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435
Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 2008, 16, 435-453
© 2008 Human Kinetics, Inc.
Effect of a Community-Based Argentine
Tango Dance Program on Functional
Balance and Confidence in Older Adults
Patricia McKinley, Allison Jacobson, Alain Leroux,
Victoria Bednarczyk, Michel Rossignol, and Joyce Fung
Tango-dancing and walking programs are compared in nondemented seniors at risk
for falls. Fallers (N = 30) age 62–91 were randomly assigned to a 10-wk (40 hr, 2 hr
2/wk) tango class or walk group. The Activities-specic Balance Condence (ABC)
scale, sit-to-stand scores, and normal and fast walk were measured pre-, post-, and 1
month postintervention. Two-way repeated-measures ANOVAs indicated a signicant
main effect (p < .01) for time on all measures. Group and interaction effects for ABC
led to improvement only in tango because of high baseline mean for the walk group.
Clinical improvements measured using Established Populations for Epidemiologic
Studies of the Elderly scoring were greater for the tango group. From these prelimi-
nary results it is suggested that although both interventions are effective activities for
increasing strength and walk speed, tango might result in greater improvements than
walking in balance skills and in walking speed in the 10-wk intervention. The study
needs to be repeated with a greater sample size to determine the effectiveness of walk-
ing on fear of falling.
Keywords: older people, tango dancing, balance condence, balance perfor-
mance
Seniors rank fear of falling highest among other common fears such as nan-
cial problems, criminal violence, or forgetting an appointment (Walker & How-
land, 1991). Fear of falling also curtails external activities and efforts to socialize
(Brouwer, Musselman, & Culham, 2004; Gill, Williams, & Tinetti, 1995; How-
land et al., 1998; McAuley et al., 2000; Powell & Meyers, 1995), thus leading to
decreased satisfaction with life and physical capabilities and increased disability
and isolation (McAuley et al., 2000). The role of exercise as a means for reducing
falls and increasing balance condence has been the focus of much research in the
recent past. In addition, although home-based exercises might be effective in
reducing falls (Delbaere et al., 2006; Robertson, Devlin, Gardner, & Campbell,
McKinley, Jacobson, Bednarczyk, Rossignol, and Fung are with the Faculty of Medicine, McGill
University, Montreal QC Canada H3G1Y5. Leroux is with the Dept. of Exercise Science, Concordia
University, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada.
436 McKinley et al.
2001), they lack a social component, thereby not addressing issues of loneliness
and isolation.
Many types of community exercise interventions have been examined, includ-
ing Tai Chi (Wolf et al., 2006), general group exercise (Barnett, Smith, Lord, Wil-
liams, & Baumand, 2003), balance-specic training (Brouwer, Walker, Rydahl, &
Culham, 2003; Hess & Woollacott, 2005), resistance or agility training (Liu-
Ambrose, Khan, Eng, Lord, & McKay, 2004), and walking (McAuley, 1993), to
name a few. Results with respect to the effectiveness of these interventions have
been uneven (Gillespie, Gillespie, Cumming, Lamb, & Rowe, 2001; Kuramoto,
2006; Wu, 2000). Some researchers have suggested that this lack of demonstrated
effectiveness might be because of recruitment of participants who are at too low a
risk for falling for the programs implemented (Glasgow, Vogt, & Boles, 1999;
Province et al., 1995; Robertson et al., 2001), whereas others have suggested that
the programs are not of sufcient duration. A third possibility is that the outcome
measures selected for evaluation were not specic to the type of exercise program
implemented. For example, although most researchers in the eld have a clear
understanding of the specicity of exercise for strengthening and endurance, the
notion of specicity of exercise for balance-related features has not been explored
in great detail (Woollacott & Shumway-Cook, 2002).
A variety of physical activities might be more effective than selecting one
exercise (such as walking or Tai Chi) in developing better balance skills and bal-
ance condence. Community-based programs that are appealing to seniors and
are sustainable at reasonable costs are also important to assess. This latter feature
is important, because a recent study (Hughes et al., 2005) demonstrated that com-
mercial gyms or YMCAs, senior centers, park or recreation centers, and senior
housing facilities manage to attract 6% of the total older adult population within
the catchment district. This is not the sort of engagement that will result in health
prevention for increasing numbers of seniors. For example, in Canada it is esti-
mated that by 2030 there will be more elderly persons than individuals under the
age of 15 (Statistics Canada, 2006). Therefore, programs that cater to the needs of
seniors, are sustainable, and engage them are important to identify. Indeed, one of
the biggest predictors for long-term engagement in leisure-based activity pro-
grams is physical activity (McAuley et al., 2007). In addition, two major predic-
tors for cessation of these activities are being female and slow walking (Shimada,
Lord, Yoshida, Kim, & Suzuki, 2007). Moreover, it appears that barriers such as
fear of falling are better than motivators for predicting adherence to these activi-
ties (Forkan et al., 2006). Keeping these issues in mind, we searched for a physical
activity that could be implemented in the community setting, would appeal to
seniors, and would be challenging enough so that anyone participating in the
activity would perceive improvements in his or her balance.
Recently, there has been a focus on the use of dance programs as a means to
improve mobility, balance, and tness. For example, a dance-based 12-week (1 hr,
3/wk) aerobic-exercise program (Shigematsu et al., 2002) was demonstrated to
improve balance and gait speed in the healthy elderly, and a 3-month (1 hr, 3/
wk) dance program reduced fall incidence in middle-aged adults 58–68 years of
age (Federici, Bellagamba, & Rocchi, 2005). Dance exercise classes often rely on
learning a xed sequence of steps, however, and do not always increase in inten-
sity or complexity. This limit to the amount of variety and challenge in these
Tango Dancing for Balance in Seniors 437
classes could increase dropout rate because of boredom. The Argentine tango was
selected for this population because it is a challenging dance to learn, is an activity
that has appeal for seniors, is readily available in most communities, and is often
danced with same-sex partners, thus accommodating the larger number of women
than men in the senior population. More pertinent, this activity captures identied
balance features that are important for fall prevention.
Specically, although the Argentine tango consists mainly of walking back-
ward and forward, it encourages multidirectional and longer step lengths, quick
turns or pivots, and standing on one foot while raising the other to perform
adornments and incorporates exibility, strengthening, and exercises for increasing
stability and balance. These aspects are important because they encompass
many features that have been identied as characterizing increased risk of falling
in the elderly: decreased sense of limits of stability (Horak, Henry, & Shumway-
Cook, 1997; Horak, Shupert, & Mirka, 1989; Nashner, 1994), taking too small
steps when trying to recover balance (Hsaio & Robinovitch, 2001), diminished
range of motion into hip extension (Kerrigan, Lee, Collins, Riley, & Lipsitz,
2001), lack of safety during reach (Robinovitch & Cronin, 1999), weight transfer,
unilateral maintenance of static balance and while turning or swiveling
(Corriveau, Hebert, Prince, & Raiche, 2001; Maki, Edmondstone, & McIlroy,
2000), inability to adapt quickly to unexpected conditions (Brown, Shumway-
Cook, & Woollacott, 1999; Horak et al., 1989; Nashner), stepping quickly in the
proper direction (Luchies et al., 2002) or laterally (McIlroy & Maki, 1996), fear
of falling or lack of self-efcacy for performance of specic tasks (McAuley,
1992, 1993; McAuley, Mihalko, & Bane, 1997), and restoring balance (Powell
& Meyers, 1995; Tinetti, Richman, & Powell, 1990; Tinetti, Speechley, &
Ginter, 1988).
In this feasibility study we addressed a primary question: Can a 10-week
series of tango lessons result in increased strength, balance condence, and other
balance skills after a 40-hr (2/week for 10 weeks) session of dance classes that
are comparable to those from a walking program of equivalent intensity? Part of
this study has been published in abstract form (McKinley, Bednarczyk, Jacobson,
Leroux, & Fung, 2005).
Methods
Inclusion Criteria
To be included in the study, individuals had to be over the age of 60, have experi-
enced at least one unexplained fall during the previous year, and have an expressed
fear of falling. They had to be healthy to the degree that participating in exercise
testing and a dance or walking exercise program would not exacerbate any exist-
ing symptoms such as chest pain because of angina or dizziness because of ves-
tibular problems. In addition, they had to score the following on the Inter-RAI:
living independently; be independent on the ADL self-performance, including
bathing, other personal hygiene, and walking; have a physical activity level of at
least 1–2 hr within the past 3 days; and express ideas without difculty, have clear
comprehension, hear adequately, and have adequate vision. They also had to have
438 McKinley et al.
an understanding of written and spoken English or French and a willingness to be
randomly assigned to treatment condition.
Exclusion Criteria
Individuals were excluded if they had signs or symptoms consistent with (a) major
unstable cardiopulmonary diseases; (b) cognitive impairment dened as having a
of score less than 24 on the Folstein Mini Mental Status test (Crum, Anthony, Bas-
sett, & Folstein, 1993); (c) contraindications to physical exercise such as major
orthopedic conditions (severe lumbar spine, hip, knee, or ankle arthritis that limits
exercise capability); (d) mobility restricted to a wheelchair or walker; or (e) reports
of terminal cancer or evidence of any other progressive or unstable neurological
or medical condition and sensory impairment resulting from neuropathy.
Ethics
This study was approved by the ethics committee of the Centre de Recherche
Interdisciplinaire en Réadaptation du Montreal Métropolitain (CRIR).
Experimental Design
Screening and Recruitment. Schemas for screening, recruitment, and partici-
pation are shown in Figure 1. Potential participants were recruited through local
newspaper ads, medical clinics, and senior centers. Individuals (n = 40) express-
ing interest were interviewed by telephone by a licensed physical therapist using
the inter-RAI (Carpenter, 2006). These forms were subsequently evaluated by the
coordinator for inclusion and exclusion criteria. At the end of the preliminary
screening period, eligible candidates were invited to attend an information ses-
sion, where the details of the study were spelled out for them and they could meet
the researchers and instructors and read through the consent forms. At this time, it
was explained again that they would be randomly placed into either a tango class
or a walk group but that those placed into the walk group would be offered an
identical tango course after the study was terminated, and, similarly, those in the
tango course would be offered a walking program.
Thirty of the 34 candidates agreed to participate in the study. At this point
they were given an appointment to come to the participating rehabilitation center
for a nal screening for cognitive function, using the Folstein Mini Mental Status
test. Those who scored more than 24 were then invited to participate in the study
and were randomly allocated to the Argentine tango program or the walk program
by selecting envelopes that contained group codes. Male participants were strati-
ed to provide an equal number of men in each group. Each group met for 2 hr
two times per week for a total of 4 hr/week, and a maximum exercise time of 3 hr,
as there were rest periods totaling 30 min allotted to each exercise session. The
participants were given a battery of tests at the following intervals:
• Preintervention,1weekbeforetheonsetofclasses
• Postintervention,1weekafterthelastclass
• Follow-up,1monthaftertheprogramnished
Tango Dancing for Balance in Seniors 439
During the 1-month follow-up period, participants were asked to take part only in
the activities that they were doing before the program began but to refrain from
tango or intensive walk programs. Testing was done within the rst three after-
noons of each time period. A psychologist administered the Folstein Mini-Mental
Status test for cognitive function, and a physical therapist administered the phys-
ical-performance tests at the Constance Lethbridge Rehabilitation Centre. Both
testers were blind to treatment status. An exit interview with each participant was
held at the end of the study to obtain personal opinions regarding the exercise
programs.
Outcome Measures. Outcome measures that have known validity and predic-
tion for falls were used to capture specic features of the tango program that we
wished to assess: (a) strength, using the sit-to-stand measure of the Established
Populations for the Epidemiological Study of the Elderly (EPESE), shown to be
related to fall risk (Guralnik et al., 2000; Studenski et al., 2003) and sensitive to
change in older women (Ostir, Volpato, Fried, Chaves, & Guralnick, 2002); (b)
balance condence, using the Activities-specic Balance Condence scale (ABC),
Figure 1 — Schematic design for recruitment for and implementation of the study.
440 McKinley et al.
a 16-item scale requiring participants to rate on a continuum ranging from 0 (no
condence) to 100 (completely condent) their level of balance condence when
performing specic activities of daily living that has been shown to be associated
with exercise levels (Myers, Fletcher, Meyers, & Sherk, 1998; Myers et al., 1996;
Powell & Meyers, 1995) and has predictive cut-off risks for falls (Lajoie, Teas-
dale, Bard, & Fleury, 1996); and (c) normal and fast walk speed from the
EPESE.
Exercise Program. The tango dance program consisted of 20 min of warm-up
and individual exercises that focused on the components of the basic tango: walk
(forward and backward), the pivot, and other basic patterns, with an emphasis on
postural alignment and weight shift (practice in front of a mirror). This was fol-
lowed by another 20 min of directed couples practice, in which specic patterns
were emphasized and practiced; there was then a 30-min break period followed by
another 20 min of directed couples practice and 30 min of free practice. Partners
were changed regularly during the class, and the women were encouraged to learn
both roles so that they could lead or follow. The class was lead by an expert
instructor with two assistants, all of whom danced with all the participants so that
each participant was guided by an expert at least four times during each session.
The tango program took place at the Cummings Jewish Senior Centre in a room
with a wooden oor and full-length mirrors on one wall. The walk program con-
sisted of scheduled outings to parks or malls in the Montreal area (depending on
the weather) with a qualied exercise scientist and an assistant. Participants were
encouraged to walk at a pace that was comfortable but slightly difcult (12–13 on
the 6–20 Borg RPE scale; Borg, 1982). They could rest at any time for a total of
30 min during the walk period. The walking started with a warm-up of 5 min and
ended with a cool-down of 5 min.
Data Analysis
Separate mixed-model two-way ANOVAs for repeated measures (SAS) were
used: Treatment (walk vs. tango) Assessment Time (pre- vs. postintervention
vs. follow-up). Post hoc tests (Tukey–Kramer) were performed when indicated for
signicant main effects or interactions. Percent change scores were calculated
relative to baseline measures for descriptive between-group comparisons (two-
tailed). Percent change was calculated by subtracting the mean baseline value
from the mean postintervention value, dividing by the mean baseline value, and
multiplying by 100. The level of association between changes in balance con-
dence and the other outcome measures was determined for the tango and walk
groups separately, using Spearman rank correlation coefcients, because we were
also interested in whether the participants would link improvement in balance
condence with changes in physical-performance parameters.
Results
Thirty participants completed baseline testing, but 5 were lost before program
completion; 4 were dissatised with the group allocation (walk group) and with-
drew, and 1 withdrew because of a knee injury (unrelated to the activity under
Tango Dancing for Balance in Seniors 441
study, which was the tango). Twenty-ve participants completed the programs (14
in the tango group and 11 in the walk group) with excellent attendance (>90% for
both programs). Ten participants attended all 20 sessions, 12 missed one session,
and 3 missed two sessions. Postintervention data were collected from all individu-
als who participated in the entire study. The two groups that completed both test-
ing intervals were equivalent in terms of age, gender, medical conditions, and
scores on the Folstein Mini-Mental Status test (Table 1).
Outcome-Measure Statistics
The two-way ANOVAs indicated a signicant effect for time for all primary out-
come measures: sit-to-stand (STS), F(2, 46) = 15.25, p < .0001; normal walking
speed, F(2, 46) = 5.63, p = .0065; fast walking speed, F(2, 46) = 9.74, p = .0003;
ABC, F(2, 46) = 5.04, p = .0105. The ABC also showed a signicant main effect
for group, F(1, 23) = 4.49, p = .045, and an interaction effect, F(2, 46) =3.55, p =
.0368. Tukey–Kramer adjusted post hoc tests revealed signicant differences
between pre- and post- and pre- and follow-up for STS (p = .0012 and < .0001,
respectively), normal walk (p = .02 and .01, respectively), and fast walk (p = .009
and < .0003, respectively). For the ABC, post hoc contrasts indicated signicant
differences for tango pre- and post- (p = .009) and pre- and follow-up (p = .003)
and for tango pre- and walk pre- (p = .03). No signicant differences for the ABC
were seen between tango and walk for the post- and follow-up time periods, nor
were there any signicant differences between time periods in the walk group for
this measure. For reference, baseline, postintervention, and follow-up means and
standard deviations for each group are presented in Table 2.
Assessment of Percentage-Change Scores
STS and normal walk change scores were greater for the tango group than for the
walk group. Change scores between the two groups for the ABC were not com-
pared because of the signicant difference at baseline between these measures.
Table 1 Baseline Participant Demographics (N = 25) by Group
Allocation
Variable
Tango group
(n = 14)
Walking group
(n = 11) p
Age, M (SD) 78.07 (7.6) 74.6 (8.4) .45
Sex, male/female 3/11 3/8
Walked with cane 2 2
Asthma 2 1
Osteoporosis 3 2
Hypertension 3 3
Stable cardiovascular condition 1 1
Non-insulin-dependent diabetes 3 3
Mini-Mental score, M (SD) 28.5 (1.58) 28.6 (1.43) .8
442
Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficients
Correlations between change scores for all outcome measures as compared with
balance condence for each group are shown in Table 3. None of the measures
demonstrated signicant correlation with the ABC. The Spearman’s rank correla-
tion coefcient matrix for changes in outcome measures is shown in Table 4.
Table 2 Outcome Measures, M (SD)
Outcome measure Baseline Postintervention Follow-up
Tango (n = 14)
ABC (%) 71.3 (13.7) 81.9 (12.63) 82.94 (11.24)
STS (s) 17.12 (7.05) 12.36 (4.46) 10.67 (4.41)
normal walk (cm/s) 86.4 (22) 99 (27.8) 98 (28.7)
fast walk (cm/s) 111.4 (28.5) 124.4 (34.3) 131.04 (35.83)
Walk (n = 11)
ABC (%) 86.2 (9.75) 87.15 (9.61) 87.15 (8.18)
STS (s) 14.3 (2.47) 12.31 (3.39) 11.32 (5.76)
normal walk (m/s) 84.4 (0.15) 93.3 (19.8) 96.27 (17.8)
fast walk (m/s) 117.4 (16.98) 129.4 (23.02) 132.2 (23.4)
Note. ABC = Activities-specic Balance Condence Scale; STS = Sit-to-stand.
Table 3 Percent Change Scores (Posttreatment Relative to Baseline
Values)
Percent Change
Variable Tango Walk All participants
Activities-specic Balance Condence Scale 17 2 10.6
Sit-to-stand −24* −13 −19
Normal walk 16* 12 14
Fast walk 13 10 12
*p ≤ .05.
Table 4 Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient Matrix for Changes
() in Outcome Measures
Activities-specific
Balance Confidence
Scale
normal walk
speed
fast walk
speed sit-to-standa
Tango .069 .042 –.27
Walk .010 .282 –.05
aNegative correlations indicate improvement in both outcomes in this column; for other columns,
positive correlations indicate improvement in both outcomes.
Tango Dancing for Balance in Seniors 443
Clinical Significance
Because high- and low-risk limits for falls have been established for STS and
normal walk in the Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the
Elderly (Guralnik et al., 2000; Studenski et al., 2003), we assessed changes in
both cohorts over time. Figure 2 illustrates the numbers of individuals who fell
within the four quartiles of the Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies
of the Elderly measures (Guralnik et al.) for performance and fall risk for STS and
normal walk at the three time periods. For STS, 6 tango participants were in the
high-risk category (time > 16.7 s) before the tango dance class, and all but 1 of
these participants moved into lower risk categories. For many others who were at
the border between low and moderate risk, the posttango values moved them far-
ther away from the moderate risk and well into the area of no risk, so the safety
margin for risk of falls was increased for this group using this criterion regardless
of how poor or good their baseline scores were. A similar change occurred in the
walk group, although the changes were smaller because only 1 of the 11 fell into
the high risk for falls category at baseline. Normal walking speed moved close to
or into the zone that has been correlated with no fear of falling (>126.7 cm/s) for
several of the participants in the tango but not the walk group. Persistence into
follow-up of these two measures was also clinically relevant. For normal walk, a
fth column was added to indicate the number of individuals who scored in the
1.26 m/s or above range, indicating very low fear of falls. The number of individu-
als reaching the fourth quartile (best performance and low fall risk) persisted into
follow-up.
The signicant change in the ABC for the tango cohort was also critical in
greatly reducing fall risk prole. At baseline, half the participants scored at or
below 67% on the ABC, which placed them at greater than a 50% risk for falling
within the next year (Lajoie et al., 1996). Two of the lowest scoring individuals
increased their balance condence dramatically. In addition, those who scored on
or close to the borderline of 50% risk for falls moved farther into the low-risk
zone. Thus, for 13 of 14 participants, regardless of status at baseline, balance
condence was increased. In contrast, the walking group was already at 85% for
balance condence before the study onset, signicantly different from the tango
group. We cannot say whether this parameter did or did not improve with the
walking program, because according to Myers et al. (1998), individuals who score
in the mid-80s or better on the ABC are unlikely to show further improvement in
balance condence. It was curious, however, that several of the participants scored
themselves lower in balance condence after the walking course.
Discussion
Feasibility and Acceptance of the Program for this Population
Of the 15 participants in the tango cohort, only 1 person dropped out; the stated
reason was acute knee pain. Other participants used canes for walking (2), had a
hip replacement (1), had minor sensory decits in the feet (2), had stable cardio-
vascular disease, or were senior seniors over the age of 85 (3). Thus, the major
444
Figure 2 — Histograms of the number of individuals in each quartile of the Established
Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly (EPESE) for (a) and (c) sit-to-stand
(STS) and (b) and (d) normal walk speed (NW). For STS, intervals are (1) >16.7 s , (2)
13.7–16.6 s, (3) 11.2–13.6 s, and (4) <11.2 s. For NW, intervals are (1) ≤0.46 m/s, (2)
0.47–0.63 m/s, (3) 0.64–0.81 m/s, and (4) ≥0.82 m/s. A fth column (to the right of the
vertical double bar) has been added to indicate individuals who were capable of walking at
or above 1.26 m/s because this value has been observed to be related to signicant decrease
in fear of falling and is equal to the pace necessary to complete 1/4 mile in 5 min.
Tango Dancing for Balance in Seniors 445
barrier to participation in this activity might be knee arthritis or acute knee injury.
This is not surprising, because knee injury is a major indicator for risk of frailty
(Sturnieks et al., 2004). In addition, no matter how disturbed their balance was
before program onset, these seniors were able to learn, remember, and execute
complex dance patterns by the end of the 10-week period. Thus, the activity is
feasible for this population. It should be noted, however, that the instructor needs
to be very supportive and patient with this cohort; otherwise some individuals
might get discouraged. Our instructor had the attitude that “if you have legs you
can dance.” Nevertheless, some of the individuals were better at picking up the
steps than others. Indeed, the participant who had fallen the most frequently and
walked slowly with a cane was one of the best dancers. This ended up in being a
great leveler—at the end of the 10-week course, all participants were equally able
to dance at a set pace. Indeed, walking with a cane was not a barrier to performing
the tango—none of the participants who walked with a cane had any trouble danc-
ing without their canes. In addition, it should be noted that subsequent to this
study, another group of researchers has used our protocol to develop a tango dance
intervention for patients with Parkinson’s disorder (Hackney, Kantorovich, Levin,
& Earhart, 2007) that was met with improved balance and function. Thus, this
type of dance program can be considered as an option for a variety of vulnerable
populations.
Persistence in attendance for the walking group was aided by going to various
parks throughout the greater Montreal area. Even so, there was a 25% dropout
rate. This was primarily because these individuals only wanted to tango, and they
were not willing to participate in the 10-week walk program to receive their tango
lessons. Therefore, although all the individuals accepted the randomization into
either the tango or walk group, dropouts from the walk group need to be planned
for when recruiting for a larger study.
Amelioration of Balance and Balance Confidence
Based on the statistical analysis, both interventions were effective in signicantly
improving and maintaining gains for STS and normal and fast walk. The signi-
cant gains in the walk group might be expected, because the walking program
targeted increasing intensity and duration of exercise, and similar results have
been reported previously (Melzer, Benjuya, & Kaplanski, 2003). The gains in
these measures with the tango are novel and indicate that the Argentine tango can
be used to increase and maintain gains in strength and walk speed. Because this
was a feasibility study, and the participant number in each group was quite small,
there might be differences between walk and tango with a larger sample size. As
indicated by the change scores and illustrated in Figure 3, where the mean and
standard deviations for the two groups are plotted across the three time periods,
we can see that for all measures, the tango participants improved more over the
10-week period. It could be argued, however, that these individuals made the
greatest gains because their baseline values were poorer. Differences between the
two groups were most likely not a result of gender, because there was an equal
number of men in each group. A larger study might be able to examine this issue,
however, because the number of our male participants was small. Differences
observed with respect to the ABC are inconclusive, because the walk group was
446 McKinley et al.
already above 85% at baseline, indicating a low risk for falls (Lajoie et al., 1996).
In contrast, the tango group expressed signicantly lower balance condence
(71%) at baseline.
Although our poorest performers at baseline almost uniformly made the
greatest gains in all the measurements, most members of the tango cohort made
gains in all measurements that also had clinical relevance. Thus, tango dancing is
a physical activity that appears to be a viable alternative for improving balance
and balance condence in seniors at risk for falls, regardless of initial physical
status. This aspect is important, because it suggests not only that challenging
activities can be tolerated by the most physically challenged but also that they are
useful in ameliorating performance regardless of initial tness level. In addition,
it avoids the sensitivity issue that might be inherent in other balance programs
(Glasgow et al., 1999; Province et al., 1995) in which benets to those with higher
function cannot be observed. Because challenge has recently been identied as a
primary motivator to exercise, especially in older men (Newson & Kemps, 2007),
the tango might be of considerable interest to older men if publicized in a way that
emphasizes this aspect. Because the physical parameters important for both bal-
ance maintenance and balance condence improved, this cohort is less at risk for
having a mismatch between ability and condence, which could present a fall-risk
problem as Lord, Ward, Williams, and Strudwick (1995) have pointed out. Nota-
bly, most of the improvements persisted into the follow-up period. Because 1
month is sufcient to observe decline (Teixeira-Salmela et al., 2005), the benets
of the tango program appear to be robust, thus affording participants in such a
program the opportunity to go on vacation and return to their activities with little
loss in function.
The continued improvement in normal walk speed during follow-up observed
for the walk program might suggest a delayed effect when walking. Alternatively,
because we could not control the amount of walking that this cohort did during
follow-up, it could be that they continued to walk during this period, and the gains
in normal walk speed need more than a 10-week period to be observed when using
walking as an activity. This aspect is important and worth further investigation,
because there is controversy over what specic gains are present in walking pro-
grams, and the vagaries observed might result from issues related to duration,
intensity, and frequency of the programs. From meta-analysis studies, the recom-
mendation of 30 min/day of moderate walking has been suggested to improve
quality of life and tness (Pate et al., 1995), but as recently indicated, perception
of the elderly of their capacity to walk at a pace that is critical for health mainte-
nance (0.25 miles in 5 min) is greatly overestimated by half the population
(Newman et al., 2006). Thus, the parameters of duration, intensity, frequency, and
perception of effort have to be more closely examined in this population. In addi-
tion, many programs use mall walking or treadmill walking, activities that might not
have the same benets as walking outside in new and stimulating environments.
As evaluated using percent change scores, the tango group showed greater
improvements in STS and normal walk than the walk group. This might be because
of the increased challenge of tango dancing as compared with walking, so that
changes occur more rapidly; the specicity of the program; or the lower (though
nonsignicant) scores at baseline. Follow-up scores were not considered in this
measure, and as previously mentioned, benets for walking might be either
447
Figure 3 — Means and standard deviations for walk (squares) and tango (circles) groups
pre- and postintervention and at follow-up (FU). Standard-deviation bars up for tango and
down for walk. (a) Sit-to-stand, (b) normal walk, (c) the Activities-specic Balance Con-
dence scale (ABC), and (d) fast walk. An increase in value denotes improvements for all
but the sit-to-stand, for which improvement is denoted by a decrease in value.
448
delayed or take a longer period of time to emerge. Future studies should address
these issues.
The weak correlation between change in strength (as manifested by the com-
parison of change scores for STS with those for the ABC) is in agreement with the
ndings of Lord et al. (1995) and supports their hypothesis that strength change is
not always associated with perception of balance condence. This aspect might
also reect the ndings of Schlicht, Camaione, and Owen (2001), who found that
although strength training alone improved walking speed in the elderly, it did not
improve balance. Given the results of this study, however, strengthening that
occurs in concert with engaging in specic physical activities might contribute to
improved balance in subtle ways. The lack of correlation between walking speed
and balance condence similarly supports the idea that walking speed is not asso-
ciated with balance condence. Given the recent ndings on the strong correlation
between walking speed and fall risk (Studenski et al., 2003), it might be important
for health professionals to educate their older clients about the importance of
being able to walk at a moderate pace. Both walking in a group or with a partner
at a specic rating of perceived exertion and practicing tango to music encourage
individuals to walk at a quicker pace. The music component for the tango and the
ow around the dance oor act as additional stimuli to encourage both longer and
quicker strides. Thus, it is our opinion that challenging activities that stimulate
increased walking speed should be encouraged in this cohort. The distinction
between activities that foster balance control and those that increase walking
speed should also be part of an education program for seniors. Currently, Tai Chi is
a highly accepted program in this cohort, who might select this activity in place of a
walking program. It is our opinion that any leisure activity that includes walking at
a faster than normal pace is also an essential component in a senior’s activity plan.
Clinical Significance
Improvements in ABC, STS, and normal walk speed are clinically important
because they shifted many of our participants from the high-fall-risk group to
either no risk or a moderate risk of falls. As reected in Figure 3, these improve-
ments were greater for the tango group than for the walk group. Nonetheless, both
interventions resulted in lowering fall risk. In addition, these changes persisted
into the follow-up interval.
The increase in strength as exhibited by the sit-to-stand measure was also an
important clinical nding, because although strengthening of the lower limb has
been previously associated with walking (Forrest, Zmuda, & Cauley, 2006), it was
not a feature of physical improvement expected with tango dancing. In exit inter-
views, participants mentioned that they had improved arm and trunk strength, as
well. Thus the effect of tango dancing on core and upper and lower limb strength-
ening is another aspect that should be considered when examining this activity in
future studies. Finally, the number of actual falls was not measured explicitly,
except by self-report from the participants during exit interviews. No one reported
having fallen during the time period, but future studies should investigate this
aspect more rigorously, particularly over an extended follow-up period. Because
fear of falling has been found to be a stronger predictor of nonparticipation in
social activities than an actual history of falls (Howland et al., 1998), however, we
Tango Dancing for Balance in Seniors 449
chose to focus more on fear of falling. Clinically, normal walk speed improved for
both groups. This is important, because falling, frailty, and cardiovascular tness
have all been linked to normal walk speed. Chamberlin, Fulwider, Sanders, and
Medeiros (2005) have noted that the walk speed of 1.26 m/s is important for
reducing fear of falls, and Newman et al. (2006) have linked the inability to walk
at that speed for 1/4 mile (within 5 min) to heart disease and frailty. Although we
cannot say whether our individuals can maintain a pace of 1.26 m/min for 5 min,
we do know that both groups increased their walking speeds signicantly. Cou-
pled with the cardiovascular-training benets of both tango (Peidro et al., 2002)
and walking (Pate et al., 1995), it is possible that they could also maintain this
speed. This feature should be examined in future studies.
The signicant change in the ABC for the tango cohort was also critical in
greatly reducing their fall-risk prole. Although the ABC has not been demon-
strated to have oor or ceiling effects among individuals in transition to frailty
(Kressig et al., 2001), the walking group scored an average of 85% for balance
condence before the study onset. According to Myers et al. (1998), however,
individuals who score in the mid-80s or better on the ABC are unlikely to show
further improvement in balance condence. Thus we will not conjecture whether
walking did or did not improve balance condence. A study with a larger sample
should be able to address this question.
In conclusion, this feasibility study showed that using Argentine tango danc-
ing as a physical activity is feasible in a population of elderly individuals and
serves to improve both physical tness and balance for individuals at risk for falls.
In addition, it is an activity that is sustainable in this population; many of the
seniors have continued to take tango lessons (Cummings Centre, personal com-
munication). These preliminary results suggest that Argentine tango as compared
with walking might have resulted in greater improvements in balance skills and in
walking speed within the 10-week intervention. These results are sustainable for
1 month postintervention. Walking benets included strengthening and walk
speed. We cannot determine whether improvements in balance condence would
occur with walking, because this group scored above cutoff for improvement at
baseline. Further studies need to be done because our sample size was small and
statistical difference between the groups at baseline prevented contrasts to be
made between the two groups for balance condence.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by the Drummond Foundation, the Canadian Institutes for
Health Research, and a student bursary from the Social Sciences and Health Research
Council of Canada to Allison Jacobson. We would also like to acknowledge the support of
the Centre de Recherche Interdisciplinaire en Réadaptation du Montréal for statistical
analysis, Elaine Shapiro and the Cummings Jewish Senior Centre for their continuing
support in providing space for the tango classes and for their help in recruiting participants,
the Constance Lethbridge Rehabilitation Centre for their support and for permitting us to
use their testing facilities, and Myra Siminovitch for her excellent interviewing skills.
Finally, we would like to thank Laura Steinmander of the Tangueria for her patience and
excellent dance instruction; Stella Artuso, Patricia Graphos, and Ettore Zuccheroso for
leading the walk program; and all of the seniors who participated in this project for their
continued enthusiasm and their tenacity.
450 McKinley et al.
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