guidelines with human dis-
ease end points or ecotoxicological assess-
ments remains problematic ( 26).
Research to identify alternatives to toxic
materials and investments in smelter facilities
to safely recycle e-waste sorely lag behind
the pace at which new electronic devices are
invented, which in turn supports consumers’
habits of buying replacements for electronic
products that are still functioning perfectly
( 4, 25, 27, 28). Improved standards for mate-
rials testing could eliminate the need for
exemptions to toxic-substance policies for
sensitive industries (e.g., medical, military,
and aerospace technologies) ( 29). Improved
testing of materials and a robust toxics data-
base may encourage manufacturers to con-
sider toxicity early during product design
rather than in retrospect, only after perfor-
mance standards and economic consider-
ations have fi rst been satisfi ed.
Education
S. 1397 calls for e-waste education programs,
but hurdles remain ( 30). The bill targets only
undergraduate engineering students and
industry professionals, but investigators in
other disciplines, such as toxicology, need to
be engaged. Efforts should include graduate
programs, where opportunities for cross-
disciplinary work are increased ( 31).
Conclusion
Bart Gordon, Chairman of the U.S. House
Committee on Science and Technology, said
that “we need our future engineers to under-
stand that whatever they put together will
eventually have to be taken apart ( 32).” The y
must also understand social, ecological, and
public health consequences of their inven-
tions. Manufacturers must adopt a cradle-
to-cradle stewardship model for their prod-
ucts ( 33). S. 1397 will be most effective if
its expected outcomes in research products,
inventions, and workforce and public edu-
cation are linked to regulatory policies that
provide uniform guidance for nationwide
e-waste management and “green” electronic
product design in light of international, inter-
disciplinary dimensions of the problem.
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Published by AAAS
on November 3, 2009 www.sciencemag.orgDownloaded from
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For more than a decade, the use of lead (Pb) in electronics has been controversial: Indeed, its toxic effects are well documented, whereas relatively little is known about proposed alternative materials. As the quantity of electronic and electrical waste (e-waste) increases, legislative initiatives and corporate marketing strategies are driving a reduction in the use of some toxic substances in electronics. This article argues that the primacy of legislation over engineering and economics may result in selecting undesirable replacement materials for Pb because of overlooked knowledge gaps. These gaps include the need for: assessments of the effects of changes in policy on the flow of e-waste across state and national boundaries; further reliability testing of alternative solder alloys; further toxicology and environmental impact studies for high environmental loading of the alternative solders (and their metal components); improved risk assessment methodologies that can capture complexities such as changes in waste management practices, in electronic product design, and in rate of product obsolescence; carefully executed allocation methods when evaluating the impact of raw material extraction; and in-depth risk assessment of alternative end-of-life (EOL) options.
Article
Concerns about rapid increases in the volume of electronic waste (e-waste) and its potential toxicity have sharpened policy makers' interest for extended producer responsibility to encourage manufacturers of consumer electronic devices (CEDs) to 'design for the environment'. This paper examines consumer willingness to pay for 'green' electronics based on a 2004 mail survey of California households. Using ordered logit models, it was found that significant predictors of willingness to pay for 'greener' computers and cell phones include age, income, education, beliefs about the role of government for improving environmental quality, as well as environmental attitudes and behaviors, but neither gender nor political affiliation. Although most respondents are willing to pay only a 1% premium for 'greener' CEDs, innovation and EU directives may soon make them competitive with conventional CEDs.
Conference Paper
The University of California has recently funded a new Lead Campus program: Research and Education in Green Materials, a multi-campus graduate fellowship program designed to bridge the disciplinary boundaries of engineering, science, toxicology and social science. This paper describes the program and the graduate course on green engineering.
Article
Electronic waste, or e-waste, is an emerging problem as well as a business opportunity of increasing significance, given the volumes of e-waste being generated and the content of both toxic and valuable materials in them. The fraction including iron, copper, aluminium, gold and other metals in e-waste is over 60%, while pollutants comprise 2.70%. Given the high toxicity of these pollutants especially when burned or recycled in uncontrolled environments, the Basel Convention has identified e-waste as hazardous, and developed a framework for controls on transboundary movement of such waste. The Basel Ban, an amendment to the Basel Convention that has not yet come into force, would go one step further by prohibiting the export of e-waste from developed to industrializing countries.
Article
The useful life of consumer electronic devices is relatively short, and decreasing as a result of rapid changes in equipment features and capabilities. This creates a large waste stream of obsolete electronic equipment, electronic waste (e-waste).Even though there are conventional disposal methods for e-waste, these methods have disadvantages from both the economic and environmental viewpoints. As a result, new e-waste management options need to be considered, for example, recycling. But electronic recycling has a short history, so there is not yet a solid infrastructure in place.In this paper, the first half describes trends in the amount of e-waste, existing recycling programs, and collection methods. The second half describes various methods available to recover materials from e-waste. In particular, various recycling technologies for the glass, plastics, and metals found in e-waste are discussed. For glass, glass-to-glass recycling and glass-to-lead recycling technologies are presented. For plastics, chemical (feedstock) recycling, mechanical recycling, and thermal recycling methods are analyzed. Recovery processes for copper, lead, and precious metals such as silver, gold, platinum, and palladium are reviewed. These processes are described and compared on the basis of available technologies, resources, and material input–output systems.