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Gender at play - Fourth-grade girls and boys on the playground
Abstract
This study explores the complicated social interactions related to gender that take place at school recess. Using grounded theory methodology and a social constructionist perspective, the researchers observed 67 recesses in New England and then examined the data to determine which themes emerged. Results demonstrate that there is great complexity in preadolescent gender relations and that their incidence and significance is influx during recess time. Among the results noted were ways in which children reinforce their gender identities; the wide intragrender variability in choice of activities especially for girls; and clear evidence of borderwork, that is, those interactions where boys and girls play together but there is something about the play that actually reinforces the gender divisions rather than diminishes them. Future research should examine ways adults can support children in developing relationships based on mutual collegiality and liking, thereby building their sense of competence and self-esteem.
... In einer ähnlichen Studie zu Spielplätzen in New England (USA) fanden sich deutliche Muster sportlicher Dominanz der Jungen (Boyle et al. 2003). Während der beobachteten 67 Schulpausen besetzten die Jungen regelmäßig das Zentrum des Spielplatzes und betrieben dort eine (Team-)Sportart. ...
... Es ist demnach ein wesentliches Merkmal der Sozialraumaneignung der Jungen, dass dies durch sportliche Aktivitäten geschieht: "When boys are together they are physically active" (Boyle et al. 2003(Boyle et al. , S. 1334. Mädchen nennen daher wenig überraschend als häu gsten Grund für die geringere sportliche Aktivität in der Freizeit, dass Jungen den Raum für Sport bereits sehr dominant für sich beanspruchen (Vu et al. 2006). ...
... Auch der Zugang zu den Sportgruppierungen der Jungen gestaltet sich unterschiedlich. Während auch sportlich weniger talentierte Jungen relativ schnell Aufnahme in die sportliche Aktivität nden, müssen Mädchen besonders talentiert sein und über einen spezischen Status sozialer Akzeptanz verfügen (Boyle et al. 2003(Boyle et al. , S. 1335. Eine vergleichbare Studie bei Viertklässlern auf dänischen Pausenhöfen ndet ebenfalls diese Muster, identiziert darüber hinaus aber auch unterschiedliche Typen der Sozialraumnutzung (Pawlowski et al. 2014). ...
Der Beitrag thematisiert die Grundlagen der Ausrichtung von Talentförderung als mono- oder koedukativen Ansatz. Dies wird am Beispiel der Förderung im Leistungsfußball skizziert. Hierfür werden allgemeine motorische Entwicklungsprozesse, die Entwicklung und Trainingsmöglichkeiten der Objektkontrolle sowie des Körperselbstkonzepts als Grundlage herangezogen. Das Resumée bisheriger Forschung legt dabei eine pädagogisch begründete Präferenz für eine monoedukative Talentförderung von Juniorinnen im Leistungsfußball nahe.
... Los hallazgos previos evidenciaron cómo los estereotipos culturalmente heredados son asumidos y construyen género en el patio escolar, llevando a situaciones desigualdad originadas por la masculinidad hegemónica. Boyle et al. (2003), Luis et al. (2020) y Pawlowski et al. (2014a recogieron como en el patio existe segregación y mayoritariamente los chicos juegan con chicos y las chicas con chicas. En algunos casos minoritarios el alumnado comparte el juego con el de género opuesto, pero cada uno lo realiza asumiendo los roles atribuidos a su género, lo que lleva a una menor inclusión en la dinámica del juego. ...
... Estos hallazgos son coherentes con lo recogido en la literatura previa, en la cual el alumnado expresó ciertas dificultades para la práctica de AFD en el patio (Pawlowski et al., 2014a), al mismo tiempo que demandaron cambios en sus patios (Alonso, 2017;Saldaña, 2018). El hecho de que no se mostraran completamente en desacuerdo, mantiene el interés en conocer y analizar la problemática en sus contextos y sigue haciendo énfasis en el patio escolar como lugar de construcción de género y recipiente de desigualdades (Boyle, 2003;Luis et al., 2020) Ahondando en las cuestiones expresadas en esta segunda encuesta, el alumnado participante mostró su desacuerdo con que el profesorado tratará de forma desigualitaria a chicas y chicos en el patio de recreo y estos ítems presentaron las medias más bajas (cercanas a 2 puntos). Estos resultados requieren de formas alternativas de acercarse al análisis de la figura del docente como un agente constructor de género en el patio. ...
... Estos resultados requieren de formas alternativas de acercarse al análisis de la figura del docente como un agente constructor de género en el patio. El estudio de Boyle et al. (2003) obtuvo como el profesorado contribuyó a la transmisión de rasgos de feminidad o masculinidad a través de sus interacciones en el patio (juegos, situación…). Sin embargo, estas no fueron percibidas de forma consciente por los participantes en este proyecto en sus contextos. ...
... Por el contrario, no podemos obviar que el patio es un momento y espacio muy rico en interacciones, que hace que emerjan múltiples emociones como la vergüenza, la humillación, el miedo, la frustración o la alegría (Boyle et al., 2003). ...
... Desde un punto de vista socioconstructivista, el alumnado, entre otros agentes, construye género en el patio de recreo a través de: sus interacciones (Luis et al., 2020), el uso que realiza del espacio (Alonso-Sanz, 2017;Saldaña, 2018), o los juegos que desarrolla (Boyle et al., 2003). Este hecho hace que los estereotipos de género se transmitan durante el recreo, ocasionando algunas consecuencias discriminatorias hacia las chicas y algunas minorías de chicos. ...
... Este hecho hace que los estereotipos de género se transmitan durante el recreo, ocasionando algunas consecuencias discriminatorias hacia las chicas y algunas minorías de chicos. En esta línea, algunos estudios evidenciaron el dominio masculino de los espacios centrales del patio, bajo el pretexto de la práctica de actividades deportivas competitivas, y el desplazamiento de grupos de chicas y algunos chicos a espacios reducidos y masificados en la periferia (Boyle et al., 2003;García et al., 2008). Para estos colectivos, se desencadenan algunas consecuencias negativas derivadas de esta situación en el recreo como: la aparición de comportamientos más pasivos y el logro Zapatero-Ayuso, J.;Blández Ángel, J.;Ramírez Rico, E.;Navajas Seco, R. (2021). ...
En el patio de recreo continúan transmitiéndose estereotipos y las oportunidades de acceso al ocio se ven condicionadas por razón de género. Los objetivos de este trabajo fueron difundir una experiencia educativa de transformación de un patio y valorar la satisfacción del alumnado y sus familias con el cambio del patio. Para esto, se aplicó una encuesta diseñada ad hoc que incluyó cuestiones abiertas y cerradas a 145 escolares y sus familias. Se recogió también una pregunta cerrada a 66 escolares sobre el gusto por el patio antes y después de la intervención. Los resultados mostraron una alta satisfacción con la transformación del patio y un incremento significativo del gusto por este. Las familias enumeraron múltiples beneficios derivados del cambio, como la mayor variedad lúdica o la mejor organización del patio. Estos resultados justifican el desarrollo del proyecto en su contexto, pudiendo ser una referencia para otras intervenciones.
... Hinzu kommt, dass Jungen häufiger in öffentlichen Sozialräumen zu finden sind als Mädchen. In einer ähnlichen Studie auf Spielplätzen in New England (USA) fanden sich deutliche Muster sportlicher Dominanz der Jungen (Boyle, Marshall & Robeson, 2003). Während der beobachteten 67 Schulpausen besetzten die Jungen regelmäßig das Zentrum des Spielplatzes und betrieben dort eine (Team-) Sportart. ...
... Sportliche Aktivitäten in der Freizeit. Es ist demnach ein wesentliches Merkmal der Sozialraumaneignung der Jungen, dass dies durch sportliche Aktivitäten geschieht: "When boys are together they are physically active" (Boyle, Marshall & Robeson, 2003, S. 1334. Mädchen nennen daher wenig überraschend als häufigsten Grund für die geringere sportliche Aktivität in der Freizeit, dass Jungen bereits sehr dominant den Raum für Sport für sich beanspruchen (Vu et al., 2006). ...
... Auch der Zugang zu den Sportgruppierungen der Jungen gestaltet sich unterschiedlich. Während auch sportlich weniger talentierte Jungen relativ schnell Aufnahme in die sportliche Aktivität finden, müssen Mädchen besonders talentiert sein und über einen spezifischen Status sozialer Akzeptanz verfügen (Boyle, Marshall & Robeson, 2003, S. 1335. Eine vergleichbare Studie bei Viertklässlern auf dänischen Pausenhöfen findet ebenfalls diese Muster, identifiziert darüber hinaus aber auch unterschiedliche Typen der Sozialraumnutzung (Pawlowski et al., 2014). ...
In diesem Band werden die Bedingungen erfolgreicher Förderung von Mädchen im Breiten- und Leistungsfußball dargestellt. Den Schwerpunkt bilden motorische und psychsoziale Unterschiede bei Mädchen und Jungen ab der frühen Kindheit. Es handelt sich um einen Forschungsüberblick, in dem alle wissenschaftlichen Erkenntnisse zu körperlichen, sportlichen und psychosozialen Unterschiede zusammengefasst sind, die für den Breiten- und Leistungsfußball relevant sind.
Dabei kann deutlich gemacht werden, dass der Mädchenfußball über teilweise völlig verschiedene Voraussetzungen verfügt als der Jungenfußball, die sich nicht nur auf motorische Fähigkeiten beziehen, sondern auch auf die bislang kaum beachtete Persönlichkeitsentwicklung von Mädchen und Jungen.
... Hinzu kommt, dass Jungen häufiger in öffentlichen Sozialräumen zu finden sind als Mädchen. In einer ähnlichen Studie auf Spielplätzen in New England (USA) fanden sich deutliche Muster sportlicher Dominanz der Jungen (Boyle, Marshall & Robeson, 2003). Während der beobachteten 67 Schulpausen besetzten die Jungen regelmäßig das Zentrum des Spielplatzes und betrieben dort eine (Team-) Sportart. ...
... Sportliche Aktivitäten in der Freizeit. Es ist demnach ein wesentliches Merkmal der Sozialraumaneignung der Jungen, dass dies durch sportliche Aktivitäten geschieht: "When boys are together they are physically active" (Boyle, Marshall & Robeson, 2003, S. 1334. Mädchen nennen daher wenig überraschend als häufigsten Grund für die geringere sportliche Aktivität in der Freizeit, dass Jungen bereits sehr dominant den Raum für Sport für sich beanspruchen (Vu et al., 2006). ...
... Auch der Zugang zu den Sportgruppierungen der Jungen gestaltet sich unterschiedlich. Während auch sportlich weniger talentierte Jungen relativ schnell Aufnahme in die sportliche Aktivität finden, müssen Mädchen besonders talentiert sein und über einen spezifischen Status sozialer Akzeptanz verfügen (Boyle, Marshall & Robeson, 2003, S. 1335. Eine vergleichbare Studie bei Viertklässlern auf dänischen Pausenhöfen findet ebenfalls diese Muster, identifiziert darüber hinaus aber auch unterschiedliche Typen der Sozialraumnutzung (Pawlowski et al., 2014). ...
Bedingungen erfolgreicher Förderung von Mädchen im Breiten- und Leistungsfußball. Ein Forschungsüberblick über motorische und psychsoziale Unterschiede bei Mädchen und Jungen ab der frühen Kindheit
... In some studies the gender difference in recess PA was thought to be explained by boys dominating the main areas of the schoolyard (Schmidt, 2009;Swain, 2000;Thorne, 1993). Other studies ascribed the gender difference in recess PA to the types of activities boys and girls engage in (Blatchford, 1996;Blatchford et al., 2003;Boyle et al., 2003;Nielsen et al., 2011). In European studies in particular, playing soccer is mentioned as a popular boy activity influencing the gender difference in PA level (Blatchford et al., 2003;Nielsen et al., 2011;Schmidt, 2009). ...
... For many girls, recess activities equalled socializing through talking or 'passive' engagement in a soccer game, and as a consequence they usually did not engage in vigorous activities. The findings of our study are in line with other studies explaining the gender difference in recess PA by the fact that boys engage in more physically active types of recess activities than girls (Blatchford, 1996;Blatchford et al., 2003;Boyle et al., 2003;Nielsen et al., 2011) and that boys in general dominate the main areas of the schoolyard (Schmidt, 2009;Swain, 2000;Thorne, 1993). ...
... The gender differences in recess PA found in this study as well as other studies (Blatchford, 1996;Blatchford et al., 2003;Boyle et al., 2003;Nielsen et al., 2011;Ridgers et al., 2012;Schmidt, 2009;Thorne, 1993) imply that it is relevant to consider gendered aspects and structures when working towards increasing girls' recess PA. Based on our findings it is important to notice the differences in girls' recess activities when planning interventions to promote their PA level. ...
Boys are more physically active than girls and the greatest gender difference in children’s physical activity is found in institutional settings such as school recess. However, research on gender relations, performances and practices that maintain gendered differences in physical activity during recess is still limited. Drawing on a qualitative dataset and a social constructivist gender view, the aim of this study was to investigate how construction of gendered activity patterns and social positions in the schoolyard lead to gendered practices in self-organized play during recess. At 17 Danish schools a total of 460 minutes of recess were observed and 17 go-along group interviews (one at each school), including in total 111 fourth graders (58 girls), were conducted. We found six gender typologies with varying behaviours, needs and power relations. The majority of children were prejudiced in their play, reinforcing gender binarism with boys being more physically active than girls. However, we also found groups such as soccer-playing girls and sedentary computer gaming boys who defied the gender stereotypes. These groups felt limited in their activities because of a hierarchy where not being skilled and sporty implied a lesser status in the hegemonic masculinity and even exclusion from play. More detailed research into what is required for particularly the least active groups is needed to successfully increase both the girls’ and overall physical activity levels.
... We contend that schools are also charged with socializing children and, in providing opportunities to play, enable children to socialize with each other and develop relationships. However, previous research has indicated that various undesirable power structures are likely to develop on playgrounds where race, class and gender meet (Thorne 1993;Karsten 2003;Boyle, D. E., Marshall, N. L. & Robeson, W. W. 2003;Messner 2000). Using these studies as background and important sources of theoretical ideas, we seek to expose the way that gender, specifically, is constructed among the children on three Learning Landscapes playgrounds in the Denver Public Schools. ...
... Indeed, previous research on children and play has revealed the construction of gender on the playground as well as the ways that traditional gender roles are both reinforced and challenged. Barrie Thorne's seminal work, Gender Play: Girls and Boys in School (1993), functions as the theoretical underpinning for many researchers who have taken up the question of gender construction on playgrounds (Boyle, D. E., Marshall, N. L. & Robeson ??(, Karsten 2003;, W. W. 2003;Messner 2000). In disrupting the traditional notions of gender "socialization" and "development," Thorne questioned the prescriptive outcomes that these terms take to be a given. ...
... Messner's work on the conditions under which gender boundaries are made more or less salient within the context of a boys' vs. girls' soccer game asks "how and under what conditions boys and girls constitute themselves as separate, oppositional groups" (Messner, 2000, p. 780)? Similarly, Boyle et al. conclude that boys and girls may reinforce this separation on the playground by actually playing together but engaging in certain rituals that maintain the gender boundaries (Boyle, 2003, D. E., Marshall, N. L. & Robeson, W. W., 2003. Contests, invasions and chasing are among these rituals and support Thorne's notion of "borderwork" (Thorne, 1993, p. 64). ...
... Structured on the socio-ecological model (SEM) [74] and underpinned by Gibson's theory of affordances [75], the framework represents five levels of influence on children's recess active play behaviour: individual, interpersonal, physical environment, policy and institutional, and societal. Affordances describe the 'functional possibilities' that the environment, and objects in the environment, can provide to an individual [76,77]. In the context of active play, affordances provide children with opportunities to climb, run, jump, swing, balance etc. (See Table 3). ...
... Our findings also indicate that organisation and design of the playground (e.g., with open spaces that facilitate supervision) and dominance of traditional sports games in schools reflects how play is culturally defined, and shapes who gets access to play resources [86,111,126]. Research exploring gender socialisation and play in schools reported similar findings, highlighting the value of spatial analysis of schoolgrounds for active play research [77,127,128]. Moreover, Australian research found children, especially girls, value 'in-between-spaces' like small enclosures, edges and natural settings in schoolyards, despite these places often being out of bounds or overlooked by school authorities [129]. ...
Background
Active play is vital for healthy child development, and schools are a valuable setting to promote this behaviour. Understanding the determinants of children’s physical activity behaviour during recess, particularly the role of risk-taking and the influence safety concerns have on active play, is required. This systematic review aimed to 1) synthesise qualitative research with children that explored their perceptions of safety and risk in active play during recess in elementary and/or middle school, and 2) develop a model from the findings to guide efforts in schools to optimise children’s active play opportunities during recess.
Methods
Six online databases were systematically searched for articles published between January 2000 and March 2021. Following PRISMA guidelines, records were screened against eligibility criteria using Covidence software, and data extraction and synthesis was conducted using customised forms in Excel and NVivo software. Framework synthesis methodology was employed, conceptually guided by Bronfenbrenner’s socio-ecological model and Gibson’s affordance theory.
Results
Of 9664 records, 31 studies met inclusion criteria, representing 1408 children across 140 schools from 11 countries. An emergent conceptual framework was developed encompassing 23 risk and safety themes and 10 risky play types that children desired in schools. Individual characteristics (age, gender, physical literacy) influenced children’s engagement with risk and how they kept themselves safe. Across outer SEM levels, factors interacted to constrain or afford children’s active play. Socio-cultural factors (supervision practices, rules, equipment restrictions) constrained active play, which children perceived were driven by adults’ concern with physical safety. These factors contributed to a cycle of risk-averse decision making and diminished play affordances, which could inadvertently exacerbate safety issues. A model for risk tolerance in children’s active play has been proposed.
Conclusions
The findings show a disparity between the active play children want in schools and what they are able to do. Future work should balance the concerns of adults against the active play children want, involve children in decisions about playground policy, and foster a risk-tolerant culture in schools.
... In this way, negotiation about the use of the space shapes like a mesosystem ( Neal & Neal, 2013) where individual interests of schoolchildren, relationships among peers and relationships with teachers converge. Football was the most played activity for boys and required a larger space, which means that football players would take over the main areas of the schoolyard ( Blatchford et al., 2003;Boyle, Marshall, & Robeson, 2003). In both our study and other research, teachers mediated in the conflicts caused by the lack of space ( Pawlowski et al., 2014;Sallis et al., 2001;Willenberg et al., 2010) and organized it around football providing equipment only for boys who played it ( Sallis et al., 2001;Willenberg et al., 2010). ...
... In both our study and other research, teachers mediated in the conflicts caused by the lack of space ( Pawlowski et al., 2014;Sallis et al., 2001;Willenberg et al., 2010) and organized it around football providing equipment only for boys who played it ( Sallis et al., 2001;Willenberg et al., 2010). However, this solution caused the children who did not play football-usually girls and less skilful boysto be relegated to peripheral areas and become forced viewers of others ( Blatchford et al., 2003;Boyle et al., 2003;Ridgers et al., 2012;Thomson, 2005). In addition, being active or not playing football should have a negative impact in these schoolchildren-girls and less skilful boys-because of having the necessity of being accepted by their peers and being isolated if they do not play with them ( Salvy et al., 2008). ...
The aim of the study was to know the factors that influence boys and girls’ perceptions for performing physical activity during playground recess from their own perspective. Ninety-eight schoolchildren aged 8–11 years from five schools from Cuenca (Spain) participated in 22 focus groups and carried out 98 drawings following the socioecological model as a theoretical framework. A content analysis of the transcripts from the focus groups and drawings was carried out by three researchers. Results showed that, in spite of boys and girls identified same barriers, there were gender differences in their perceptions. Gender socialization was the key as central category and helped to understand these differences. Boys preferred play football and this sport had a monopoly on the recess space. Weather was a barrier for boys. Girls and boys, who did not play football, were relegated to peripheral areas and lack of materials was a barrier for them. Teachers were a barrier for all children who did not play football. Thus, in order to promote recess physical activity, researchers, teachers and educational policy makers should take into account gender socialization and promote inclusive non-curricular physical activity in schools.
... Although evidence suggests that physical activity improves executive functioning of the brain, it remains unclear as to the type, duration, or intensity level of physical activity that results in such improvement in executive functionTomporowski et al. (2008). There is also strong evidence within the literature (Pellegrini & Bohn, 2005;Boyle et al., 2003) to show that, the children who undertake physical activity to enhance the development of Key Motor Skills (KMS) (Shephard & Lavallee, 1994) are not only more academically successful, but also have improved social skills, improved stress management skills and a greater strengthened emotional social support systems through positive selfesteem. However conversely, children who are disadvantaged by unhealthful behaviour have significantly lower scores on tests of academic achievement. ...
... One possible explanation for this delay in object control skills is that children from this particular study may well have suffered from a lack of experience in performing manipulative tasks due to a lack of timetabled Physical Education (PE) in their curricular. Evidence already reported by (Pellegrini & Bohn, 2005;Boyle et al., 2003) showed that children who do undertake regular physical activity improve many aspects of their motor and social skills than those who did not.Braga, Krebs, Valentini, & Tkac, 2009;Brauner & Valentini, 2009;Lopes, Lopes, & Pereira, 2004). These studies also demonstrated improvements in Fundamental Motor Skill performance due to specific intervention programmes however the results from this study show the effects due to physical education delivered in an " active classroom " programme. ...
... For example, the social-cognitive demands associated with peer interactions, such as perspective taking and using explicit language, relate to more general cognitive performance (Piaget, 1983) and classroom achievement (Bjorklund & Pellegrini, 2000). Furthermore, the social-emotional support provided by close peer relations, such as friendships, helps young children adjust to the stresses of early schooling (Boyle, Marshall, & Robeson, 2003;Ladd, Kochenderfer, & Coleman, 1996). & Green, 1992). ...
... Children are especially sedentary during the typical school day (Simons-Morton, O'Hara, Parcel, Huang, Baranowski, & Wilson, 1990). Opportunities for recess in spacious settings equipped with apparatus to encourage exercise-basketball hoops, four-square grids, balls, and so forth (Boyle et al., 2003)-would help to moderate children's weight problems. It would especially help if recess were paired with participationoriented sport (in contrast to sports where only the "best make the team"). ...
The authors suggest that the recess period serves a positive purpose in the primary school curriculum, counter to the current practice of minimizing recess in many schools across North America and the United Kingdom. The authors' position is embedded in the larger debate about school accountability; they argue that school policy should be based on the best theory and empirical evidence available. They support their argument for the importance of recess with theory and with experimental and longitudinal data showing how recess breaks maximize children's cognitive performance and adjustment to school.
... As discussed above, childhood is characterized by considerable segregation between boys and girls during social activities (Larson & Richards, 1991;Maccoby, 1990Maccoby, , 1998. In late childhood and preadolescence, the formation of close friendships nearly always occurs between members of the same-gender group, and when cross-gender interactions occur, they frequently take the form of "borderwork," or interactions that serve to emphasize the distinction between boys and girls in the peer group (Boyle, Marshall, & Robeson, 2003;Maccoby, 1998). For example, children may divide up to play a game into a team of girls and a team of boys; this allows for some interaction with the other gender that is competitive yet keeps most interactions within one's own gender group (Boyle et al., 2003). ...
... In late childhood and preadolescence, the formation of close friendships nearly always occurs between members of the same-gender group, and when cross-gender interactions occur, they frequently take the form of "borderwork," or interactions that serve to emphasize the distinction between boys and girls in the peer group (Boyle, Marshall, & Robeson, 2003;Maccoby, 1998). For example, children may divide up to play a game into a team of girls and a team of boys; this allows for some interaction with the other gender that is competitive yet keeps most interactions within one's own gender group (Boyle et al., 2003). This pervasive segregation tends to promote the development of two rather distinct interaction styles that take place within same-gender groups: Boys tend to prefer more rough-and-tumble, larger group play, whereas girls tend to prefer less active, more intimate one-on-one or small group activities (Maccoby, 1990(Maccoby, , 1998. ...
... In previous literature, this is commonly attributed to societal gender norms, with girl's preference and encouragement to take part in activities such as dance and ballet, where single-limb balance may be required frequently (Boyle et al., 2003;Schmalz & Kerstetter, 2006), and thus increase their static balance ability. This highlights the need to ensure that both boys and girls are encouraged to take part in a wide range of activities to increase their exposure to different movement patterns, environments, and opportunities. ...
Physical activity (PA) recommendations in the United Kingdom (UK) state that children aged 5 and under should be active for at least 180 minutes each day, with at least 60 from moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA). Good motor development aids children in participating in adequate levels of PA, and during the early years of childhood (3-5 years) children should begin to learn, practice, and develop fundamental movement skills (FMS). With declining childhood PA levels in the UK and a growing gap in PA performance due to deprivation, more must be understood about which key factors affect children’s FMS development and PA participation. Crucially, the appropriate support and intervention to improve these factors must be informed and underpinned by a theoretical and evidence base from this population and their environment.
The aims of this thesis were to a) systematically review the literature available about 4-5 year old’s FMS, and accelerometer measured PA levels, including the variation in measurement methods employed, b) investigate educators perspectives of PA, FMS and physical education (PE) for early years foundation stage (EYFS) children, c) assess a sample of English EYFS children’s FMS competency and PA, finally, d) be the first to use intervention mapping (IM) to develop appropriate interventions to aid FMS development and PA participation in early childhood in school settings informed by the data sets collected through this programme of research.
The initial study of this PhD systematically reviewed the literature available for children aged 4-5 years of age’s FMS levels and accelerometer-based PA levels. Following PRISMA guidelines 3 data bases were searched for appropriate articles before being screened for inclusion. Results showed that children’s FMS competency levels were lower than expected for their age, PA was generally underperformed at MVPA levels, and that stability measurements were wide and varied for this age group. The review also focussed on the measurement methods and issues within the research area, with suggestion on how some of these issues should be overcome or improved.
The second study of the programme collected the perceptions that EYFS educators in England held about PA, FMS, and PE for children. Twelve educators (two headteachers, three external coaches, and seven EYFS teachers) took part in semi-structured individual interviews. Educators were from locations across England and taught in a range of SES schools and were predominantly female (n=9). Thematic analysis was employed to identify key themes formed from codes within verbatim transcription of the interviews. The five emergent themes were: PA and PE in the EYFS; the benefits of PA and PE for young children; the barriers and challenges to achieving sufficient PA/PE for children faced by educators, and children; educator knowledge of FMS and key opportunities for development; intervention experience, needs, and training delivery.
The third study assessed the FMS competency, including balance (n=92), and accelerometer measured PA levels (n=54) of a sample of children from the central region of England attending the EYFS of school. This study aimed to understand the current achievement of English children and establish if a relationship between FMS and PA exists, and what variables may affect this. The key analysis showed that age tertiles of a school year (autumn, spring, and summer term births) had an effect on the children’s FMS competency level, with the oldest children achieving the best level of FMS competency. The participants with sufficient PA data showed that they were meeting PA guidelines of both total PA (180 minutes) and MVPA (60 minutes) according to British population cut points for wrist worn accelerometers.
This study also was adapted for an online data collection during the coronavirus pandemic, this resulted in a very small sample of data collection, although this was not used in the synthesis of results. The important outcomes from this study included the challenges that are faced during remote data collection and recommendations of how to best collect data in these circumstances. This adds key knowledge to this area of research, particularly from a methodological perspective.
The final study was the most novel in nature, employing IM, a six-stage process used to design and develop programmes of theory and evidence-based health promotion interventions. To our knowledge this study was the first to begin to use IM to plan FMS promotion interventions and particularly focuses on early childhood in English school settings. By using the data sets collected throughout this programme of research, in addition to a planning group of key stakeholders, each task of the six steps of IM were detailed, including the planning, and drafting of selected programme materials. This begins to guide the development of an EYFS school-based intervention to implement both at the school setting, local authority, and community setting, with consideration to the developments needed at policy level intervention.
The studies in this thesis extend the knowledge within the area of PA and FMS in early childhood populations and specifically of those children at the start of school within English populations. The thesis has found that globally the literature reports FMS competency to be low in children aged 4-5 years and there is varying evidence surrounding performance PA levels, with a lack of consensus on how to best measure FMS and accelerometer measured PA in early childhood. This low global FMS competency is supported by the primary observations of 4–5-year-olds in central England, however these children did demonstrate sufficient PA levels, adding to the varying evidence available. Despite this, in England, educators reported that they value the use of PE and PA opportunities to help children develop physically, mentally, socially, and academically. Nonetheless, a lack of confidence in knowledge of FMS and application of how to teach and create opportunity leaves some teachers unable to promote and teach better FMS competency. Importantly, this thesis has developed a programme of FMS promotion interventions to be used in school settings and provided at teacher (implementer) and child (individual/participant) level. By considering the different levels of the socioecological model, the adaptability to meet different school’s needs across England can be achieved, which meets the aims of the IM process.
... Gender was also found to be an influential factor on balance ability, with girls out-performing boys in all the articles reporting gender differences [34,35,69,71], with the exception of one article [65]. In previous literature, this is commonly attributed to societal gender norms, with girl's preference and encouragement to take part in activities such as dance and ballet, where single-limb balance may be required frequently [92,93], and thus increase their static balance ability. This highlights the need to ensure that both boys and girls are encouraged to take part in a wide range of activities to increase their exposure to different movement patterns, environments and opportunities. ...
Early childhood is a key period for children to begin developing and practicing fundamental movement skills (FMS), while aiming to perform sufficient physical activity (PA). This study reviews the current evidence for the levels of achievement in FMS and PA measured using accelerometers among 4-5-year-old children and examines differences by gender. This review was conducted using the PRISMA framework. Keyword searches were conducted in Pubmed, Medline, Google Scholar and SPORTDiscus. Inclusion criteria included age: 4-5 years old; FMS measurement: Test of Gross Motor Development 2 and 3; PA measurement: objective methods; balance measurement: static single limb; study design: cross-sectional observational/descriptive, randomised control trials, intervention studies; language: English. Twenty-eight articles from twenty-one countries met the inclusion criteria and were split into either FMS and PA articles (n = 10) or balance articles (n = 18). Three articles showed children achieving 60 min of moderate to vigorous PA per day, two articles demonstrated significant differences between girls' and boys' performance of locomotor skills and five reported locomotor skills to be more proficient than object control skills at this age for both genders. Balance was measured in time (n = 12), points score (n = 3) or biomechanical variables (n = 3), displaying heterogeneity of not only measurement but also outcomes within these data, with static single limb balance held between 6.67 to 87.6 s within the articles. Four articles reported girls to have better balance than boys. There is little conclusive evidence of the current levels for FMS, PA and balance achievement in young children 4-5 years of age. The academic literature consistently reports low levels of FMS competence and mixed evidence for PA levels. Inconsistencies lie in balance measurement methodology, with broad-ranging outcomes of both low and high achievement at 4-5 years old. Further research is required to focus on increasing practice opportunities for children to improve their FMS, increase PA levels and establish sufficient balance ability. Consistent and comparable outcomes during early childhood through more homogenous methodologies are warranted.
... Moreover, activities at recess can be labeled along gender lines, with girls being expected to conform to more sedentary activities [16]. While girls seem more interested in crossing gender borders at recess [17], boys in the Pawlowski et al. study [16] dominated the larger playground spaces (i.e., football pitch) often excluding girls during the game. Thus, it appears that there is a need for both variety of games and play spaces, as well as inclusive behavior on the playground, in an effort to more effectively promote physical activity at recess. ...
Background:
To date, there is scant literature that examines the recess context concurrent with, but separate from, levels of physical activity. The primary purpose of the current study was to examine how recess quality impacted physical activity levels, and how this was moderated by gender. A secondary purpose was to examine if differences in children's engagement in activities occurred between recess sessions scored as low- or high- quality.
Methods:
This was an observational study of children at 13 urban elementary schools in the U.S. Across the 13 schools, data were collected at 55 recess sessions, with 3419 child-level observations (n = 1696 boys; n = 1723 girls). Physical activity data were collected using Fitbit accelerometers, recess quality data were collected using the Great Recess Framework - Observational Tool (GRF-OT), recess engagement data were collected using the Observation of Playground Play (OPP), and basic psychological need satisfaction (BPNS) data were collected using a modified version of the BPNS for recess physical activity survey. Primary analyses were conducted using Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) with children nested within recess sessions.
Results:
Gender moderated the relationship between adult engagement and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) (b = .012; 95% CI .001, .024), student behavior and MVPA (b = -.014; 95% CI -.021, -.007), and student behaviors and light physical activity (b = .009, 95% CI .003, .015). Both boys and girls engaged in more play during recess sessions scored as high quality on the GRF-OT. Children reported higher levels of basic psychological need satisfaction at recesses sessions scored as high quality on the GRF-OT.
Conclusions:
Results of the current study showed that the quality of the recess environment, and the interactions of both adults and students in that environment, need to be taken into consideration in future school-based recess studies.
... While girls seem more interested in crossing gender borders at recess (17), boys in the Pawlowski et al. study (16) dominated the larger playground spaces (i.e., football pitch) often excluding girls during the game. Thus, it appears that there is a need for both variety of games and play spaces, as well as inclusive behavior on the playground, in an effort to more effectively promote physical activity at recess. ...
Background
To date, there is scant literature that examines the recess context concurrent with, but separate from, levels of physical activity. The primary purpose of the current study was to examine how recess quality impacted physical activity levels, and how this was moderated by gender. A secondary purpose was to examine if differences in children’s engagement in activities occurred between recess sessions scored as low- or high- quality.
Methods
This was an observational study of children at 13 urban elementary schools in the U.S. Across the 13 schools, data were collected at 55 recess sessions, with 3,419 child-level observations ( n= 1,696 boys; n= 1,723 girls). Physical activity data were collected using Fitbit accelerometers, recess quality data were collected using the Great Recess Framework – Observational Tool (GRF-OT), recess engagement data were collected using the Observation of Playground Play (OPP), and basic psychological need satisfaction (BPNS) data were collected using a modified version of the BPNS for recess physical activity survey. Primary analyses were conducted using Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) with children nested within recess sessions.
Results
Gender moderated the relationship between adult engagement and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) (b= .012; 95% CI .001, .024), student behavior and MVPA (b= -.014; 95% CI -.021, -.007), and student behaviors and light physical activity (b= .009, 95% CI .003, .015). Both boys and girls engaged in more play during recess sessions scored as high quality on the GRF-OT. Children reported higher levels of basic psychological need satisfaction at recesses sessions scored as high quality on the GRF-OT.
Conclusions
Results of the current study showed that the quality of the recess environment, and the interactions of both adults and students in that environment, need to be taken into consideration in future school-based recess studies.
... However, gender differences in PA behaviour in schoolyards are found to be extensive in schoolyards during recess. Many studies ascribe the gender difference in recess PA to the types of activities boys and girls engage in (Nielsen, Pfister, and Andersen 2011;Blatchford, Baines, and Pellegrini 2003;Boyle, Marshall, and Robeson 2003). But also, the design of the schoolyard often appealing mostly to boys' play has an important part to play (Harten, Olds, and Dollman 2008;Andersen, Klinker, et al. 2015;Nielsen, Pfister, and Andersen 2011;Karsten 2003). ...
Insights into children’s perceptions of their changing recess geographies are absent. The current paper provides qualitative evidence from 5 renewed schoolyards by investigating children’s perceptions of their new schoolyards. Ten focus groups (2 at each school) including go-along interviews were conducted, in total 57 4 to 8 graders (28 girls). The functional aspects of the altered child–environment relationship were assessed using Gibson’s concept of affordance, and changes in the meanings ascribed to the schoolyards by the children were studied by engaging a concept of place. Our findings reveal that schoolyards offering multiple potential affordances for physical activity seem more likely to engage a broader group of children in recess physical activity. The analysis, however, could point to a difference between places designed for children’s play and places where children actually play. To optimise actualisation of the potential affordances for recess physical activity, involving children throughout intervention planning and decision-making is crucial.
... C'est dans de tels contextes, surtout à l'adolescence, que les comportements conformes aux attentes de genre sont célébrés entre pairs (incluant la séduction passive chez les filles et la prise d'initiatives sexuelles chez les garçons) et que ceux qui sont considérés comme non conformes sur le plan du genre sont réprimés (Chamberland, Richard et Bernier, 2013). On constate donc que, dès lors que les adolescents et adolescentes se retrouvent entre eux, ils et elles tendent à être impliqués et impliquées dans une véritable gestion du genre, qui valorise la conformité� de genre (Boyle, Marshall et Robeson, 2003) et renforce l'hétérosexualité� comme matrice à travers laquelle le genre est compris (Epstein, 2000). ...
Des travaux en sociologie de l’éducation, en sociologie de la jeunesse, et en études féministes et de genre ont historiquement mis au jour l’existence de normes sociales genrées dans les principales instances de socialisation comme la famille, l’école, les groupes de pairs ou les médias. Ces normes de genre réfèrent aux attentes sociales et culturelles ciblant les personnes en fonction de leur assignation de sexe à la naissance, et contribuant à établir lesquels des corps, des comportements et des identités sont considérés comme « normaux » (attendus, adéquats ou désirables) dans une société donnée, à un moment spécifique. En continuité directe avec ces analyses, les études sur les normativités de genre et de sexualité qui ont émergé depuis le début des années 2000 ont interrogé les processus normatifs de mise en genre et en sexualité, particulièrement auprès d’une population jeune. À partir d’une variété d’approches théoriques et méthodologiques, ces travaux observent les mécanismes d’entrée dans la sexualité et dans les dynamiques de séduction hétérosexuelle, analysent l’hétérosexualité comme institution, et interrogent les modèles s’émancipant des conceptions hétéronormatives dominantes ou encore reconduisant une bicatégorisation par sexe. Cet article suggère un pas de côté favorisant le recul nécessaire à la proposition des fondations d’un champ de recherche sur le genre, les sexualités et les normativités.
... 2.3.2). Untersuchungen zeigen, dass Kinder schon mit einem Jahr wissen, welchem Geschlecht sie angehören, und spätestens ab dem zweiten Lebensjahr ordnen sie verschiedenen Aufgaben unterschiedliche Geschlechter zu (vgl.Maihofer, 2015, S.650;Boyle, Marshall & Robeson, 2003)."Die geschlechtsspezifische Sozialisation hat im Kindergartenalter besondere Bedeutung. ...
... Friendship is widely pronounced to be fundamentally based on three tenants of companionship: intimacy, trust and affection [10][11][12][13][14]. Friendships are integral for developing social supports, essential social skills and gender roles [11,15,16]. Intimate friendships among TD males are characterised by rough and tumble play, minimal close connection and a large group of like-minded friends, acquaintances, playmates or strangers [11,[16][17][18][19]. TD males are more likely to be inclusive in their networks compared to TD females but are more prone to conflict [12,20]. ...
Purpose: Individuals with High Functioning Autism (HFA) experience high levels of underemployment and unemployment, resulting in negative economic, social, and health outcomes. Given what is known about labor market participation difficulties experienced by women generally, and the paucity of research concerning women with HFA, this systematic review synthesized what is known about the labor market experiences of women with HFA.
Method: A systematic review of the literature concerning adult females with HFA in relation to the workplace yielded 1947 results; 11 met inclusion criteria being based on original data, but not necessarily focusing solely on women.
Results: The total number participants with HFA across all studies was 731 (M = 66.45, SD = 95.44, Mdn = 18.00) aged between 18 and 70 years (M = 34.38, SD = 7.71); females represented 38% (n = 279) of those sampled. The principal challenges reported for individuals with HFA at work were communication, social interaction, and stress, together with negative mental and physical health.
Conclusion: These results should be interpreted with caution. Of the studies found, 73% were qualitative and based on small samples. Only one paper differentiated female data in analyses. These factors combined suggest large-scale mixed method research focused on females with HFA is required to gain an accurate insight into the challenges faced in the workplace, to in turn inform intervention and support. However, implications for rehabilitation based on what is known are discussed.
• Implication for Rehabilitation
• Unemployment and underemployment of persons with High Functioning Autism (HFA) poses social, health and economic issues for both individuals and the wider community.
• Those with HFA have the intellectual capacity to make a substantial contribution to the workplace.
• Based on what is known, some of the challenges for females with HFA might be similar to those experienced by men with HFA, however it is possible that there are gender-based differences (in both type and severity of challenges) that require attention.
... Para aumentar los niveles de AF de las chicas durante el horario escolar podrían dinamizarse los recreos, para que fuesen más activos con actividades que se ajustaran mejor a las preferencias de las chicas. Se trataría de evitar que los chicos dominaran el espacio disponible para el juego con actividades más competitivas como el fútbol, promocionando en los recreos actividades físico-deportivas que impliquen comunicación y relación social, y tareas como saltar o bailar (Blatchford, Baines, y Pellegrini, 2003; Boyle, Marshall, y Robeson, 2003). Para lograr estas transformaciones, los recreos deberían formar parte de programas globales de promoción de la AF en los centros escolares, y sería necesario que los centros facilitaran el acceso de los alumnos al material e instalaciones deportivas de la escuela (Ridgers, Salmon, Parrish, Stanley, y Okely, 2012). ...
El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar si existían diferencias según género en el tiempo empleado por los adolescentes en actividad sedentaria y actividad física ligera, moderada y vigorosa en diferentes segmentos horarios del día. Estas diferencias se analizaron tanto entre semana como en fin de semana. La muestra inicial de este estudio se compuso de 206 estudiantes de 3º y 4º de Educación Secundaria Obligatoria (M= 15,07; DT= 0,86). Las mediciones de la actividad sedentaria y la actividad física se realizaron con acelerómetros ActiGraph GT3X que los adolescentes llevaron durante una semana. Las chicas mostraron mayor actividad sedentaria que los chicos en el segmento horario 'Precolegio' (de 06:30 a 08:30 horas), mientras que los chicos presentaron mayor actividad física vigorosa en este segmento horario. Los chicos mostraron mayor actividad física vigorosa en los segmentos horarios 'Colegio' (de 08:31 a 14:30 horas), 'Comida entre semana' (de 14:31 a 16:00 horas), 'Tarde 1 entre semana' (de 16:01 a 18:30 horas) y 'Tarde 2 entre semana' (de 18:31 a 21:00 horas). Las chicas presentaron mayor actividad sedentaria en el segmento 'Tarde 2 entre semana'. Durante el fin de semana, los chicos mostraron mayor actividad vigorosa en el segmento horario 'Tarde 1' (de 16:01 a 18:30 horas). Junto a la discusión de los resultados, este artículo plantea una serie de recomendaciones para la promoción de la actividad física en las chicas.
Palabras clave. Actividad física, adolescentes, género.
... Other qualitative studies have also observed a gender difference in recess PA (Blatchford et al., 2003;Boyle et al., 2003;Thorne, 1993). Likewise, a review found boys to be significantly more physically active than girls (Ridgers et al., 2012). ...
Facilitators and barriers to recess physical activity are not well understood. To date, research on recess physical activity has predominantly focused on quantitative measures typically focusing on a narrow set of predefined factors, often constructed by adults. To really understand the factors affecting recess physical activity it is crucial to observe and listen to children to know how they engage in and perceive recess physical activity. The aim of this paper was to gain knowledge on children’s perceptions and experiences of factors influencing their physical activity behaviour during recess. Data were collected in three separate studies using different qualitative approaches: participant observation; go-along group interviews and participatory photo interviews. The studies were conducted among 10–13-year-old children (grades 4–6) in 17 Danish schools and in five New Zealand schools among 11–12-year-old children. The socio-ecological model was used as the overall theoretical framework. Twelve factors were identified as influencing the children’s recess physical activity: bodily self-esteem and ability; gender; gendered school culture; peer influence; conflicts and exclusion; space and place experiences; lack of play facilities; outdoor play policy; use of electronic devices; recess duration; organised activities; and weather. These factors were located within different layers of the socio-ecological model, but were interdependent. The findings speak for implementing a combination of actions addressing factors from different layers in the socio-ecological model to increase recess physical activity.
... Selv om både jenter og gutter i stor grad deltar i organiserte idrettsaktiviteter, tyder forskning på at idrett har en større plass i guttekulturen enn i jentekulturen. Guttenes lek preges av fysisk styrke og mye konkurranser, mens jenter vanligvis utøver roligere aktiviteter (Boyle, Marshall & Robeson, 2003;Karsten, 2003). Norske jenter har i stadig større grad beveget seg inn på det som tidligere var idretter dominert av gutter, f.eks. ...
In Norway many schools practice segregated physical education. This article explores the reasons for practicing segregated education in schools. Data is collected through survey. The results show the following reasons for segregated physical education to be most common: different interest and needs, physical differences, dominating boys, vulnerable body image, and active girls. The results are discussed in light of different understanding of equality work in school. The study sheds light on important perspectives related to gender and physical education, and provides insight into essential issures that need to be discussed related to the fulfillment of the aims of physical activity and the you thereof in school.
... The System for Observing Children's Activity and Relationships during Play (SOCARP) providing information on children's behavior and social interactions [9] and a write and draw technique to examine what children like and dislike about recess [37]. To get an understanding of children's behavior, social interaction and perceived PA during recess other studies have used qualitative-phenomenological approaches such as different interview techniques [8,10,16,38] and ethnographical observation approaches [16,[39][40][41]. To our knowledge only two studies on PA behavior during recess have used a mixed methods approach combining SOPLAY with focus group interviews [42] and systematic observations with questionnaires [43], respectively. ...
Schoolyards are recognized as important settings for physical activity interventions during recess. However, varying results have been reported. This pilot study was conducted to gain in-depth knowledge of children's physical activity behavior during recess using a mixed-methods approach combining quantitative GPS and accelerometer measurements with qualitative go-along group interviews and participant observations. Data were collected during three weekdays in a public school in Denmark. Eighty-one children (47 girls) wore an accelerometer (ActiGraph GT3X) and GPS (QStarz BT-Q1000xt), sixteen children participated in go-along group interviews, and recess behavior was observed using an ethnographical participant observation approach. All data were analyzed separated systematically answering the Five W Questions. Children were categorized into Low, Middle and High physical activity groups and these groups were predominantly staying in three different locations during recess: school building, schoolyard and field, respectively. Mostly girls were in the building remaining in there because of a perceived lack of attractive outdoor play facilities. The children in the schoolyard were predominantly girls who preferred the schoolyard over the field to avoid the competitive soccer games on the field whereas boys dominated the field playing soccer. Using a mixed-methods approach to investigate children's physical activity behavior during recess helped gain in-depth knowledge that can aid development of future interventions in the school environment.
... The increase in female PA may be attributed to reduced competition for playground space because there were new, additional opportunities available to females in the activity zones. Boyle et al. (2003) observed playground behavior between females and males during recess and discovered that females are much more social and territorial on the playground than males. Perhaps this same dynamic is taking place among females in Zone 1. Further, females are significantly more likely to participate in "jumping-skipping games" (Blatchford et al., 2003) and "jumping activities" (Saint-Maurice et al., 2011) compared to males. ...
The aim of this study was to determine the effect of an 8-week recess intervention on physical activity levels in children attending elementary school on an American Indian reservation during fall 2013.
Physical activity was measured with direct observation in three zones on the playground. Lines were painted on existing pavement in zone 1. Zone 2 had permanent playground equipment and was unchanged. Zone 3 contained fields where bi-weekly facilitators led activities and provided equipment. Pre- to post-changes during recess in sedentary, moderate physical activity, moderate-to-vigorous, and vigorous physical activities were compared within zones.
Females physical activity increased in Zone 1 (moderate: 100% increase; moderate-to-vigorous: 83%; vigorous: 74%, p
... It has been suggested that boys tend to be more active than girls due to biological factors [58], but this may also be attributable to parental, social and environmental factors [57], which imply more time engaging in sports and freeliving activities. Furthermore, boys typically view school breaks as a chance to engage in competitive games that tend to dominate play spaces in the school yard while girls view the school break period as a time for socializing [17], i.e., the majority of boys manifest competency by being active players in sports games and the majority of girls walk and talk [59]. On the other hand, throughout the after-school period there is some suggestion that parents perceive the neighborhood to be safer for adolescent boys compared to adolescent girls [60], given boys one more possibility to be physically active. ...
Day-to-day variability and stability of children's physical activity levels across days of the week are not well understood. Our aims were to examine the day-to-day variability of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), to determine factors influencing the day-to-day variability of MVPA and to estimate stability of MVPA in children. The sample comprises 686 Portuguese children (10 years of age). MVPA was assessed with an accelerometer, and BMI was computed from measured height and weight. Daily changes in MVPA and their correlates (gender, BMI, and maturity) were modeled with a multilevel approach, and tracking was calculated using Foulkes & Davies γ. A total of 51.3% of boys and 26.2% of girls achieved 60 min/day of MVPA on average. Daily MVPA was lower during the weekend (23.6% of boys and 13.6% of girls comply with the recommended 60 min/day of MVPA) compared to weekdays (60.8% and 35.4%, boys and girls, respectively). Normal weight children were more active than obese children and no effect was found for biological maturation. Tracking is low in both boys (γ = 0.59 ± 0.01) and girls (γ = 0.56 ± 0.01). Children's MVPA levels during a week are highly unstable. In summary, boys are more active than girls, maturation does not affect their MVPA, and obese children are less likely to meet 60 min/day of MVPA. These results highlight the importance of providing opportunities for increasing children's daily MVPA on all days of week, especially on the weekend.
... Ceci dit, certaines enquêtes sur le climat scolaire et l'homophobie, parce qu'elles s'intéressent de facto à l'orientation sexuelle réelle ou perçue des élèves, ont mis en évidence l'existence de violences prenant pour objet la conformité au genre. On y postule que les élèves, dès lors qu'ils se retrouvent entre pairs, sont impliqués dans une véritable gestion du genre, une dynamique récompensant (par exemple, en étant adulés par leurs pairs) les élèves dont la sexualité et l'expression de genre sont conformes aux attentes sociales hétéronormatives (Boyle, Marshall et Robeson, 2003). Les élèves qui ne se conforment pas en tout point à cette régulation, ou qui s'y soustraient, s'exposent à une certaine répression de la part de leurs pairs, répression qui peut notamment se manifester par une mise à l'écart ou par l'insulte. ...
77 Violences homophobes, violences transphobes : le double jeu du genre dans les violences en milieu scolaire Gabrielle Richard 105 et Line Chamberland 106 Résumé À partir de résultats tirés d'une enquête par questionnaire auprès de 2747 élèves de l'école secondaire québécoise et d'entrevues auprès de jeunes s'identifiant comme lesbiennes, gais, bisexuel(le)s ou en questionnement (LGBQ) ou comme trans, cet article propose une réflexion sur les violences prenant pour cible l'expression de genre à l'école. Plus du tiers des élèves s'identifiant comme hétérosexuels rapportent avoir été victimes de violences parce qu'on pense qu'ils sont, ou parce qu'ils sont gais. C'est également le cas de plus des deux tiers des élèves LGBQ. En entrevue, plusieurs élèves, trans comme LGBQ, rapportent que c'est davantage leur inadéquation aux normes de la féminité et de la masculinité qui en font l'objet de réprobation par leurs pairs, plutôt que leurs véritables préférences en matière d'orientation sexuelle. En explorant les parallèles étroits entre l'homophobie et la transphobie, nous suggérons que le « genre » est central pour comprendre les violences sur la base de l'orientation sexuelle et de la non-conformité de genre à l'école.
... Gráfico 1. Distribución de propuestas de cambio y qué no les gusta a los alumnos del patio por valoración global de los patios Nuestros resultados concuerdan con los obtenidos por otros estudios en los que se documentan los tipos de actividades realizadas por el alumnado, como los de Blatchford (2003) o Boyle et al. (2003). ...
El artículo presenta los resultados de una investigación realizada sobre una muestra de patios de treinta centros de educación primaria de Cataluña durante el curso 2007-2008*, teniendo en cuenta la diversidad física, socioeconómica y educativa presentes en nuestro territorio, y llevada a cabo con el objetivo de identificar y analizar las conceptualizaciones de la comunidad educativa sobre los usos, los espacios, las actividades y los tiempos de patio escolar en los centros educativos. Este cuestionamiento indirecto surge a partir de resultados de investigaciones anteriores sobre la consideración del patio escolar como un espacio educativo, y los trabajos anteriores nos han permitido constatar las diferencias de uso del juego en la escuela según las etapas educativas estudiadas. Hemos constatado también el mal uso y los usos limitados del patio como espacio educativo, con poca profundización de las posibilidades que ofrece. Se han utilizado técnicas cuantitativas y cualitativas, teniendo en cuenta la diversidad presente en el territorio definida por las variables siguientes: población, titularidad de los centros educativos, diversidad sociocultural y económica y tamaño de los centros educativos. Por un lado, se ha procedido a aplicar un instrumento de encuesta al alumnado de cuarto de primaria y, por otro, se han realizado entrevistas a miembros de los equipos directivos de los centros y se ha aplicado un protocolo de observación de los patios escolares.
*Este artículo se presentó como comunicación en el VI Congreso de la Associació Catalana de Sociologia celebrado en la UAB en abril de 2009, en el Grupo 9, coordinado por el Dr. Fidel Molina. Se presentan los resultados de la investigación realizada por la autora durante el curso 2008-2009 por encargo de la International Play Association, IPA España, y financiada por la Fundació Jaume Bofill.
... u.a. Baur, 2007;Berndt & Menze, 1996;Boyle, Marshall & Robeson, 2003;Gramespacher, 2008a;Karsten, 2003;Koivula, 1995;Opper, 1996;Schmidt, 2008;Tietjens, Hagemann & Stracke, 2010). Jungen würden demnach einen kraft-und körperbetonten, harten, kompetitiven und risikoreichen Sport bevorzugen, der ihren Vorstellungen von Maskulinität entspricht. ...
Against the background of the long-debated, controversial issue of mixed-sex vs. single-sex education, this paper empirically analyses whether or not female students are put at a disadvantage by coeducational physical education (P.E.) classes. Drawn on the existing literature on school sport, it is assumed that coeducational P.E. classes, at least as currently practiced, rather conform to the sports-related expectations of boys than of girls. Based on the SPRINT data-set, it is investigated whether coeducation in P.E. is accompanied by more negative affective states, more negative self-ratings of athletic competence as well as poorer grades among female students. Girls in single-sex P.E. classes serve as a control group in these analyses. The findings confirm all of our hypotheses: Girls in coeducational P.E. classes (a) experience more negative affects prior to school sport, (b) have a more negative self-concept of their athletic abilities and (c) achieve significantly lower grades. In P.E., coeducation thus signifies measurable disadvantages for female students. In light of future challenges, like increasing diversity among students and the rising demand for inclusive education, these findings once more gain in importance.
... Analysis was undertaken from a social constructionist paradigm, based on the assumption that both the interviewer and interviewees work together to co-construct meaning (Creswell, 2007). A further assumption underpinning the analysis is that gender is constructed through everyday social interactions, in which the school lunch break plays a significant role (Boyle et al., 2003). A six-phase process of thematic analysis, as described by Braun and Clarke (2006) was followed. ...
Given the short- and long-term health implications associated with overweight and obesity plus the likelihood of overweight or obesity to continue into adulthood, addressing the causes of overweight and obesity in childhood is a significant public health concern. One underlying cause of overweight and obesity is insufficient physical activity. The Department of Health and Aging recommends children engage in at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) per day; however, these recommendations are met less frequently with increasing age, and girls less often meet these recommendations than boys. School lunch times have been identified as an ideal time for maximizing children’s physical activity (PA), but studies have shown variable levels of PA among children during this time and research indicates that during school lunch times, girls are consistently less active than boys. Understanding influences on girls’ participation in PA during this time may help to increase levels of PA for this demographic. Two South Australian schools, one government and one independent, were included in the sample. Four focus groups (three or four participants per group: total 13 participants) focusing on girls’ perceptions of PA during the lunch break were conducted. Transcripts and field notes were analyzed using a social constructionist framework and thematic content analysis. The expectation to participate in activities considered “gender appropriate”, maturation, and bullying/teasing were identified as explicit barriers to participation in lunch time play. Other important barriers included a “girls’” school uniform and feelings of inadequate competency. The ability to renegotiate gender stereotypes, a unisex school uniform, and perceived high competency were important facilitators of lunch time PA. Low levels of lunch time PA evident in many young adolescent girls may be due to many complex social factors. Therefore, these barriers may need to be addressed before any environmental interventions are likely to be effective.
... Gender does not represent an innate dimension of the human being, but a process of continuous construction and reconstruction, depending on many important factors such as parents, school, society and the child itself (Boyle, E. D., Marshall, N. L. & Robeson, W. W., 2003, 1326. The socio-cultural environment of the child has followed the continuous globalization that characterizes our society, children from all over the world being now, more than ever, a part of a common culture that includes music, sports and fashion (Devine, D., Nic Ghiolla Phadraigh, M. N. & Deegan, J., 2004, 211). ...
The study aims at investigating the influence the size of the home town has on the evolution of gender stereotypes in Romanian preschool children (N=126). We investigated the differences in gender attributions made by girls and boys raised in a small town as opposed to a big city, in order to reveal particular ways of counterbalancing those stereotypes. The responses of children from the large city showed statistically significant differences on the items of “goodness”, “courage” and “hard work”. Preschoolers from the small town offered significantly different attributions to the items of “kindness”, “friendliness”, “hard work” and “courage”. Means of counterbalancing these stereotypes are suggested.
... Friendship is widely pronounced to be fundamentally based on three tenants of companionship: intimacy, trust and affection [10][11][12][13][14]. Friendships are integral for developing social supports, essential social skills and gender roles [11,15,16]. Intimate friendships among TD males are characterised by rough and tumble play, minimal close connection and a large group of like-minded friends, acquaintances, playmates or strangers [11,[16][17][18][19]. TD males are more likely to be inclusive in their networks compared to TD females but are more prone to conflict [12,20]. ...
Background: Research has indicated that there are as many as four times the numbers of males diagnosed with High Functioning Autism (HFA) than females. The growing body of research which focuses on girls with HFA questions the assumption of gender invariance in HFA. Clinical observations suggest that HFA girls superficially demonstrate better social and emotional skills than boys with HFA and this may camouflage other diagnostic features. This in turn, may explain the under diagnosis of girls with HFA.
Objectives: This study aims to explore the skewed gender distribution observed within this population and determine whether sociability and emotionality are camouflaging HFA girls from diagnosis.
Methods: Seventy-five 10-16 year old boys and girls (HFA girls: 18, TD girls: 25, HFA boys: 15, TD boys: 17) were interviewed (using the Friendship Questionnaire (FQ)). High scores on the FQ indicate that the child experiences close, empathetic and supportive relationships. One parent of each child also completed the FQ about their child to assess differences in perception of the quality and quantity of friendships.
Results: Independent of diagnosis, girls were found to have higher empathy than boys. Further, irrespective of their gender, HFA children demonstrated lower empathetic relationships compared to TD children. Also, the effect of HFA did not depend upon gender, meaning that both genders had a similar reduction in empathetic relationships which was associated with a diagnosis of HFA. Interestingly, while the interaction between gender and diagnosis was not significant, TD girls and HFA girls also did not demonstrate any differences between empathy scores; however, HFA girls and TD boys displayed the same degree of empathetic relationships.
Conclusions: As HFA girls scored on empathy at similar levels to TD girls, and TD boys and HFA girls demonstrated no differences between their scores, HFA girls appear to function at the level of TD boys, or even some TD girls. Despite their diagnosis of HFA, they appear to function at normal levels with respect to empathy, and thus may be camouflaged. It is only when assessment went beyond this superficial level that differences in HFA girls became apparent, and they are seen to function more like HFA boys.
Unsuspecting clinicians, or those with unwarranted assumptions about diagnostic characteristics, may thus conclude inaccurately that the female child was not autistic. Girls with indications that they may be autistic must be carefully assessed, and the clinician should not assume that because they may demonstrate a TD male friendship style, that they are not autistic.
... Verloigne et al. attributed these gender differences to the social context at particular time-periods [31]. Boys might be dominating playgrounds at school, and girls prefer to socialise during breaks [32], while after school, parents might be considering neighbourhoods to be safe for boys, but not for girls [33]. ...
Background
There is some evidence that physical activity (PA), sedentary time and screen time (ST) are associated with childhood obesity, but research is inconclusive and studies are mainly based on self-reported data. The literature is dominated by data from North American countries and there is a shortage of objective data from Malta which has one of the highest prevalences of childhood obesity in the world. The aims of this study were to assess the PA levels and ST patterns of Maltese boys and girls and how they compared with children in other countries while also examining differences in PA and ST by weight status.
Methods
A nationally representative sample of 1126 Maltese boys and girls aged 10–11 years, of which 811 provided complete data. Physical activity was assessed using accelerometry, and ST by questionnaire. Body mass index (BMI) was computed from measured height and weight.
Results
Only 39% of boys and 10% of girls met the recommendation of one hour of daily MVPA. Comparison with international data indicated that mean MVPA (58.1 min for boys; 41.7 min for girls) was higher than in North America and Australia, but lower than in England. Girls were less active than boys at all measured times and spent less time in ST. A quarter of the children exceeded guidelines of two hours of TV on weekends, and double the amount on weekdays. Obese children were less active than normal weight children on weekdays and on weekends, reaching significance during the period after school, and they spent more time in ST than their normal weight counterparts.
Conclusions
A low percentage of Maltese 10–11 year olds, particularly girls, reached the recommended levels of daily MVPA and spent large amounts of time engaged in screen time. Obese children were less active than non-obese children. As children spend most of their waking time at school and that activity during this time is less than one third of the daily requirements, aiming to increase MVPA at school for all Maltese children is likely to be an important strategy to promote MVPA. Targeting less active and obese children is important.
... However, their study assessed available space in different schoolyards rather than the space available per child. In our study both boys and girls felt that lack of space was a barrier, but girls also verbalized a desire for smaller secluded areas, possibly because boys tend to dominate the main areas of the schoolyard [41][42][43]. Some studies have suggested that recess strategies to increase PA should consider reducing the dominance of soccer in schoolyards by allocating specific areas for other activities and thereby provide more space for those who do not want to play soccer [44,45]. ...
Background
Many children, in particular girls, do not reach the recommended amount of daily physical activity. School recess provides an opportunity for both boys and girls to be physically active, but barriers to recess physical activity are not well understood. This study explores gender differences in children’s perceptions of barriers to recess physical activity. Based on the socio-ecological model four types of environmental barriers were distinguished: natural, social, physical and organizational environment.
Methods
Data were collected through 17 focus groups (at 17 different schools) with in total 111 children (53 boys) from fourth grade, with a mean age of 10.4 years. The focus groups included an open group discussion, go-along group interviews, and a gender segregated post-it note activity. A content analysis of the post-it notes was used to rank the children’s perceived barriers. This was verified by a thematic analysis of transcripts from the open discussions and go-along interviews.
Results
The most frequently identified barriers for both boys and girls were weather, conflicts, lack of space, lack of play facilities and a newly-found barrier, use of electronic devices. While boys and girls identified the same barriers, there were both inter- and intra-gender differences in the perception of these barriers. Weather was a barrier for all children, apart from the most active boys. Conflicts were perceived as a barrier particularly by those boys who played ballgames. Girls said they would like to have more secluded areas added to the school playground, even in large schoolyards where lack of space was not a barrier. This aligned with girls’ requests for more “hanging-out” facilities, whereas boys primarily wanted activity promoting facilities.
Conclusion
Based on the results from this study, we recommend promoting recess physical activity through a combination of actions, addressing barriers within the natural, social, physical and organizational environment.
... Embora os autores tivessem considerado que as crianças concebem ou constituem as suas identidades de forma mais aberta e flexível do que os adultos, eles identificaram que os espaços mais ocupados pelos meninos eram as quadras esportivas, o que lhes permitia uma reprodução das identidades culturais entendidas como hegemônicas. Sobre isso, BOYLLE et al. 20 consideram que, nas negociações entre as fronteiras existentes no momento do recreio (das brincadeiras, do gênero e o modo de realizá-las), as crianças reforçam suas identidades de gênero. ...
In this study, from the slopes of Cultural Studies and Gender approaching the post-structuralism of Foucault, we aimed to understand how gender meanings that constitute different ways of being a boy or a girl in the playground area of a public school in Porto Alegre, Brazil are attributed. Through an ethnographic study, which lasted a year, and interviews with children, we focused on a second and a third basic education grades and identified an unofficial and unintended learning that occurs in the games of children, in which they learn ways to be boys and girls. In this context, we realized that there is an occupation of the schoolyard by gender, including occupancy and different ways of negotiation setting a geography of gender. We also observed a construction of sexuality in school, in which homosexuality is circumscribed to the detriment of the norm of heterosexuality.
... The differentiation in play spaces and attitudes emphasizes values such as competition in boys, their use of the best and widest spaces, and the development of their motor competence. On the contrary, girls assume a secondary role which is reflected by inactivity or the practice of less complex activities (on the differentiation of activities, see Boyle, Marshall, & Robeson, 2003;Butcher, 1999;Lever, 1978;Goodwin, 1990;Grugeon, 1993;Lewis & Phillipsen, 1998). These models are perpetuated through imitation of the older children by their younger peers (Elkonin, 1985). ...
This article examines the data obtained through a year-long ethnographic study of students from a Spanish primary school, and sheds light on their use of gender code networks during school recess. The results of this analysis confirm the conclusions on student interaction drawn by other studies (group segregation regarding age and gender and, accordingly, the practice of different activities, the occupation of different spaces; ways of inclusion or exclusion, and the safeguarding of codes). The use of codes is random, the rules which regulate peer interaction are diffuse, and the code network becomes extremely complex. In spite of this, this study concludes that a new student learns to interpret and use the codes in a short period of time (six weeks maximum, according to the cases analyzed) even when the student is not a native speaker of Spanish and is unable to understand the language. We also observed in the case of all newcomers, an initial period of openness during which they try to suspend their own codes and open up to learning the codes present in their new context.
... Friendship is widely pronounced to be fundamentally based on three tenants of companionship: intimacy, trust and affection [10][11][12][13][14]. Friendships are integral for developing social supports, essential social skills and gender roles [11,15,16]. Intimate friendships among TD males are characterised by rough and tumble play, minimal close connection and a large group of like-minded friends, acquaintances, playmates or strangers [11,[16][17][18][19]. TD males are more likely to be inclusive in their networks compared to TD females but are more prone to conflict [12,20]. ...
Four times as many males are diagnosed with high functioning autism compared to females. A growing body of research that focused on females with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) questions the assumption of gender invariance in ASD. Clinical observations suggest that females with ASD superficially demonstrate better social and emotional skills than males with ASD, which may camouflage other diagnostic features. This may explain the under-diagnosis of females with ASD.
We hypothesised that females with ASD would display better social skills than males with ASD on a test of friendship and social function. One hundred and one 10- to 16-year-olds (ASD females, n = 25; typically developing (TD) females, n = 25; ASD males, n = 25; TD males, n = 26) were interviewed (using the friendship questionnaire (FQ)) with high scores indicating the child has close, empathetic and supportive relationships. One parent of each child completed the FQ to assess whether there are differences in perception of friendships between parents and children.
It was found that, independent of diagnosis, females demonstrated higher scores on the FQ than males. Further, regardless of gender, children with ASD demonstrated lower scores than TD children. Moreover, the effect of ASD was independent of gender. Interestingly, females with ASD and TD males displayed similar scores on the FQ.
This finding is supported by clinical reports that females with ASD have more developed social skills than males with ASD. Further research is now required to examine the underlying causes for this phenomenon in order to develop gender-appropriate diagnostic criteria and interventions for ASD.
... This may indicate that girls may achieve increased competence in almost any activity (as long as they are motivated), and that boys only achieve increased competence in activities that, based on previous studies, may be perceived as typical boy activities. For example, within sport activities, girls' participation in masculine sports and activities has been found to be more acceptable than boys' participation in feminine sports and activities [41,64]. Furthermore, previous research on gender-typed activities suggests that social changes have opened doors for girls to participate in traditionally masculine activities [34]. ...
This study explored the extent to which adolescents’ motives for leisure activity participation are related to their perceptions of competence and relatedness in different kinds of activities and aimed to provide new insight into boys’ and girls’ leisure experiences and their motivational orientations for activity participation. These proposed associations were based on previous empirical work and the theoretical frameworks of motive disposition approach and were tested in a nationally representative sample of Norwegian adolescents ( N = 3273 ) aged 15 and 16 years (51.8% boys) from the World Health Organization’s cross-sectional survey, Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children 2005/06. The findings in the current study supported the hypothesis regarding matched correlations between specific motives and specific outcomes in that the adolescents seem to get (perceived competence and relatedness) what they want (competence and social motives) within leisure activities. Furthermore, the analysis using structural equation modeling indicated different motivational orientations in types of leisure activity participation between girls and boys, although the mediating effects of leisure activity participation in different types of activities were not significant.
Background
The Physical Literacy in Children Questionnaire (PL-C Quest) was developed to assess children’s perceived physical literacy. Pictorial items assess 30 elements within four domains (Physical - 12 items, Psychological - 7 items, Social - 4 items and Cognitive - 7 items). The aim of this study was to assess the reliability and construct validity of the PL-C Quest in Australian children aged 7–12 years.
Methods
In 2020, Australian parents and children were recruited via social media (sample 1: n = 80) and panel sampling (sample 2: n = 589). Parents consented online, completed demographic details and children completed the PL-C Quest online. Test-retest reliability was assessed in a sub-group of Sample 1 (n = 59). Internal consistency and construct validity [Structural Equation Modelling (SEM)] were assessed using combined samples. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) SEM was tested based on the hypothesized structure of four subdomains and a higher order factor of physical literacy.
Results
Most parents were born in Australia (78%) and had a university education [University (61%), Trade (16%), High school (15%) and less than High School (8%)]. Children (59% boys; 40% girls; 1% other) had a mean age of 10.1 years (SD = 1.7). Physical literacy did not differ by age, but children of tertiary educated parents had higher physical literacy levels. Test-retest values (Mean = 15.8 days apart) were adequate to good [overall: ICC = 0.83, physical: ICC = 0.80, psychological: ICC = 0.76, social: ICC = 0.66, cognitive: ICC = 0.75]. Internal consistency values were as follows: overall: α = 0.92; physical: α = 0.82; psychological: α = 0.75; social: α = 0.72; cognitive: α = 0.77. All items except one loaded on sub-domains above 0.5. The final model had an adequate fit (SRMR = 0.043, CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.90, RMSEA = 0.045).
Conclusions
Results indicate the PL-C Quest has acceptable test-retest reliability and construct validity. Further research could seek to explore validity in children aged 5 and 6 years of age and in other cultural contexts.
Generally, adequate motor coordination (MC) ability is one among the critical factors for the overall development of children. In this paper, we have thoroughly analyzed the effects of equine-assistant activity (EAA) training on MC in children. For this purpose, MC test, specifically for children, was used to the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK), and a total of 100 children, particularly those in 8 to 10 age, were equally separated into equine-assistant activity group (EAAG) and control group (CG), respectively. The EAAG group has attended a 14-week EAA training program, while the CG joined in physical education activity once per week. The experimental results have indicated that four indices of KTK test (i.e., backward walk [WB], height jump [HH], jumping sideways [JS] and moving sideways [MS], and motor quotient [MQ] score) showed significant differences (∗P<0.05) after a 14-week EAA training. Furthermore, the indices of physical fitness test, standing long jump (SLJ), and sit and reach (SAR) showed significant differences (∗P<0.05), but the handgrip (HG) increased slightly without significant difference (P>0.05) after a 14-week EAA training. In conclusion, there were improvements in MC, lower limb strength, and flexibility by EAAG for those who participated in a 14-week EAA training, and this study has demonstrated the effectiveness of the KTK assessment of MC in children 8 to 10 years.
El patio puede ser un lugar para el desarrollo del alumnado. Sin embargo, durante el recreo las chicas y los chicos encuentran diferentes problemas para el ocio y los estereotipos de género reducen las oportunidades lúdicas de chicas y algunos chicos. El objetivo de este trabajo fue conocer en profundidad los problemas del alumnado antes y después del desarrollo de una intervención coeducativa en su patio escolar desde la perspectiva de género. Se aplicaron dos grupos de discusión (con cinco y seis escolares, respectivamente) y una encuesta a 113 escolares antes de la intervención. Tras esta, se desarrollaron diez entrevistas al profesorado del centro y se recogieron 110 encuestas del alumnado. El análisis de los datos fue cualitativo, aplicándose ciclos de codificación inductiva (abierta, axial y selectiva) con Atlas.ti. Se encontraron problemas organizativos, sociales, estéticos y de materiales y espacios comunes para ambos géneros antes y después del cambio. No obstante, se obtuvieron algunas diferencias en los problemas percibidos por ambos géneros. Los chicos expresaron más preocupaciones organizativas y sociales vinculadas con las pistas polideportivas, mientras que las chicas demandaron más espacios de intimidad y descanso, así como declararon problemas con sus oportunidades de ocio y cómo se ejercía la dominancia masculina en dichas pistas.
Araştırmada 5-6 yaş grubu çocukların akran ilişkilerinin bazı demografik değişkenler açısından incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırmanın örneklemi, basit seçkisiz örnekleme yöntemi ile belirlenmiş olup Manisa İl’inin merkez ilçeleri olan Yunusemre ve Şehzadeler ilçelerindeki resmi ve özel bağımsız anaokullarına devam eden 5-6 yaş grubu 504 çocuk (237’si kız ve 267’si erkek) ve öğretmenleri, araştırma örneklemini oluşturmuştur. Araştırma, nicel araştırma yöntemlerinden tarama modeline göre tasarlanmıştır. Verilerin elde edilmesinde “Ladd Profilet Çocuk Davranış Ölçeği” ile araştırmacılar tarafından geliştirilen “Genel Bilgi Formu” kullanılmıştır. Araştırmada elde edilen verilerin analizinde verilerin dağılım durumu dikkate alınarak Bağımsız Gruplar için t-testi, Mann Whitney-U Testi, Kruskal Wallis-H Testi, Tek Yönlü Varyans Analizi (ANOVA) kullanılmıştır. Araştırmada akranlara karşı prososyal davranışların çocuğun yaşına ve cinsiyetine göre; asosyal davranışların çocuğun yaşına ve devam ettiği okul türüne göre; kaygılı korkulu olmanın çocuğun yaşına, cinsiyetine ve devam ettiği okul türüne göre; akranlar tarafından dışlanmanın çocuğun yaşına, cinsiyetine ve devam ettiği okul türüne göre; aşırı hareketliliğin çocuğun yaşına, cinsiyetine ve devam ettiği okul türüne göre; saldırganlığın çocuğun cinsiyetine ve devam ettiği okul türüne göre istatistiksel açıdan anlamlı düzeyde farklılık gösterdiği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Diğer yandan araştırmada akranlara karşı prososyal davranışların, akranlara karşı asosyal davranışların, kaygılı korkulu olmanın, akranlar tarafından dışlanmanın, aşırı hareketliliğin ve akranlara yönelik saldırganlığın çocuğun kardeş sayısına ve doğum sırasına göre istatistiksel açıdan anlamlı düzeyde farklılık göstermediği saptanmıştır. Araştırma bulguları ilgili literatür çerçevesinde tartışılarak yorumlanmış ve önerilerde bulunulmuştur.
This study focuses on the relationship between gender, students’ needs and the physical form of schoolyards. It investigates whether and how the needs of both male and female students influence the physical form of schoolyards in Palestine, as a Middle Eastern country. The aim is to develop a better theoretical understanding of the relationship between the students’ needs based on their gender, and the physical form of schoolyards. The study follows an environmental approach, which is based on the concept of behavioural setting, to analyse the physical form of schoolyards in relation to students' needs. For the validity of results, both quantitative (questionnaire) and qualitative approaches (observations, interviews with planners, and school principals, mental maps drawn by students) are used. Different techniques, such as Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), ethnographic (cultural) techniques, photos and written notes are used. The study finds that the components of the physical form of schoolyards (design, use and rules) are influenced by gender, particularly the design components. There are differences between design, use and rules components of females’ schoolyards and males’ schoolyards. These differences are due to differences between needs of female and male students in schoolyards. Therefore, the study recommends that the components of schoolyards should support different needs of both male and female students.
The benefits of recess can be reaped by all students regardless of socioeconomic status, race, or gender and at relatively little cost. The purpose of this study was to examine physical activity (PA) variables related to the recess PA patterns of third and fourth grade children and the social preferences and individuals influencing their PA (friends and parents). Data were collected on students (N = 115) utilizing the System of Observing Children's Activity and Relationships during Play (SOCARP) instrument. In addition, each child was interviewed during the recess period in which SOCARP was completed. Results found that boys spent significantly more time being very active (t (95.64) = 3.252, d = .62, p < .008) than girls and preferred sport activities (t = (73.62) 5.64, d = 1.14, p < .0125) in large groups (t (69.34) = 4.036, d = .83, p < .0125). Meanwhile, girls preferred locomotor activities (t (113) = 3.19, d = .60, p < .0125), sedentary activities (t (113) = 2.829, d = .53, p < .0125) and smaller groups (t (112.63) = 4.259, d = .79, p < .0125). All 115 participants indicated that they wanted to spend time with their friends during recess.
Chicago Linguistic Society. 2011. Main Session: Volume 47, Issue 1. (Eds.) Abrego-Collier, Carissa, Arum Kang, Martina Martinovic, and Chieu Nguyen. Pp 17-29.
From a survey on gender and sexuality in games played at the school playground during the break, I try to describe the process of inclusion as a researcher in a public school, narrating the various taken decisions that allowed reflection from the point of view of a foreigner in a Brazilian context. I carried out an ethnographic work in groups from the first to the fourth grade, focusing on a second and a third grade groups from the elementary school. In these groups, observations were made at different times of the daily school life, particularly during the school break at the playground and in interviews with the children. The results of the methodological choices permitted a further investigation on the meanings children give to their daily routine and on the ethnographer's task, besides allowing the observation that at the recreation area during the school break non-official and non-intentional learning occurs through which, among other moments in school, children learn how to behave as boys or girls.
Despite efforts toward equality, social rules of gender play a prominent role in leisure especially within the sport and physical activity arena. Recreational and organized sports are common leisure pursuits among children. From an early age, children show signs of recognizing "appropriate" gendered behavior and activities. The goal of this study was to assess the degree to which children are aware of social stereotypes of gender in sport and physical activity and how their awareness affects their participation choices. Results of the study indicate that in terms of gender stereotypes girls experience greater social latitude in their sport participation than boys. The findings suggest support for further investigations into the effects of gender stigmas on boys' participation and experiences in sport and physical activity.
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