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Toward space solar power: Wireless energy transmission experiments past, present and future
Abstract
Solar power is a reality. Today, increasing numbers of photovoltaic and other solar-powered installations are in service around the world and in space. These uses range from the primary electric power source for satellites, remote site scientific experiments and villages in developing countries to augmenting the commercial electric grid and providing partial power for individual businesses and homeowners in developed countries. In space, electricity generated by photovoltaic conversion of solar energy is the mainstay of power for low Earth and geostationary satellite constellations. Still, for all its acceptance as a benign and environmentally friendly energy source, terrestrial solar power has yet to be seriously considered a viable technology for providing base electrical generating capacity. The obvious reason is sunshine on Earth is too unreliable. In addition to the diurnal and seasonal cycles, inclement weather reduces the average daily period and intensity of insolation. However, the Sun shines constantly in space. The challenge is to harvest and transmit the energy from space to Earth. The concept of space solar power based on microwave wireless energy transmission was first put forth more than 25 years ago by Dr. Peter Glaser. We review historical experiments in wireless energy transmission which have brought the technology from a laboratory curiosity to its present status. Results from recent experiments and their implications for wireless energy transmission as an enabling technology for space solar power are reviewed. Current developments are discussed along with proposed terrestrial and space experiments. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
... Recently, MPT has attracted extensive attention. Due to its wireless means of power transfer, MPT is widely used in omnipresent electronic devices, such as space solar power satellites, laptops, mobile phones, modular spacecraft and robot power supplies [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8]. MPT consists of the electromagnetic power radiated by the transmitting antenna and absorbed at the receiving antenna [9,10,11,12]. ...
An analytical model is proposed to calculate the performance on beam collecting efficiency (BCE) of transmitting arrays with excitation errors for microwave power transmission (MPT). Due to the inconsistent output of power amplifiers and the uncertainty of the joint loss of radio frequency (RF) device, the small perturbations will be brought into excitation amplitudes and phases, which will decrease the BCE. This analytical model involves the use of a Taylor series expansion to account for small perturbations in the excitation errors. The mathematical model between the statistical information of excitation perturbations and BCE is directly established. To fully prove the accuracy of the given model, numerous random samples will be used to compare the results of the proposed model and Monte Carlo simulation (MCS). Compared with the MCS, the proposed model does not require much-repeated calculation. The proposed method can be applied at the antenna design stage to effectively evaluate the effect of excitation perturbations on the BCE.
... Research on solar energy is as old as man existence [1,2]. The technology for harvesting solar energy [3,4] keeps involving depending on three main factors i.e. efficiency of the solar device, the sunshine hours over the geographical region and the lifespan of the solar device. The sunshine hours in the tropics are more than in the temperate regions. ...
p>The challenges facing solar power grid system in Africa is huge. Most salient of these challenges is the inefficiency of the photovoltaic (PV) panel to sustain its output for more than a year. Certainly, the harsh weather condition in the region can be said to be one of the reasons for the shortcoming that was earlier highlighted. In this research, bio-filters were suggested to filter the harmful radiation hitting the PV panel. The bio-filter is made up of copper coated hibiscus extract. The hibiscus extract was done using ethanol solution. It was observed that the bio-filter was able to filter the some of the harmful radiation as expected. The quantity of the harmful solar radiation was not estimated because of the limitations of the equipment used for the research. It is recommended that this highlighted shortcoming of the research should be taken further to ascertain i.e. in percentage the harmful radiation that has been filtered by the bio-filter during the experiment.</p
... For mobile and miniature electronic devices, a promising solution is available in capturing and storing the energy from external ambient sources, a technology known as energy harvesting. Other names for this type of technology are power harvesting, energy scavenging, and free energy, which are derived from renewable energy [1]. In recent years, the use of wireless devices is growing in many applications like mobile phones and sensor networks [2]. ...
... Through the analysis, it was found that the performance of WSN systems and its protocols in terms of energy consumption had a strong correlation between transmission distance, mobility, retransmission of control packets and traffic conditions. In the average transmission cost analysis of a grid based sensor network, we found out that the transmission cost in joules per unit meter is directly proportional to both the distance between nodes, (Little et al., 1998). In recent years, the use of wireless devices increases at an alarming rate due to its wide area of applications likes mobile phones and WSNs (Bouchouicha et al., 2010). ...
High efficient routing is an important factor to be considered in the design of limited energy resource Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). WSN environment has limited resources in terms of on-board energy, transmission power, processing, and storage, and this prompt for careful resource management and new routing protocol so as to counteract the challenges. This work first introduces the concept of wireless sensor networks, routing in WSNs, and its design factors as they affect routing protocols. Next, a comprehensive review of the most prominent routing protocols in WSN, from the classical routing protocols to swarm intelligence based protocols is presented. From the literature study, it was found that comparing routing protocols in WSNs is currently a very challenging task for protocol designers. Often, much time is required to re-create and re-simulate algorithms from descriptions in published papers to perform the comparison. Compounding the difficulty is that some simulation parameters and performance metrics may not be mentioned. We then see a need in the research community to have standard simulation and performance metrics for comparing different protocols. To this end, we re-simulate different protocols using a Matlab based simulator; Routing Modeling Application Simulation Environment (RMASE), and gives simulation results for standard simulation and performance metrics which we hope will serve as a benchmark for future comparisons for the research community. Also, from the literature study, Energy Efficient Ant-Based Routing (EEABR) protocol was found to be the most efficient protocol due to its low energy consumption and low memory usage in WSNs nodes. Following this efficient protocol, an Improved Energy Efficient Ant-Based Routing (IEEABR) Protocol was proposed. Simulation were performed using Network Simulator-2 (NS-2), and from the results, our proposed algorithm performs better in terms of energy utilization efficiency, average energy of network nodes, and minimum energy of nodes. We further improved on the proposed protocol and simulation performed in another well-known WSNs MATLAB-based simulator; Routing Modeling Application Simulation Environment (RMASE), using static, mobile and dynamic scenario. Simulation results show that the proposed algorithm increases energy efficiency by up to 9% and 64% in converge-cast and target-tracking scenarios, respectively, over the original EEABR and also found to out-perform other four Ant-based routing protocols. We further show how this algorithm could be used for energy management in sensor network in the presence of energy harvesters. However, high number of control packets is generated by the IEEABR due to the proactive nature of its path establishment. As such, a new routing protocol for WSNs that has less control packets due to its on-demand (reactive) nature is proposed. This new routing protocol termed Termite-hill is borrowed from the principles behind the termite’s mode of communication. We first study the foraging principles of a termite colony and utilize the inspirational concepts to develop a distributed, simple and energy-efficient routing protocol for WSNs. We perform simulation studies to compare the behavior and performance of the Termite-hill design with an existing classical and on-demand protocol (AODV) and other Swarm Intelligence (SI) based WSN protocols in both static, dynamic and mobility scenarios of WSN. The simulation results demonstrate that Termite-hill outperforms its competitors in most of the assumed scenarios and metrics with less latency. Further studies show that the current practice in modeling and simulation of wireless sensor network (WSN) environments has been towards the development of functional WSN systems for event gathering, and optimization of the necessary performance metrics using heuristics and intuition. The evaluation and validation are mostly done using simulation approaches and practical implementations. Simulation studies, despite their wide use and merits of network systems and algorithm validation, have some drawbacks like long simulation times, and practical implementation might be cost ineffective if the system is not properly studied before the design. We therefore argue that simulation based validation and practical implementation of WSN systems and environments should be further strengthened through mathematical analysis. To conclude this work and to gain more insight on the behavior of the termite-hill routing algorithm, we developed our modeling framework for WSN topology and information extraction in a grid based and line based randomly distributed sensor network. We strengthen the work with a model of the effect of node mobility on energy consumption of Termite-hill routing algorithm as a function of event success rate and occasional change in topology. The results of our mathematical analysis were also compared with the simulation results.
... The contamination of landfills by batteries is a worldwide problem. Nearly three billion dry-cell batteries are consumed each year in the United States alone [1]. At the end of their operating life most batteries end in landfills. ...
This paper develops a novel power harvesting system to harvest ambient RF energy to power a wireless sensor. Harvesting ambient RF energy is a very difficult task as the power levels are extremely weak. Simulation results show zero threshold MOSFETs are essential in the RF to DC conversion process. 0.5VDC at the output of the RF to DC conversion stage is the minimum voltage which must be achieved for the micro-power sensor circuitry to operate. The weakest power level the proposed system can successfully harvest is -37dBm. The measured available power from the FM band has been measured to fluctuate between -33 to -43dBm using a ribbon FM dipole antenna. Ambient RF energy would best be used in conjunction with other forms of harvested ambient energy to increase diversity and dependability. The potential economic and environmental benefits make such endeavors truly worthwhile.
... The wireless energy transfer is a process that takes place in any system where electric energy is transmitted from a power source to an electrical load, without involving wires. Wireless transmission is ideal in cases where instantaneous or continuous energy transfer is needed, whereas wired connections are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible [1]. Though the physics of both are related, this is different from wireless transmission for the purpose of transferring images such as television broadcasting, where the percentage of the received power is only important if it becomes too low to successfully recover the signal. ...
... Wireless transmission is advantageous when instant and continuous energy transfer is required. When compared to wired connections, wireless power transmission is better since wired connections are inconvenient, hazardous, or could even be impossible [3]. Though the physics of both are related, it is different on purpose of transferring images such as television broadband, where the percentage of the received power is only important if it becomes too low to successfully recover the signal [4]. ...
... Energy harvesting is one of the best proposed ideas for recharging or even replacing the power source of WSN nodes, which logically results in increased autonomy. Energy harvesting is also known by other terms such as power harvesting, energy scavenging, and free energy (energy derived from renewable energy) [Little et al., 1998]. ...
We introduce a simulation tool for modeling energy harvesting and energy storage technologies with application to wireless sensor networks. Firstly, we provide a concise review of various energy harvesting technologies (solar, wind, thermal, vibrations) that can possibly increase the autonomy of wireless sensor network (WSN) nodes. Secondly, we illustrate the capabilities of the proposed tool by means of outdoor and indoor solar energy harvesting examples. These examples consider four types of WSN nodes (Micaz, Imote2, Dresden-AVR, and TelosB) and two types of storage devices (Li-Ion battery and supercapacitor). The results illustrate how system designers can rapidly assess the feasibility of solar-based energy harvesting for various computational loads on the above WSN nodes. In turn, this could be useful for designing, among others, wearable health monitoring systems making use of e.g. bio-electromagnetic sensors.
... The wireless energy transfer is a process that takes place in any system where electrical energy is transmitted from a power source to an electrical load, without involving wires. Wireless transmission is ideal in cases where instantaneous or continuous energy transfer is needed, whereas wired connections are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible [1]. Though the physics of both are related, this is different from wireless transmission for the purpose of transferring images such as television broadcasting, where the percentage of the received power is only important if it becomes too low to successfully recover the signal. ...
In this paper, we present the review of energy harvesting contained in electromagnetic waves. An overview of existing energy harvesting techniques is discussed, which will motivate researchers to design antenna in the field of electromagnetic energy harvesting. It also focuses on a characteristic of patch antenna for designing Rectenna.
... Energy harvesting is also known by other terms such as power harvesting, energy scavenging, and free energy (energy derived from renewable energy). [1] WSN nodes typically contain various components such as a power source, a microprocessor, an external memory, one or several sensors, A-to-D converters and an RF transceiver. In WSNs, such nodes are linked together by means of a wireless communication system to serve various applications such as; observing the environment, detecting/tracking the movement of objects, monitoring human and structure health, etc. ...
... In power harvesting the required electrical energy for driving the lowpower electronic circuits is collected from the ambient sources around us. The scavenged energy can be in the form of light, temperature, motion and electromagnetic [3]][8][9]. If the harvested power is from electromagnetic sources in the radio frequency (RF) range the method is so called RF power- harvesting [8]. ...
In this article the outcomes of an experimental investigation on the inkjet-printed power harvester for GSM900 band are presented. In this survey, a passive one-stage discrete rectifier and a planar antenna are fabricated on cardboard using inkjet-printing technology. For the rectifier a voltage doubler structure and for the antenna a broadband planar monopole antenna are utilized. Then, the functionality of the whole module is proven by measuring the output voltage in the real environment. The measurement results demonstrate appropriate absorbed voltage level for feeding a low power circuit by the presented power harvester. By the exploitation of the proposed idea, the fabrication of low-cost environmentally-friendly battery-less wireless modules is feasible.
... For mobile and miniature electronics devices, a promising solution is available in capturing and storing the energy from external ambient sources, a technology known as energy harvesting. Other names for this type of technology are power harvesting, energy scavenging and free energy, which are derived from renewable energy [1]. In recent years the use of wireless devices is growing in many applications like mobile phones and sensor networks [2]. ...
Radio Frequency (RF) Energy Harvesting holds a promising future for
generating a small amount of electrical power to drive partial circuits in
wirelessly communicating electronics devices. Reducing power consumption has
become a major challenge in wireless sensor networks. As a vital factor
affecting system cost and lifetime, energy consumption in wireless sensor
networks is an emerging and active research area. This chapter presents a
practical approach for RF Energy harvesting and management of the harvested and
available energy for wireless sensor networks using the Improved Energy
Efficient Ant Based Routing Algorithm (IEEABR) as our proposed algorithm. The
chapter looks at measurement of the RF power density, calculation of the
received power, storage of the harvested power, and management of the power in
wireless sensor networks. The routing uses IEEABR technique for energy
management. Practical and real-time implementations of the RF Energy using
Powercast harvesters and simulations using the energy model of our Libelium
Waspmote to verify the approach were performed. The chapter concludes with
performance analysis of the harvested energy, comparison of IEEABR and other
traditional energy management techniques, while also looking at open research
areas of energy harvesting and management for wireless sensor networks.
Phased arrays have been widely used in microwave power transmission. The efficiency of rectenna is closely related to the received power density. Therefore, it is necessary to accurately analyze the radiation performance of the transmitting array in order to achieve the high-efficiency power transmission. And in order to meet the long-distance and high-efficiency power transmission requirements, the transmitting array needs to have the characteristics of large electricity sizes. The direct numerical analysis method of entire array will bring huge cost in computing time and storage space. Subarray extrapolation is a method to reasonably account for the edge effects of arrays, but only for rectangular arrays. Aiming at the geometric characteristics of the array contour, this communication proposes an irregular contour recognition method. This method can expand the application of subarray extrapolation method and realizes the purpose of accurately evaluating the radiation performance of large array antennas at small calculation cost. Finally, using a large transmitting array as an example, the proposed method is verified by comparing the results of subarray extrapolation, commercial software of entire array and the experimental measurement to validate the correctness and advancement.
This paper applies the phase conjugation method which is equivalent to time reversal in the time, to wireless power transfer using two different retrodirective array configurations: linear uniform transmitting array and non-planar random transmitting array. The method is based on the reciprocity property of the wave equation. The idea is validated by employing 10 transmitting retrodirective antenna array (Tx) placed on the walls of a cubical room and one receiving antenna (Rx) in free space. In the retro-reflective beamforming, wireless power transmission is guided by pilot signals. The Rx broadcasts pilot signals to its surroundings, and based on analyzing these signals, a wireless power transmitter delivers focused power beam onto the Rx. The study is performed for line of sight and non-line of sight (NLOS) locations for the Rx. We calculate the received (Rx) power for different array configurations, and the power flow density inside the room. Simulation results show that applying the reciprocity theorem in both configurations provides significant enhancement in power transfer system efficiency at different Rx locations. Furthermore, results demonstrate that the power beam in reaction to the pilot signal is capable of tracking the mobile device’s location dynamically even if it resides in a NLOS location. When the wireless power receiver resides in the far-zone, a linear array and a random array produce the same power level at the near-zone focal point, but the maximum far-zone gain associated with the random array is on the average 1.5 dB lower than that of the linear array.
In this paper, a simplified model is proposed to calculate the efficiency loss of aperture illumination with phase errors for Microwave Power Transmission quickly. Due to the influence of environmental factors, the antenna surface will deform and the phase errors of aperture illumination will be caused. Then, we give the calculation model of power transmission efficiency with phase errors in the Fresnel region. While, with the introduction of phase errors, the computational model of power transmission efficiency becomes complicated. Inspired by the derivation process of ideal power transmission efficiency, we present a simplified model under the phase errors. In particular, a more simplified model is given for small phase errors. A set of representative numerical experiments dealing with different phase error distributions is analyzed and discussed. And, the correctness of the simplified model is proved by calculating the relative error rate of simplified and accurate model.
In this letter, we proposed a new method integrating the aperture amplitude fields of the receiving and transmitting antennas for improving the efficiency of Microwave Power Transmission. A number of methods have been employed to design the aperture amplitude field of the transmitting antenna of an MPT, but most of these methods rarely considered integrating the design of the aperture amplitude field of the receiving antenna. In this work, the circular antenna aperture amplitude field of two antennas is optimized in order to give the maximum transmission efficiency with the constraint on the radiation levels at the edge of the receiving aperture. Numerical experiments were carried conducted to validate the practicality and productiveness of the method, given different Fresnel numbers. And they verified that the higher PTE than references can be achieved.
Now days, wireless charging is a through-air-charging method with growing popularity and attention. Currently, majority of wireless devices depend on battery power for their functions, and these batteries must be replaced or recharged when depleted; this invariably is a major limitation for remotely located systems. In this paper, a novel collector based on metamaterial particles, in what is known as a Split Ring Resonator (SRR), to harvest electromagnetic energy is proposed and presented. In addition, a critical review on various methods of Wireless Charging Technologies emerged these days was highlighted. There are three found methods of wireless charging; RF Waves harvesting, Inductive charging and Magnetic Resonance. The proposed method is much smaller in size and more efficient than existing collectors (antennas). A feasibility study of SRRs to harvest electromagnetic energy is conducted using a Computer Simulation Technology (CST). When excited by a plane wave with an H-field normal to the structure, a voltage is measured across a surface mount resistive load inserted in the gap of a single lo op SRR. Finally, suggesting some future works of making a 9×9 SRR and loaded the SRR with rectifying circuit to increase its efficiency, applicability and reliability.
The concept of long-range wireless power transmission (WPT) has been formulated shortly after the invention of high power microwave amplifiers. The promise of WPT, energy transfer over large distances without the need to deploy a wired electrical network, led to the development of landmark successful experiments, and provided the incentive for further research to increase the performances, efficiency, and robustness of these technological solutions. In this framework, the key-role and challenges in designing transmitting and receiving antenna arrays able to guarantee high-efficiency power transfer and cost-effective deployment for the WPT system has been soon acknowledged. Nevertheless, owing to its intrinsic complexity, the design of WPT arrays is still an open research field whose importance is growing as the possibility to transfer energy by means of electromagnetic waves gathers more and more interest from the applicative viewpoint. This paper is aimed at reviewing the array design approaches proposed in the state of the art for long-range wireless power transmission, highlighting the latest advances and innovative solutions as well as envisaging possible future trends of the research in this area.
RF energy harvesting holds a promise able future for generating a small amount of electrical power to drive partial circuits in wirelessly communicating electronics devices. This paper presents the overview and progress achieved in RF energy harvesting field. A modified form of existing CMOS based voltage doubler circuit is presented to achieve 160% increase in output power over traditional circuits at 0 dBm input power. A schottky diode based RF energy harvesting circuit performance is also studied with practical and simulations results.
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