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Evidence of decreasing mineral density in wheat grain over the last 160 years
Abstract
Wheat is an important source of minerals such as iron, zinc, copper and magnesium in the UK diet. The dietary intake of these nutrients has fallen in recent years because of a combination of reduced energy requirements associated with sedentary lifestyles and changes in dietary patterns associated with lower micronutrient density in the diet. Recent publications using data from food composition tables indicate a downward trend in the mineral content of foods and it has been suggested that intensive farming practices may result in soil depletion of minerals. The aim of our study was to evaluate changes in the mineral concentration of wheat using a robust approach to establish whether trends are due to plant factors (e.g. cultivar, yield) or changes in soil nutrient concentration. The mineral concentration of archived wheat grain and soil samples from the Broadbalk Wheat Experiment (established in 1843 at Rothamsted, UK) was determined and trends over time examined in relation to cultivar, yield, and harvest index. The concentrations of zinc, iron, copper and magnesium remained stable between 1845 and the mid 1960s, but since then have decreased significantly, which coincided with the introduction of semi-dwarf, high-yielding cultivars. In comparison, the concentrations in soil have either increased or remained stable. Similarly decreasing trends were observed in different treatments receiving no fertilizers, inorganic fertilizers or organic manure. Multiple regression analysis showed that both increasing yield and harvest index were highly significant factors that explained the downward trend in grain mineral concentration.
... There are no reports that corroborate the wheat SWW-HRW class comparison results of Murphy et al. (2008) for the PNW or any other region, as far as we are aware. However, there is a robust collection of scientific studies conducted around the world that demonstrate that grain mineral density of modern wheat varieties is generally lower than historic germplasm, with mineral declines occurring primarily after the introduction of semidwarf varieties in the 1960s (Fan et al., 2008;Ficco et al., 2009;Garvin et al., 2006;Guttieri et al., 2015;Hussain et al., 2012;Shaukat et al., 2021;Zhao et al., 2009). ...
... This can also be the case for micronutrient minerals, depending on soil mineralogy, though less commonly T A B L E 6 Average concentrations of eight minerals in refined flour and flour quality traits of hard red wheat (HRW) and soft white wheat (SWW) varieties tested at the Condon, OR study site. Fan et al., 2008;A. P. Gupta, 2005;Rashid & Ryan, 2004). ...
... One of the most prominent of these comes from a long-term wheat systems study conducted in the UK. In that study, Fan et al. (2008) found that wheat grain mineral concentrations (including Mg, Zn, Fe, and Cu) were largely steady among fertility treatments from 1845 through the mid-1960s, but started to decline at that time. This timing coincided with a period of significant increases in grain yields and harvest index (grain yield as a fraction of total biomass production at maturity) associated with the introduction of shorter semidwarf wheat varieties and ongoing genetic improvement. ...
Studies have generally shown that grain mineral density is lower in modern wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) compared to historic germplasm. The conclusion of a limited study from the US Pacific Northwest (PNW) was that grain mineral density of soft white wheat (SWW) had declined over time to meet already‐low mineral density of hard red wheat (HRW), though little else is known about this. Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to better understand grain mineral density (P, K, Mg, Ca, Mn, Fe, Zn, and Cu) of modern PNW wheats, with subobjectives to compare SWW and HRW wheat classes to each other and worldwide benchmarks, quantify effects of agronomic factors on grain minerals, and evaluate minerals in refined flour. Results indicated whole‐grain mineral density of PNW wheat was comparable to worldwide benchmark concentrations, with P and K most likely low, with no evidence of SWW and HRW class differences. Agronomically, there was significant variation in grain minerals among production sites and wheat varieties that could be utilized to generate mineral‐enriched grain to feed malnourished populations. In the process of refining flour from whole grain, the minerals most reduced were P, Mg, Mn, Fe, Zn, and Cu (60%–90%). Refined flour mineral concentrations were largely unassociated with flour yield or quality parameters, suggesting that efforts to enhance mineral density will not affect other flour traits. Overall, these results illustrate that the mineral density of modern SWW and HRW produced in the PNW are comparable to each other and to wheat globally. Considering reported historical changes, these results suggest a modern, worldwide convergence in mineral density across wheat classes.
... Nutrition problems in sub-Saharan Africa are connected through complex pathways from what is grown on-farm and how soils are managed to dietary intake. Although the Green Revolution encouraged the development of high-yielding staple crops to provide calories to vulnerable populations, it also resulted in decreased micronutrient content due to a dilution effect (Welch and Graham, 2004;Fan et al., 2008). Various programs and stakeholders seeking to address malnutrition have traced clinical micronutrient deficiencies upstream to farm management challenges and sought the help of agronomists to reduce childhood malnutrition (Bezner Kerr et al., 2007). ...
... As agricultural yields of staple grains have increased, there is growing concern that nutrient density is declining, which can contribute to micronutrient deficiencies (Halweil, 2007;Fan et al., 2008). Many of the rural poor affected by these deficiencies cannot afford to regularly consume nutrient-dense animal source foods, relying instead on plantbased sources of vitamins and minerals, including staple grains, roots and tubers. ...
... For cereals, plant breeding for yields have historically led to a dilution of nutrients in the crop (Fan et al., 2008). Interestingly, Velu et al. (2019) found that yield and micronutrient concentrations are controlled via distinct genetic pathways, indicating that it should be possible to breed for both increased yield and micronutrient content. ...
... Scientific reports present data indicating that concentrations of nutritionally essential minerals in wheat have decreased over time in long-term cropping systems experiments (e.g., Fan et al., 2008) and in newer relative to older wheat varieties (Ficco et al., 2009;Garvin et al., 2006;Guttieri et al., 2015;Hussain et al., 2012;Murphy et al., 2008;Shaukat et al., 2021;Zhao et al., 2009). Fan et al. (2008) analyzed grain and soil samples collected over a 160-year timeframe from the Broadbalk Wheat Experiment in the UK and observed decreasing trends in the concentrations of several minerals in grain beginning in the 1960 s. ...
... Scientific reports present data indicating that concentrations of nutritionally essential minerals in wheat have decreased over time in long-term cropping systems experiments (e.g., Fan et al., 2008) and in newer relative to older wheat varieties (Ficco et al., 2009;Garvin et al., 2006;Guttieri et al., 2015;Hussain et al., 2012;Murphy et al., 2008;Shaukat et al., 2021;Zhao et al., 2009). Fan et al. (2008) analyzed grain and soil samples collected over a 160-year timeframe from the Broadbalk Wheat Experiment in the UK and observed decreasing trends in the concentrations of several minerals in grain beginning in the 1960 s. The decreasing trends were coincident with the introduction of semi-dwarf wheat cultivars in the experiment. ...
... The decreasing trends were coincident with the introduction of semi-dwarf wheat cultivars in the experiment. Fan et al. (2008) implicated higher yield, but particularly increased harvest index, of the semi-dwarf cultivars as factors contributing to the decreases. They also concluded that the declines were not associated with changes in soil mineral bioavailability with regular agronomic fertilizer application practices. ...
... Regular monitoring of the nutrient composition of everyday foods is valuable to determine any nutritional changes to the food supply. Concerns about declining mineral density in crops have been raised in overseas research examining historical changes in the nutrient composition of plant-based foods [11,12]. Of particular significance was a 2008 UK study analyzing archived wheat samples that reported decreases in zinc, copper, iron, and magnesium since the 1960s, when higher-yield semi-dwarf cultivars were introduced [11]. ...
... Concerns about declining mineral density in crops have been raised in overseas research examining historical changes in the nutrient composition of plant-based foods [11,12]. Of particular significance was a 2008 UK study analyzing archived wheat samples that reported decreases in zinc, copper, iron, and magnesium since the 1960s, when higher-yield semi-dwarf cultivars were introduced [11]. Further, climate change can potentially impact nutrient content, with reports that mineral concentrations in staple grains were lower under elevated carbon dioxide conditions [13,14]. ...
... One of the world s longest-running field studies is the Broadbalk Continuous Wheat Experiment, commenced in Rothamsted, England, in 1843 [47]. Fan et al., analyzed archived samples from this experiment and found that mean concentrations were 23-27% lower between 1968 and 2005 compared to the previous period (between 1845 and 1967), coinciding with the introduction of higher-yielding cultivars in the 1960s [11]. In the United States, Garvin et al., (2006) examined 14 common wheat varieties (hard red winter wheat) representing the production eras between 1830 and the late 1990s. ...
With a shift towards plant-based diets for human and planetary health, monitoring the mineral content of staple crops is important to ensure population nutrient requirements can be met. This review aimed to explore changes in the iron content of unprocessed wheat and rice in Australia over time. A comprehensive systematic search of four electronic databases and the gray literature was conducted. A total of 25 papers published between 1930 and 2023 that measured the iron content of unprocessed wheat and rice were included. Triticum aestivum was the most common wheat type studied, including 26 cultivars; iron content ranged from 40 to 50 µg/g in the 1930s and 1970s and was more variable after this time due to the introduction of modern cultivars, with most values between 25 and 45 µg/g. The iron content of rice (Oryza sativa) was more consistent at 10–15 µg/g between the 1980s and 2020s. Variations over the years may be attributed to environmental, biological, and methodological factors but these were not well documented across all studies, limiting the interpretation of findings. As the number of individuals following plant-based diets continues to rise, the ongoing monitoring of the mineral content in commonly consumed plant-based foods is warranted.
... The 'ionome' represents mineral nutrients and trace elements composition of an organism relevant to biological or environmental significance 15,16 . A few preliminary reports have shown a declining trend in grain loading of essential minerals in the modern cereal cultivars [17][18][19][20] , out of genetic exclusion of traits related to enhancing grain mineral loading 21,22 . This could jeopardize lives of millions of people subsisting on cereal-diets since cereals are also inheritably poor in mineral elements and their bioavailability 23,24 . ...
... Fan et al. 18 and recently Debnath et al. 25 reported that decrease in grain minerals density in cereals was not related with their depletion in the soils. It possibly hints out of a disruption in crop plants' inherent intricate regulatory mechanisms for balanced uptake and distribution of mineral nutrients inadvertently created in course of the past breeding programs. ...
... It possibly hints out of a disruption in crop plants' inherent intricate regulatory mechanisms for balanced uptake and distribution of mineral nutrients inadvertently created in course of the past breeding programs. In the present study, we tried to unearth the existence and the extent, if there be any, of such a problem of altered grain mineral content with widely adopted (each at least > 5.0 m ha) sixteen (16) and eighteen (18) landmark high-yielding cultivars of rice and wheat, respectively in India released decade-wise during the past 50 y since the beginning of green revolution in 1960s. We further assessed the possible impacts of the existence of such an altered grain mineral content on mineral diet quality (MDQ) of their grains and its manifestations on human health with prediction for a near future. ...
The ‘Green Revolution (GR)’ has been successful in meeting food sufficiency in India, but compromising its nutritional security. In a first, we report altered grain nutrients profile of modern-bred rice and wheat cultivars diminishing their mineral dietary significance to the Indian population. To substantiate, we evaluated grain nutrients profile of historical landmark high-yielding cultivars of rice and wheat released in succeeding decades since the GR and its impacts on mineral diet quality and human health, with a prediction for decades ahead. Analysis of grain nutrients profile shows a downward trend in concentrations of essential and beneficial elements, but an upward in toxic elements in past 50 y in both rice and wheat. For example, zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) concentration in grains of rice decreased by ~ 33.0 (P < 0.001) and 27.0% (P < 0.0001); while for wheat it decreased by ~ 30.0 (P < 0.0001) and 19.0% (P < 0.0001) in past more than 50 y, respectively. A proposed mineral-diet quality index (M-DQI) significantly (P < 0.0001) decreased ~ 57.0 and 36.0% in the reported time span (1960–2010) in rice and wheat, respectively. The impoverished M-DQI could impose hostile effects on non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like iron-deficiency anemia, respiratory, cardiovascular, and musculoskeletal among the Indian population by 2040. Our research calls for an urgency of grain nutrients profiling before releasing a cultivar of staples like rice and wheat in the future.
... Modern wheat varieties, for instance, have 19%-28% lower concentrations of minerals such as zinc, iron, and magnesium compared to older varieties (Fanzo et al. 2018). Similarly, Fan et al. (2008) reported a significant decrease in the concentration of important minerals in wheat grains over the last 160 years. At the same time, they highlighted that the iron content in modern wheat varieties has significantly decreased compared to traditional varieties. ...
... Several mechanisms contribute to the reduction in nutritional quality in HYVs. One primary factor is the "dilution effect," where increased carbohydrate content in high-yield crops leads to a proportional decrease in protein and micronutrient concentrations (Fan et al. 2008). This effect is particularly evident in cereals like wheat and rice, which form the dietary foundation for millions of people worldwide (Fahad et al. 2017;Nsafon, Lee, and Huh 2020;). ...
Hidden hunger, characterized by micronutrient deficiencies despite adequate caloric intake, affects over 2 billion people globally, primarily due to deficits in iron, vitamin A, and iodine. This phenomenon underscores a critical paradox in global food security: the Green Revolution, which significantly increased crop production through high‐yielding varieties (HYVs) of staple crops, has simultaneously contributed to widespread nutritional deficiencies. This article examines the dual legacy of the Green Revolution, exploring how its emphasis on yield over nutritional quality has led to decreased concentrations of essential micronutrients in staple crops, exacerbating hidden hunger. The extensive use of synthetic fertilizers, while boosting crop yields, has resulted in environmental degradation and economic burdens for smallholder farmers. Additionally, the shift towards dietary monoculture has reduced agricultural biodiversity and increased the prevalence of diet‐related non‐communicable diseases. Through diverse case studies from India, Zambia, Guatemala, the Philippines, Brazil, Mexico, and Ethiopia, this article illustrates various strategies to combat hidden hunger, including biofortification, multisectoral approaches, and sustainable agricultural practices. This article highlights the necessity for a multifaceted approach that integrates improved agricultural practices, dietary diversity, and supportive policies to enhance food security and public health. By addressing both caloric and nutritional needs, this comprehensive strategy aims to build resilient food systems that ensure a sustainable agricultural future.
... Several studies have suggested wild and primitive accessions of wheat as potential iron-enriched sources, and a general trend towards a reduction in the average iron grain concentration was detected moving from wild to domesticated wheat and from diploid (einkorn, Ae. tauschii) to polyploid (durum and bread wheat) species [13][14][15]. Significant diversity also exists within cultivars, since the literature data for durum and bread wheat report grain iron concentrations in a range from 24 to 65 mg/kg (more frequently between 40 and 50) depending on the genotypes and environmental conditions [16][17][18][19][20]. Furthermore, several studies have suggested that iron grain content is up to 20% lower in modern semidwarf cultivars compared to pre-green revolution genotypes [21][22][23], a finding associated with a dilution effect due to the increased yield of modern wheat varieties [24]. ...
... In many age groups, the current mean iron intake is lower than the recommendations; nevertheless, the situation is expected to become worse in the near future considering that in Italy, the most significant contribution of iron to the diet comes from cereals [62] and that the increase in atmospheric [CO 2 ] [31][32][33] as well as the general breeding trend [21][22][23][24] contribute to a reduction in the iron content. Meyers et al. (2014) demonstrated significant losses of iron in wheat and rice in crops grown in open fields under elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide conditions. ...
Background and aim: Cereals’ iron content is a major contributor to dietary iron intake in Europe and a potential for biofortification. A simulation of daily iron intake from wheat and rice over the next 20 years will be quantified. Methods: Food items, and energy and iron intake by age classes are estimated using the Italian dietary survey (IV SCAI). Iron intake and adequacy estimation trends were categorized in four scenarios compared to a baseline (basic scenario; only climate change effects): over wheat and rice biofortification effects (scenario 1); over the shift in whole wheat consumption of up to 50% of the total amount of wheat-based foods (scenario 2); over the shift in brown rice consumption up to 100% of the total amount of rice (scenario 3); over the cumulative effects of biofortifications and whole wheat and brown rice consumption (scenario 4). Results: Increasing the iron intake from wheat and rice biofortification and the shift in whole wheat consumption is similar and sufficient to recover the baseline iron depletion effect due to climate change. The shift in brown rice consumption produces a negligible increment in iron intake. The cumulative effects of the corrective actions considered in the scenarios can significantly reduce the iron intake inadequacy, despite not reaching the recommended levels. Conclusions: Corrective actions including biofortification and whole grain consumption are still far from ensuring the full recovery in children and females of fertile age as at-risk groups of iron deficiency. Further actions are needed considering other biofortified food sources, fortified foods, and/or dietary food diversification.
... We observed a negative correlation between GrAsc and thousand kernel weight (TKW) ( Table 2), a phenomenon commonly referred to as the dilution effect, where higher dry weight per unit leads to lower element content (Fan et al. 2008;Murphy et al. 2008). As TKW increases, As content per unit weight decreases. ...
Aims
Arsenic (As) is a highly toxic metalloid that can accumulate in wheat, posing significant human health risks. However, the genetic basis underlying As accumulation in wheat grains remains largely unexplored.
Methods
This study utilized a recombinant inbred line (RIL) population derived from an endemic tetraploid wheat variety and a wild emmer accession. Phenotypic data were collected from three field environments and a pot experiment with three As levels.
Results
Seven quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with grain As concentration (GrAsc) were identified. Among these, two major QTL—QGrAsc.sau-AM-1A and QGrAsc.sau-AM-4A— were located on chromosomes 1A and 4A, respectively, and were detected in over four environments. These loci, which explained 7.96% to 12.51% and 10.20% to 21.45% of phenotypic variance, respectively, and were successfully validated using Kompetitive Allele-Specific PCR (KASP) markers in a natural population. Additionally, four wheat varieties with low As concentrations were screened using KASP markers. Comparisons with previous studies suggest that these two major QTL are likely novel. Furthermore, the effects of QGrAsc.sau-AM-1A and QGrAsc.sau-AM-4A on GrAsc were analyzed. Candidate genes related to As uptake and transport were predicted to be associated with these loci. Correlation analysis between GrAsc and nine agronomic traits revealed a significant negative correlation with thousand kernel weight (TKW). Additionally, QGrAsc.sau-AM-1A was found to significantly increase spikelet number per spike, while QGrAsc.sau-AM-4A was associated with increased spike density. Overall, these results suggest that QGrAsc.sau-AM-1A and QGrAsc.sau-AM-4A are promising loci for further fine mapping and molecular breeding aimed at reducing As accumulation in wheat.
Conclusions
Two novel, major QTL—QGrAsc.sau-AM-1A and QGrAsc.sau-AM-4A— were identified for grain arsenic concentration. Their effects were validated in a natural wheat population, offering the potential for marker-assisted selection (MAS) and molecular breeding.
... The modest negative correlation between grain yield and micronutrients in modern cultivars presents a challenge in breeding for plants that are both high-yielding and rich in micronutrients 68,[71][72][73] . In our study negative correlations were found between Fe concentration and agronomic traits including grain weight, number per spike, days to maturity. ...
Evaluation of genetic biodiversity for micronutrients is crucial for breeding high-quality crops and addressing the negative impacts of mineral deficiencies. The objectives of this research were to assess genetic variation and the relationship between grain Fe and Zn levels and agronomic traits in a diverse collection of wheat varieties. Additionally, the study aimed to determine the correlation between microsatellite markers (SSR) and micronutrient quantities. A total of 42 genotypes (Iranian commercial cultivars, landraces, and Afghan and Swiss varieties) were evaluated over a two-year period. Fe and Zn levels were measured using two semi quantitative staining assays and atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) facility. Semi-quantitative staining methods and AAS showed high correlations for micronutrient contents. Landraces exhibited higher Fe (63.79 mg/kg) and Zn (44.76 mg/kg) but lower grain yield compared with commercial cultivars. Heritability estimates ranged 53%-79.43%, suggesting that genetic variance played a higher contribution in the phenotypic variation of traits than environmental factors. Notably, Fe content displayed significant correlations with days to maturity. Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) revealed that Zn content was correlated with four agronomic traits. Evaluation of genetic diversity using SSR markers demonstrated high genetic variation among the genotypes tested. The analysis of polymorphism information content (PIC) indicated that SSR primers had an average PIC of 0.75, with the Xgwm192 primer exhibiting higher PIC than others. Several SSR markers revealed association with micronutrient content that can be used in marker-assisted selection (MAS) programs aimed at selection of high micronutrient genotypes. In conclusion, the findings underscored the substantial genetic diversity present in micronutrient levels among global wheat genotypes, the potential of landraces for micronutrients biofortification of wheat cultivars through cross hybridization, the utility of staining methods for screening high/low micronutrient genotypes, and use of microsatellite markers for marker-assisted breeding aiming to micronutrient improvement in breeding programs.
... The decrease in mineral concentration of common bean seed could be caused by decreased translocation of nutrients from vegetative organs to grain and/ or dilution by dry matter accumulation. Although grain mineral levels are reported to rise with increasing seed weight (Fan et al. 2008;Gu et al. 2015), in this study, we observed the opposite. This may be attributed to breeders selecting solely for grain yield, and not for grain quality, which has contributed to a reduction in grain nutrient concentrations. ...
Low soil mineral concentrations are a major limitation to the nutritional quality of grain crops produced in Africa. As a result, 232 million people are suffering from microelement deficiency and 239 million from protein‐calorie malnutrition in Africa. This study evaluated the nutritional quality of common bean grain harvested from 63 genotypes planted at Malkerns in Eswatini. The results showed significantly marked differences in the concentrations of 10 dietarily important nutrient elements. Of the macronutrients, Na levels showed the highest variation (12.00–91.00 mg/g) among the 63 bean genotypes, followed by K (14.03–22.03 mg/g) and P (3.30–9.57 mg/g), with Mg (1.57–2.30 mg/g) and Ca (0.80–2.68 mg/g) concentrations exhibiting the least difference among the bean genotypes. Of the micronutrients, Fe levels revealed the highest variation (66.36–151.08 mg/kg), followed by Zn (23.57–70.72 mg/kg) and Mn (11.53–26.84 mg/kg), with B (10.06–17.65 mg/kg) and Cu (6.30–13.67 mg/kg) exhibiting relatively lower differences among the 63 common bean genotypes. However, genotype NUC 461 recorded the highest grain concentrations of P, K, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, and B, followed by DAB 155, which also revealed high levels of P, K, Ca, Fe, Zn, and Mn in its seeds. For improved human health and nutrition, the two bean genotypes would be the ideal candidates to recommend to commercial bean growers and resource‐poor farmers. However, the mechanisms underlying the greater accumulation of six to seven dietarily important nutrient elements by genotypes NUC 461 and DAB 155 remain to be determined.
... Unlike, protein concentration which increased with CC, iron and zinc concentrations decreased with CC. A diluting effect, generated by a greater rise in grain production than in grain nutrient accumulation, might result in a drop in Fe and Zn concentrations (Oury et al 2006, Morgounov et al 2007, Fan et al 2008. The observed increase in wheat yields and the concurrent decrease Figure 11. ...
Wheat’s nutritional value is critical for human nutrition and food security. However, more attention is needed, particularly regarding the content and concentration of iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn), especially in the context of climate change (CC) impacts. To address this, various controlled field experiments were conducted, involving the cultivation of three wheat cultivars over three growing seasons at multiple locations with different soil and climate conditions under varying Fe and Zn treatments. The yield and yield attributes, including nutritional values such as nitrogen (N), Fe and Zn, from these experiments were integrated with national yield statistics from other locations to train and test different machine learning (ML) algorithms. Automated ML leveraging a large number of models, outperformed traditional ML models, enabling the training and testing of numerous models, and achieving robust predictions of grain yield (GY) (R² > 0.78), N (R² > 0.75), Fe (R² > 0.71) and Zn (R² > 0.71) through a stacked ensemble of all models. The ensemble model predicted GY, N, Fe, and Zn at spatial explicit in the mid-century (2020–2050) using three Global Circulation Models (GCMs): GFDL-ESM4, HadGEM3-GC31-MM, and MRI-ESM2-0 under two shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) specifically SSP2-45 and SSP5-85, from the downscaled NEX-GDDP-CMIP6. Averaged across different GCMs and SSPs, CC is projected to increase wheat yield by 4.5%, and protein concentration by 0.8% with high variability. However, it is expected to decrease Fe concentration by 5.5%, and Zn concentration by 4.5% in the mid-century (2020–2050) relative to the historical period (1980–2010). Positive impacts of CC on wheat yield encountered by negative impacts on nutritional concentrations, further exacerbating challenges related to food security and nutrition.
... Spelt grain is rich in protein, and some varieties contain a significant amount of starch and fat. Biel et al. (2021) and Fan et al. (2008) showed that potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, and calcium had the highest concentrations among the analyzed macronutrients in wheat grain. Therefore, the above-mentioned authors advocated for increased consumption of whole grain bread or bread made from ancient wheat varieties. ...
Consumers are increasingly seeking bakery products with better nutritional value and health benefits. The aim of the research was to assess the quality of bread made from ancient wheat flours (spelt, einkorn, emmer) with the addition of amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.), hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) and flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) seeds. The study evaluated bread made using only equal proportions of ancient wheat flours (Group I), and three variants of bread with the addition of amaranth, flax, and hemp seeds with the following proportions: Group II (10%, 5%, 5%, respectively), Group III (10%, 10%, 0%, respectively), Group IV (10%, 0%, 10%, respectively). The assessment of bread quality included: nutritional value (total protein, fat, fatty, amino acids, acid profile, ash, fiber, minerals), caloric value, physical characteristics (baking loss, color, shear force) and evaluation of organoleptic characteristics. It was demonstrated that bread enriched with amaranth, flax, and hemp seeds exhibited increased nutritional value (higher protein content with a favorable amino acid profile, higher fat content, including polyunsaturated fatty acids, and fiber), acceptable sensory attributes, but darker crust color and poorer crumb texture compared to bread without these additives. Among the examined groups, the highest protein and fat content with a favorable composition of fatty acids were observed in bread from Group IV. Group III bread had the highest hardness and fiber content and fiber content. On the other hand, bread from Group II received the best evaluation in terms of taste, aroma, as well as crust thickness.
... Furthermore, the improved agronomic performance of the barley selected lines, induced an indirect positive effect on grain protein content with most of the selected high yielding lines to maintain or even improve their protein content in comparison to their source material. Such results are very promising, particularly under the view of a global trend that has been reported toward the lowering of grain quality in high yielding agronomic conditions and among modern cultivars, because breeders are selecting for grain yield but not for quality (Fan et al., 2008;Laidig et al., 2017;Marcos-Barbero et al., 2021). Nevertheless, as Simmonds (1996) highlighted, despite the consensus for strongly negative correlations between grain yield and protein content in cereals a positive expected relationship also holds by making, however, some compromises between attainable high yield or high protein content. ...
Rainfall and temperature are unpredictable factors in Mediterranean environments that result in irregular environmental conditions for crop growth, thus being a critical source of uncertainty for farmers. This study applied divergent single-plant selection for high and low yield within five barley varieties and two Tunisian landraces under semi-arid conditions at an ultra-low density of 1.2 plants/m 2 for two consecutive years. Progeny evaluation under dense stands following farmers' practices was conducted in two semi-arid locations in Tunisia during one cropping season and in one location during a second season, totalling three environments. The results revealed significant genotypic effects for all recorded agronomic and physiological traits. No genotype × environment interaction was shown for biological yield, implying a biomass buffering capacity for selected lines under different environmental conditions. However, genotype × environment interaction was present in terms of grain yield since plasticity for biomass production under drought stress conditions was not translated directly to yield compensation for some of the lines. Nevertheless, several lines selected for high yield were identified to surpass their source material and best checks in each environment, while one line (IH4-4) outperformed consistently by 62.99% on average, in terms of grain yield, the best check across all environments. In addition, improved agronomic performance under drought conditions induced an indirect effect on some grain quality traits. Most of the lines selected for high yield maintained or even improved their grain protein content in comparison to their source material (average increase by 2.33%). On the other hand, most of the lines selected for low yield indicated a poor agronomic performance, further confirming the coherence between selection under ultra-low density and performance under dense stand.
... However, the relative increase of Zn uptake into grain varied among barley varieties, and Concerto that in general uptakes less Zn in grain showed a relative lower increase (2021 vs 2020) respect to the other genotypes (Fig. 5b). Our data are in agreement with the results of a large study on the variability of grain Zn concentration in many wheat cultivars (Fan et al. 2008). ...
In barley cultivation, high use of mineral fertilisers in combination with low crop nutrient use efficiency results in severe environmental and economic issues. In this context, inoculants with indigenous arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) could represent an efficient solution where intensive agriculture negatively impacted soil AM fungal abundance and diversity. However, since crop breeding and environment can strongly affect plant mycorrhizal response, in this work, we tested the agro-ecological effect of field inoculation with a indifìgenous AM fungal consortium on three varieties of barley for two years. In 2020, when soil was clay loam with very low P availability and no drought stress, Atomo and Concerto varieties positively responded to inoculation in terms of AM fungal traits, whereas in 2021, with silty clay loam soil, low P availability and drough stress, only Concerto was responsive. In 2020, inoculation promoted grain yield by 64% and 37% in Atomo and Concerto, and in 2021 by 78% and 134% in Concerto and Atlante. Multivariate analysis highlighted a strong effect of environment on barley productivity and a third-order significant interaction AMF, genotype and environment (65% and 7% of explained variance). Inoculation slightly modified AM fungal composition, it strongly modified, together with plant growth stage, the AM fungal community structures. A significant relationship between root AM fungal abundance and barley productivity was highlighted, with arbuscules as best predictor. Accordingly, changes in AM fungal root community structure and not in composition drove barley response and the main players were Glomus sp. VTX00342 and Septoglomus sp. VTX00064, putative members of the local AM inoculum. The general positive barley productivity outcome supports the use of indigenous AMF for building efficient and ecologically safe inoculants and their inclusion in sustainable agriculture. Nevertheless, the selection of genotypes with stable AM fungal response in specific climatic conditions is crucial in biofertilization programmes.
... However, wellconducted comparisons of some modern versus old crop varieties grown side-by-side and archived samples revealed that some modern cultivars had lower concentrations of selected nutrients than older cultivars. This dilution effect, where yield is prioritised over nutrients, was particularly evident in semi-dwarf wheat cultivars introduced in the mid-1960s [21]. Conversely, other cultivars were found to have higher concentrations of selected nutrients, likely due to genetically based variation between horticultural crop genotypes [23,38]. ...
Declines in the mineral content of food have been reported in several countries. This study monitored reported changes in the mineral content of plant foods in Australian food composition databases between 1991 and 2022. Commonly consumed plant foods (n = 130), grouped as fruit, vegetables, legumes, grains, and nuts in raw unprocessed form, were matched between three reference databases from 1991, 2010, and 2022. Absolute and percentage differences in mineral content (iron, zinc, calcium, and magnesium) were calculated. During this 30-year period, 62 matched foods had updated mineral content. Iron content decreased significantly for fruit (48%) and vegetables (20%), although absolute differences were small (0.09–0.14 mg/100 g). Zinc content declined by 15% for fruit (<0.1 mg/100 g, absolute difference 0.03 mg/100 g), but no differences were observed for calcium and magnesium content. Potential reasons for any reported differences could not be explored using food composition data alone, likely due to biological, agricultural, and/or analytical factors. Nutritionally, these small differences are unlikely to have a major impact on the population’s nutritional status, although efforts to improve fruit and vegetable consumption are encouraged to meet recommendations.
... The concentrations of micronutrients such as Zn, Fe, Cu, and Se remained stable between 1845 and the mid-1960s. However, they have significantly decreased since then, coinciding with the introduction of semi-dwarf, high-yielding wheat cultivars [26][27][28]. Wheat landraces and wild relatives are the potential genetic resources that serve as a reservoir of natural variation for improving micronutrient concentration. Several studies have been undertaken over the last two decades to investigate the diversity of grain Zn, Fe, Se and Cu concentrations in wheat varieties and landraces [2][3][4]10, . ...
Background
Biofortification represents a promising and sustainable strategy for mitigating global nutrient deficiencies. However, its successful implementation poses significant challenges. Among staple crops, wheat emerges as a prime candidate to address these nutritional gaps. Wheat biofortification offers a robust approach to enhance wheat cultivars by elevating the micronutrient levels in grains, addressing one of the most crucial global concerns in the present era.
Main text
Biofortification is a promising, but complex avenue, with numerous limitations and challenges to face. Notably, micronutrients such as iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), selenium (Se), and copper (Cu) can significantly impact human health. Improving Fe, Zn, Se, and Cu contents in wheat could be therefore relevant to combat malnutrition. In this review, particular emphasis has been placed on understanding the extent of genetic variability of micronutrients in diverse Triticum species, along with their associated mechanisms of uptake, translocation, accumulation and different classical to advanced approaches for wheat biofortification.
Conclusions
By delving into micronutrient variability in Triticum species and their associated mechanisms, this review underscores the potential for targeted wheat biofortification. By integrating various approaches, from conventional breeding to modern biotechnological interventions, the path is paved towards enhancing the nutritional value of this vital crop, promising a brighter and healthier future for global food security and human well-being.
... Food nutrient density: Various studies show that the nutrient density of food has decreased by up to 50% for various minerals worldwide in recent decades (Davis, 2009;Ekholm et al., 2007;Fan et al., 2008). Reasons range from breeding for yield to intensive mineral fertilization to loss of soil fertility and soil life. ...
Proponents of Conservation Agriculture (CA) believe that by not tilling the soil, climate-friendly agriculture is achieved by reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture and by storing atmospheric carbon in the soil. However, some scientists question climate benefits of CA. Literature shows that carbon storage through soil organic carbon (SOC) accumulation of up to 1 t ha–1 y–1 is possible without increasing nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions under a CA system. Opposing studies were flawed by analysing not complete CA systems and leaving out some of the principles. It is shown that each tillage operation releases up to 300 kg carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e) per hectare, and each of the average annual 10 t ha–1 of eroded topsoil can emit additional 300 kg CO2e ha–1. A case study in Germany confirms these findings that with full application of CA the carbon footprint of agricultural food production can be significantly decreased, helping to mitigate climate change. It is concluded that net soil carbon storage is possible if all the principles of CA are consistently implemented. It is also concluded that together with other complementary production measures, CA has the potential to make agriculture carbon neutral.
... Additionally, the statistical design differed markedly between these two experiments, with the work of Decreases in grain [Zn] and [Fe] with increasing yield have only rarely been well-quantified compared to grain protein dilutions, but existing data indicate consistent micronutrient dilutions with yield (Oury et al., 2006). Fan et al. (2008) (Miner et al., 2022a). An experiment conducted at two locations in Kansas, USA utilized a wide range of hard winter wheat varieties with differing yield potentials, and found slightly larger declines in Zn (e.g., 2 and 3 mg kg − 1 per 1000 kg ha − 1 increase in yields), with significant effects of study location on yield-adjusted micronutrient concentrations (Garvin et al., 2006). ...
Context: Global nutritional health outcomes are directly reliant on agroecosystem nutrient outputs. Appropriately , there is concern surrounding the impacts of a changing climate not only on crop yields, but also on crop nutritional quality (e.g., mineral nutrient concentrations). Quantifying the impacts of elevated CO 2 concentrations , elevated temperature, drought stress, edaphic factors, and agronomic management on crop yields and mineral nutrition is critical, yet a systems-level understanding of these interactive factors is poorly developed, limiting our ability to effectively target solutions. Empirical data for climate impacts on crop nutritional quality remain scarce, with much of the research emerging from valuable, but geographically limited, Free-air CO 2 Enrichment (FACE) experiments, several of which suggest that human nutrition will be adversely impacted by e [CO 2 ]. Specific concerns center on observed declines in grain protein, iron, and zinc concentrations due to already widespread human nutritional deficiencies in these nutrients. Objectives: As global change experiments expand to pursue questions regarding interactive climate impacts on crop yields and nutritional quality, it is imperative to interrogate the measurements, data standardization, and metadata needed for unifying synthesis. The data reported for shifts in crop nutritional quality are often incomplete, precluding the generalizability and comparability of results. Methods: We frame this review around six inter-reliant methods, tools, and practices to support maximally useful experimental datasets to inform questions of global change impacts on crop nutrition and aid in detecting genotypic differences in mineral nutrient density. The bulk of the data and discussion centers on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) due to the central role this crop plays in human nutrition and sustained biofortification efforts. Results: To permit experimental comparability and synthesis, datasets should (1) clearly delineate analytical methods and standards and (2) link mean nutrient concentrations with the covariate of yield. (3) Multi-year, multi-location data is required to identify genotypes with significant deviations in nutrient concentrations, with (4) data normalized for yield within appropriate analytical frameworks. (5) Inclusion of data on soil properties, weather, and abiotic and biotic stresses as well as (6) agronomic practices and nutrient management is essential for understanding global change impacts on nutritional outcomes. Conclusions: Coordinated, multi-dimensional data will permit the syntheses and meta-analyses needed to identify and quantify climate impacts on nutrition. Implications: This work is essential to effectively target nutritional solutions, to develop modeling tools to support nutritional planning, and to identify areas where agronomic management and breeding can minimize climate impacts on nutritional outcomes.
... Too much readily available N, less accessibility to micronutrients, regular irrigation facilities, and intensive agricultural practices have depleted micronutrients from the soil, which obviously tends to diminish the nutrient density of crops [48,49]. A significant difference in mineral content between cultivars has been observed in many horticultural crops including potato, tomato, cucurbits, raspberry, and broccoli [21,44,50]. Traditionally grown tomatoes, cucurbits, okra, and chili were extremely low-yielding, but contained higher nutrient density, distinct taste quality, and organoleptic properties [14]. ...
In the last sixty years, there has been an alarming decline in food quality and a decrease in a wide variety of nutritionally essential minerals and nutraceutical compounds in imperative fruits, vegetables, and food crops. The potential causes behind the decline in the nutritional quality of foods have been identified worldwide as chaotic mineral nutrient application, the preference for less nutritious cultivars/crops, the use of high-yielding varieties, and agronomic issues associated with a shift from natural farming to chemical farming. Likewise, the rise in atmospheric or synthetically elevated carbon dioxide could contribute to the extensive reductions in the nutritional quality of fruits, vegetables, and food crops. Since ancient times, nutrient-intense crops such as millets, conventional fruits, and vegetables have been broadly grown and are the most important staple food, but the area dedicated to these crops has been declining steadily over the past few decades and hastily after the green revolution era due to their poorer economic competitiveness with major commodities such as high-yielding varieties of potato, tomato, maize, wheat, and rice. The majority of the population in underdeveloped and developing countries have lower immune systems, are severely malnourished, and have multiple nutrient deficiency disorders due to poor dietary intake and less nutritious foods because of ignorance about the importance of our traditional nutrient-rich diets and ecofriendly organic farming methods. This critical review emphasizes the importance of balance and adequate nutrition as well as the need to improve soil biodiversity and fertility: those are main causes behind the decline in nutritional density. There is also emphasis on a possible way out of alleviating the decline nutritional density of food crops for the health and well-being of future generations.
... It has been observed that, after the introduction of semi-dwarf and high-yielding wheat cultivars in 1965, there was a decrease in micronutrient concentrations in grains. Speci cally, iron (Fe) levels decreased by 23-27%, zinc (Zn) by 33-49%, copper (Cu) by 25-39%, and magnesium (Mg) by 29 − 27% [29]. Nutritional imbalances or variations, along with gene biodiversity, can be adversely affected by changes in the agricultural ecosystem and soil environment, particularly impacting most varieties. ...
... In EXP2, the concentrations of most minerals were in line with those reported in the literature [41][42][43], except for B, Cu, and Zn, which showed concentrations nearly twice as high as the values reported in the literature, while the concentration of Fe was relatively low. The concentrations of most minerals were notably elevated in all EXP3 treatments compared to the values reported in the literature. ...
Cultivating wheat (Triticum aestivum) in a closed environment offers applications in both indoor farming and in outer-space farming. Tailoring the photoperiod holds potential to shorten the growth cycle, thereby increasing the annual number of cycles. As wheat is a long-day plant, a night shorter than a critical length is required to induce flowering. In growth chambers, experiments were conducted to examine the impact of a 6 h light–dark cycle on the timing of wheat ear emergence, grain yield, and flour quality. Under equal daily light-integral conditions, the 6 h light–dark cycle promoted growth and development, resulting in accelerated ear emergence when compared to a 12 h cycle, additionally indicating that 12 h of darkness was excessive. To further stimulate heading and increase yield, the 6 h cycle was changed at the onset of stem elongation to a 14 h–10 h, mimicking spring conditions, and maintained until maturity. This successful transition was then combined with two levels of light intensity and nutrient solution, which did not significantly impact yield, while tillering and grain ripening did increase under higher light intensities. Moreover, it enabled manipulation of the baking quality, although lower-end falling numbers were observed. In conclusion, combining a 6 h light–dark cycle until stem elongation with a 14 h–10 h cycle presents a promising strategy for increasing future wheat production in closed environments. The observation of low falling numbers underscores the importance of factoring in flour quality when designing the wheat-growing systems of the future.
... Food is the main source of Mg nutrition for humans. However, several studies have shown that Mg concentrations in cereal grains and other food products have declined over the past several decades (Fan et al. 2008;Ficco et al. 2009;Guo et al. 2016;Grzebisz 2013). Unfortunately, Mg deficiency is becoming more common in agricultural production worldwide (Ishfaq et al. 2022). ...
Purpose
The application of magnesium (Mg) fertilizer to alleviate Mg deficiency and improve crop yield has gained wide recognition. However, high Mg leaching loss is a growing concern in high rainfall areas, especially in acidic soils. Developing Mg fertilizer with less risk of leaching and adequate Mg supply to crops in a convenient way is worth considering in agricultural production.
Methods
In this study, five Mg-fortified mono-ammonium phosphate (MAP) fertilizers were produced with anhydrous magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) in various ratios. Nutrient solubility, Mg nutrient release, Mg leaching, and agronomic effectiveness under rainfall conditions in an acidic soil were evaluated.
Results
Addition of the Mg sources to the MAP fertilizer did not affect P solubility of the fertilizer. The MAP fertilizers fortified with both MgSO4 and dolomite showed an initially fast release of Mg followed by slower release. In a pot experiment with simulated rainfall, the amount of Mg leached significantly decreased with increasing proportion of dolomite in the Mg-fortified fertilizers, which varied from 19.1% for the MgSO4 treatment to 3.8% for the dolomite treatment. Shoot dry matter yield and Mg concentration of soybean were higher for treatments with Mg-fortified MAP than for MAP-only.
Conclusions
The use of dual-release Mg sources in macronutrient fertilizers could be a promising strategy to better meet crop Mg demands and effectively reduce Mg leaching losses, especially in sandy soils of high rainfall areas.
... The soil sampling and analysis were done following the protocol described by Yusefi-Tanha et al. 11 . The physicochemical analysis of soil samples like electrical conductivity (EC) and the pH estimation was done using a pH meter (pH510 Eutech and EC meter CON 510 Eutech instruments, India) by preparing soil: water suspension 1:10 (pH) and 1:5 (EC) respectively 19 . The CHN analyser (CHNOS Elementary, Vario EL III model) was used for soil samples' C, H, and N analysis. ...
Nanotechnology appears to be a promising tool to redefine crop nutrition in the coming decades. However, the crucial interactions of nanomaterials with abiotic components of the environment like soil organic matter (SOM) and carbon‒sequestration may hold the key to sustainable crop nutrition, fortification, and climate change. Here, we investigated the use of sugar press mud (PM) mediated ZnO nanosynthesis for soil amendment and nutrient mobilisation under moderately alkaline conditions. The positively charged (+ 7.61 mv) ZnO sheet-like nanoparticles (~ 17 nm) from zinc sulphate at the optimum dose of (75 mg/kg blended with PM (1.4% w/w) were used in reinforcing the soil matrix for wheat growth. The results demonstrated improved agronomic parameters with (~ 24%) and (~ 19%) relative increases in yield and plant Zn content. Also, the soil solution phase interactions of the ZnO nanoparticles with the PM-induced soil colloidal carbon (− 27.9 mv and diameter 0.4864 μm) along with its other components have influenced the soil nutrient dynamics and mineral ecology at large. Interestingly, one such interaction seems to have reversed the known Zn-P interaction from negative to positive. Thus, the study offers a fresh insight into the possible correlations between nutrient interactions and soil carbon sequestration for climate-resilient crop productivity.
... This relationship was also identified for Fe in HS93-4118 and for oil content in Loda (Table 2). An inverse relationship between yield and seed mineral content was previously reported for K, Ca, Fe, Zn, and Se (Fan et al., 2008;Marles, 2017;Murphy et al., 2008). Similar observations have been made in crops grown under eCO 2 where the decline in S, K, Fe, and Zn seed content showed a negative relationship with the yield increase (Fernando, Panozzo, Tausz, Norton, Neumann, et al., 2014;Marcos-Barbero et al., 2021). ...
Reduced grain and seed nutrient content in crops grown under elevated CO 2 concentrations (eCO 2 ) have raised concerns about future food security. Studies have reported that different seed elements responded differently to eCO 2 . Additionally, the nutrient response to eCO 2 varied across species and cultivars. This study investigated the response of seed quality in two soybean cultivars (HS93‐4118 and Loda) previously shown to have different yield responses to eCO 2 . We show that seed quality responded differently to eCO 2 for the two cultivars and that elements were differentially impacted. The strongest declines under eCO 2 were observed for Al, Ca, Fe, and Se while P and Mn were unaffected. Seed protein content increased under eCO 2 for the two cultivars. Oil content, however, showed a negative relationship with yield and declined under eCO 2 . Using path analysis, we show that eCO 2 reduced the seed content for some elements through increasing seed yield, effectively diluting the elemental concentrations, while other elements were reduced in a yield‐independent manner. Despite the decline in the seed concentration for some elements, the overall yield per hectare of elements, protein, and oil under eCO 2 increased because of greater seed yield. We quantified the economic impact of altered seed composition and show that the decline in oil content with increasing soybean yield at eCO 2 could adversely impact profits.
... Внедрение новых высокоурожаи� ных сортов пшеницы в сельском хозяи� стве привело к снижению биологи-ческои� и питательнои� ценности зерна. Начиная с середины 1960-х годов уровень цинка, железа, меди и магния в зерне короткостебельных высокоурожаи� ных сортов пшеницы существенно снизился (Fan et al., 2008). В связи с массовым внедрением интенсивных технологии� производства сельскохозяи� ственнои� продукции с применением химических удобрении� , пестицидов, различных стимуляторов роста, гормонов также наблюдается прогрессирующее снижение уровня макро-и микроэлементов в продукции растениеводства, предназначеннои� для потребления человеком в виде источников питания (Morgounov et al., 2007;Shukla et al., 2018). ...
Background . Improving the grain quality of modern spring bread wheat cultivars is a highly relevant task of breeding. To solve this problem, old and local wheat varieties (landraces) are of considerable interest. A rich collection of them is available among the plant genetic resources preserved at VIR. With this in view, the aim of this research was to identify sources of high protein, gluten, macro- and micronutrient content out of the landraces from the VIR collection for improvement of wheat grain quality through breeding.
Materials and methods . Field and laboratory research were conducted in the experimental field of Omsk State Agrarian University under the conditions of the southern forest-steppe of Western Siberia in 2020–2021. Sowing was carried out on fallow on conventional sowing dates. Mineral composition in the grain of the studied landraces was analyzed at the Kurchatov Genomic Center, Novosibirsk, using atomic absorption spectrometry techniques.
Results . The research results showed that landraces from different regions of Russia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan were characterized by high levels of protein (18.4–18.8%) and gluten (35.9–36.0%) in grain. Landraces from Kazakhstan had low Zn content (on average 38.3 mg/kg), while those from Kyrgyzstan, on the contrary, had high content of Zn (41.9 mg/kg) and Fe (55.1 mg/kg), and landraces from Tajikistan had high K content (3820 mg/kg). A positive relationship between the concentrations of Mg, Mn, Fe, and Zn was found in the grain of wheat landraces.
Conclusion . Wheat landraces are of interest as genetic resources for the development of high-protein cultivars with improved nutritional value of grain for the milling and breadmaking industries.
... However, the effect of plants on Mg uptake was nonuniform and an increase was observed at 2.5 ZnF and 5.0 ZnF doses compared to the control, while a sharp decrease was observed at 10.0 ZnF doses. This interaction between nutrients is similarly supported by other studies (Fan et al., 2008;Rietra et al., 2017). ...
Water stress poses a significant challenge for plant growth and productivity, impacting both yield and quality. With the ongoing changes in global climate, mitigating the adverse effects of water deficiency on plants has become crucial. In this study, the focus is on enhancing the tolerance of Ocimum basilicum L., a plant highly susceptible to water stress. To achieve this, in this study examined the effects of zinc fertilizer supplementation at varying rates (2.5 - 5 and 10 mg/kg) on O. basilicum grown in silty sandy soil and subjected to water stress conditions. Several parameters, including mineral uptake, morphological characteristics, total phenol and flavonoid contents, and essential oil compounds, were evaluated in sweet basil. The results revealed that water stress had a detrimental impact on the morphological properties and secondary metabolites analysed. Estragole emerged as the main compound in the essential oil analysis, with the highest concentration (69.37%) observed in the group treated with 10 mg/kg of zinc fertilizer. Conversely, the lowest concentration (66.14%) was recorded in the water-stressed group without fertilizer. Notably, the application of zinc fertilizer at concentrations of 5 and 10 mg/kg significantly ameliorated the negative effects induced by water stress. Furthermore, zinc exhibited diverse mechanisms of action concerning the uptake of other nutrients from the soil.
... Many staple crop species (not only cereals) today produce grains that are deficient in micronutrients, because of a negative correlation between (for cereals) grain weight, yield, and nutritional quality (Lata-Tenesaca et al., 2023;Mohan et al., 2023). To give but one example, wheat yields have more than doubled in many regions since the 1960s due to advances in plant breeding techniques and agronomy (Fischer et al., 2010;Grassini et al., 2013), however, the process has been accompanied by a decrease in concentration of Zn and Fe in the grains (Fan et al., 2008;Miner et al., 2022). By the 1980s, the main objective was to adjust global food production to the growing demand for food by eliminating obstacles to crop production, particularly pests and diseases. ...
Two plant production-based strategies – biofortification and dietary diversification – have been advocated to overcome micronutrient deficiencies, which are major contributors to morbidity and mortality worldwide. The respective benefits and effectiveness of these two strategies are the subject of controversy. Expanding the scope of this debate beyond the sole nutritional outcomes, and using a food system approach, this interdisciplinary review aims to providing a novel and holistic perspective on the ongoing debate. The literature shows that biofortification can be an effective medium-term strategy to tackle nutritional risk in vulnerable populations in some contexts, but that it also may have negative environmental, economic, and social impacts. Dietary diversification, on the other hand, is known to be a sustainable way to overcome micronutrient deficiencies, bringing with it long-term benefits, including nutritional, and beyond, the provision of ecosystem services. Dietary diversification is however challenging to implement, with benefits that are not immediate. Biodiversity as a basis of human diets is critically important to improving both human and environmental health. Diet diversification through increased mobilisation of biodiversity in food systems deserves much more attention and support in policies for food and nutrition in low- and middle-income countries.
... Morgounov et al. (2013) reported that high yields of common wheat could be attributed to the improved yield compo- nents, but the grain had a lower protein concentration. A study by Fan et al. (2008) found that common wheat grain had an overall lower content of nutrients, including macro-and micronutrients. Murphy et al. (2008) also confirmed that common wheat grain had lower concentrations of minerals, with the exception of calcium. ...
... Breeding programs focus on increasing yields over trace element-rich varieties [32]. Despite a significant increase in yield, the zinc content in the grains decreased [33]. Another reason for zinc deficiency in wheat grains is the inability to enhance crop production to increase productivity and the inability to replace nutrients taken up in excess amounts from the soil, resulting in soil zinc deficiency. ...
Essential vitamins, proteins, and microelements are provided by nutrition, but inadequate and nutrient-poor diets can lead to hidden hunger. Zinc deficiency is a significant hidden resource that affects multiple bodily functions, including immune system function, growth, and development. The primary reasons for the prevalence of zinc deficiency in humans are grain-based products with low concentrations and low zinc solubility in the soil. Intensifying plant production and the inability to replace nutrients absorbed in excess from the soil leads to zinc deficiency in the soil. Consequently, substantial reductions in crop yields are observed, along with decreased zinc concentrations in harvested grains. A number of unsustainable strategies, including expensive medical supplements and zinc-enriched flour-based products to address zinc deficiency, are temporary solutions. Additionally, one such strategy is agronomic biofortification, which recommends utilizing water-soluble zinc fertilizers to increase the concentration of zinc in the plant and soil. A more sustainable and cost-effective approach involves employing traditional plant breeding and molecular techniques to develop new zinc-biofortified cultivars. By enriching wheat with zinc, it absorbs 20-40% more zinc from the soil. Here, this paper will discuss the role of zinc deficiency in wheat and soil and its impact on both crop yield and human nutrition, with a particular emphasis on biofortified wheat.
Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was used to detect heavy metals in 74 typical and representative commercial organic fertilizers (COFs) collected in major COF production areas in China. The potential risk of fertilization into soils was evaluated. The concentrations of heavy metals (mg kg− 1) in these COFs were 1.55–36.95 (As), 0.04–2.32 (Hg), 1.43–78.05 (Pb), 0.15–7.49 (Cd), 11.03–212.90 (Cr), 7.74-555.11 (Cu), 21.46-2705.68 (Zn), and 5.62-244.47 (Ni), respectively. Based on China’s Organic Fertilizer Standard (2021), COFs with excessive heavy metals accounted for 45.95% (As), 1.35% (Hg), 2.70% (Pb), 8.11% (Cd), and 6.76% (Cr). According to the European Union standard (2019), the rate of COFs with excessive heavy metals was 32.43% for Cu, 75.68% for Zn, and 85.14% for Ni. Estimated by applying 3854 kg hectare− 1 (dry bass) of fertilizer per hectare per year, to guarantee the safe use of organic fertilizer, the risk monitoring of Cd in soil should be emphasized. China should formulate appropriate standards for the limits of Cu, Zn, and Ni in organic fertilizer as soon as possible and should pay great attention to heavy metal pollution of soils.
Inherently low concentrations of zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), iodine (I), and selenium (Se) in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grains represent a major cause of micronutrient malnutrition (hidden hunger) in human populations. Genetic biofortification represents a highly useful solution to this problem. However, genetic biofortification alone may not achieve desirable concentrations of micronutrients for human nutrition due to several soil- and plant-related factors. This study investigated the response of genetically biofortified high-Zn wheat genotypes to soil-applied Zn and foliarly applied Zn, I, and Se in India and Pakistan. The effect of soil-applied Zn (at the rate of 50 kg ha⁻¹ as ZnSO4·7H2O) and foliar-applied Zn (0.5% ZnSO4·7H2O), I (0.04% KIO3), Se (0.001% Na2SeO4), and a foliar cocktail (F-CT: combination of the above foliar solutions) on the grain concentrations of Zn, I, Se, and Fe of high-Zn wheat genotypes was investigated in field experiments over 2 years. The predominantly grown local wheat cultivars in both countries were also included as check cultivars. Wheat grain yield was not influenced by the micronutrient treatments at all field locations, except one location in Pakistan where F-CT resulted in increased grain yield. Foliar-applied Zn, I, and Se each significantly enhanced the grain concentration of the respective micronutrients. Combined application of these micronutrients was almost equally effective in enhancing grain Zn, I, and Se, but with a slight reduction in grain yield. Foliar-applied Zn, Zn+I, and F-CT also enhanced grain Fe. In India, high-Zn genotypes exhibited a minor grain yield penalty as compared with the local cultivar, whereas in Pakistan, high-Zn wheat genotypes could not produce grain yield higher than the local cultivar. The study demonstrates that there is a synergism between genetic and agronomic biofortification in enrichment of grains with micronutrients. Foliar Zn spray to Zn-biofortified genotypes provided additional increments in grain Zn of more than 15 mg kg⁻¹. Thus, combining agronomic and genetic strategies will raise grain Zn over 50 mg kg⁻¹. A combination of fertilization practice with plant breeding is strongly recommended to maximize accumulation of micronutrients in food crops and to make significant progress toward resolving the hidden hunger problem in human populations.
Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was used to detect heavy metals in 74 typical and representative commercial organic fertilizers (COFs) collected in major COF production areas in China. The potential risk of fertilization into soils was evaluated. The concentrations of heavy metals (mg kg − 1 ) in these COFs were 1.55–36.95 (As), 0.04–2.32 (Hg), 1.43–78.05 (Pb), 0.15–7.49 (Cd), 11.03–212.90 (Cr), 7.74-555.11 (Cu), 21.46-2705.68 (Zn), and 5.62-244.47 (Ni), respectively. Based on China’s Organic Fertilizer Standard (2021), COFs with excessive heavy metals accounted for 45.95% (As), 1.35% (Hg), 2.70% (Pb), 8.11% (Cd), and 6.76% (Cr). According to the European Union standard (2019), the rate of COFs with excessive heavy metals was 32.43% for Cu, 75.68% for Zn, and 85.14% for Ni. Estimated by applying 3854 kg hectare − 1 (dry bass) of fertilizer per hectare per year, to guarantee the safe use of organic fertilizer, the risk monitoring of Cd in soil should be emphasized. China should formulate appropriate standards for the limits of Cu, Zn, and Ni in organic fertilizer as soon as possible and should pay great attention to heavy metal pollution of soils.
The effect of potassium supply and plant density on maize ( Zea mays L.) was investigated in terms of the leaf weight in the flowering stage, grain yield components, grain and stalk yield and their potassium, calcium and magnesium contents, in a field trial set up in Nagyhörcsök, Hungary, on a calcareous chernozem soil with poor to moderate potassium supplies. Different potassium supply levels were achieved by the initial build-up application of 0-240-480-960-1440 kg K 2 O ha ⁻¹ in autumn 1989. Adequate nitrogen and phosphorus supplies were provided by yearly NP fertilization. The year studied was favourable for maize growth and development. The maize hybrid Pioneer SC 3732 (FAO 450) was sown at plant densities of 24-48-72-96 thousand plants ha ⁻¹ . The plant density had a more pronounced effect on grain yield than the different K supplies. Stalk yields showed trends similar to those for grain yields, but plant density had the opposite effect on the leaf weight (g 20 leaves ⁻¹ ) in the flowering stage. K fertilization increased the K content to the greatest extent in the vegetative parts (leaf and stalk), while increasing plant density had a reverse effect. The K-Ca-Mg antagonism was also the most pronounced in the vegetative parts, i.e. maize leaves in the flowering stage. According to the results obtained in the field trial, it seems that a century ago, in our grandparents’ time, food contained more minerals than nowadays, due to the fact that plant density decreases grain mineral composition more than mineral fertilization can increase it.
Low intake of micro- and macroelements and vitamins in food negatively affects the health of more than two billion people around the world provoking chronic diseases. For the majority of the world’s population, these are soft and durum wheats that provide beneficial nutrients, however their modern high-yielding varieties have a significantly depleted grain mineral composition that have reduced mineral intake through food. Biofortification is a new research trend, whose main goal is to improve the nutritional qualities of agricultural crops using a set of classical (hybridization and selection) methods as well and the modern ones employing gene/QTL mapping, bioinformatic analysis, transgenesis, mutagenesis and genome editing. Using the classical breeding methods, biofortified varieties have been bred as a part of various international programs funded by HarvestPlus, CIMMYT, ICARDA. Despite the promise of transgenesis and genome editing, these labor-intensive methods require significant investments, so these technologies, when applied to wheat, are still at the development stage and cannot be applied routinely. In recent years, the interest in wheat biofortification has increased due to the advances in mapping genes and QTLs for agronomically important traits. The new markers obtained from wheat genome sequencing and application of bioinformatic methods (GWAS, meta-QTL analysis) has expanded our knowledge on the traits that determine the grain mineral concentration and has identified the key gene candidates. This review describes the current research on genetic biofortification of wheat in the world and in Russia and provides information on the use of cultivated and wild-relative germplasms to expand the genetic diversity of modern wheat varieties.
Micronutrient malnutrition is one of the major causes of human disorders in the developing world. Iron (Fe) is an important micronutrient due to its use in human metabolism such as immune system and energy production. Estimates indicate that above 30% of the global population is at risk of Fe deficiency, posing a particular threat to infants and pregnant women. Plants have adapted various strategies for uptake, transport, accumulation, and storage of Fe in tissues and organs which later can be consumed by humans. Biofortification refers to increase in micronutrient concentration in edible parts of plants and understanding the pathways for Fe accumulation in plants. Conventional plant breeding, transgenics, agronomic interventions, and microbe‐mediated biofortification are all potential methods to address Fe deficiency. This review article critically evaluates key aspects pertaining to Fe biofortification in cereal crops. It encompasses an in‐depth analysis of the holistic presence of Fe, its significance in both human and plant contexts, and the diverse strategies employed in Fe uptake, transport, accumulation, and storage in plant parts destined for human consumption. Additionally, the article explores the bioavailability of Fe and investigates strategies for biofortification, with a specific emphasis on both traditional methods and recent breakthroughs aimed at enhancing the Fe content in food crops. Keeping in view the significance of Fe for human life, appropriate biofortification strategies may serve better to eliminate hidden hunger rather than its artificial supplementation.
Wheat, one of the most crucial crops in the world, has been utilized in the production of a wide range of traditional and modern processed foods throughout history. Wheat breeders all over the world have primarily focused on increasing the grain yield to feed people in the last century. Grain quality was the secondary goal in wheat breeding programs during that period. However, wheat grain quality has recently become important due to increased interest in the quality of the end-product. The definition of wheat quality varies according to the numerous stakeholders in the wheat value chain. It is, for instance, a wheat with a high yield, resistant to diseases, pests, and stress conditions for the farmer. It is a wheat with high protein/gluten content and strong gluten quality for flour, bread, and pasta industrialists. It refers to wheat that will produce a healthy end-product with suitable quality and sensory and textural properties from the customer’s point of view. Among them, end-product quality, the ability of a wheat cultivar to produce a specific product based on the consumer’s preferences, is likely the most important. All over the world, wheat is used to manufacture hundreds of different products, each having its own grain quality requirements. This chapter aims to define the technological and nutritional quality characteristics of wheat and to explain wheat properties for specific end-use products.
Little millet ( Panicum sumatrense Roth ex Roem. & Schult.) is an essential minor millet of southeast Asia and Africa's temperate and subtropical regions. The plant is stress‐tolerant, has a short life cycle, and has a mineral‐rich nutritional profile associated with unique health benefits. We report the developmental gene expression atlas of little millet (genotype JK‐8) from ten tissues representing different stages of its life cycle, starting from seed germination and vegetative growth to panicle maturation. The developmental transcriptome atlas led to the identification of 342 827 transcripts. The BUSCO analysis and comparison with the transcriptomes of related species confirm that this study presents high‐quality, in‐depth coverage of the little millet transcriptome. In addition, the eFP browser generated here has a user‐friendly interface, allowing interactive visualizations of tissue‐specific gene expression. Using these data, we identified transcripts, the orthologs of which in Arabidopsis and rice are involved in nutrient acquisition, transport, and response pathways. The comparative analysis of the expression levels of these transcripts holds great potential for enhancing the mineral content in crops, particularly zinc and iron, to address the issue of “hidden hunger” and to attain nutritional security, making it a valuable asset for translational research.
Climate change-induced drought has an effect on the nutritional quality of wheat. Here, the impact of drought at different plant stages on mineral content in mature wheat was evaluated in 30 spring-wheat lines of diverse backgrounds (modern, old and wheat-rye-introgressions). Genotypes with rye chromosome 3R introgression showed a high accumulation of several important minerals, including Zn and Fe, and these also showed stability across drought conditions. High Se content was found in genotypes with chromosome 1R. Old cultivars (K, Mg, Na, P and S) and 2R introgression lines (Fe, Ca, Mn, Mg and Na) demonstrated high mineral yield at early and late drought, respectively. Based on the low nutritional value often reported for modern wheat and negative climate effects on the stability of mineral content and yield, genes conferring high Zn/Fe, Se, and stable mineral yield under drought at various plant stages should be explicitly explored among 3R, 1R, old and 2R genotypes, respectively.
Micronutrient deficiency has imparted an unseen burden on human population in terms of hunger, and diseases leading to higher mortality rates. Several measures such as supplements and fortified food have been taken into account to correct the nutrient deficiencies targeting upgrades in the general public health. But soon it was realized, that the best way to cure malnourishment is the use of an inclusive strategy ensuring a healthy balanced human diet. Biofortification offers significant potential for enhancing the nutritional content of important crops and has arisen as a sustainable and an economical strategy to curb nutrient deficiencies around the globe. Food biofortification is the process of increasing the nutritional content of staple foods through genetic improvement. This can be achieved through both traditional and transgenic methods. Traditional methods of genetic improvement include selective breeding, where plants with desirable traits are chosen for breeding to produce new varieties with improved nutritional content. This method can be time-consuming and may take many generations to produce plants with the desired traits. In addition, it is based on the availability of genetic variation within the crop species. Transgenic methods, on the other hand, involve the transfer of specific genes from one organism to another to produce plants with improved nutritional content. This can be done through various techniques such as genetic engineering and gene editing. Transgenic methods are faster and more precise than traditional methods, and can be used to introduce new traits that do not exist in the target crop species. Both traditional and transgenic methods have their own set of advantages and disadvantages. Traditional methods are generally considered to be more socially and environmentally acceptable, while transgenic methods are faster and more precise. However, the latter method still faces concerns and opposition from some sectors of society and government. In conclusion, food biofortification is a crucial strategy for addressing micronutrient malnutrition, which is a global problem that affects millions of people. Genetic improvement through both traditional and transgenic methods has the potential to improve the nutritional content of staple foods and help to combat micronutrient malnutrition.
Zinc deficiency in plants and human beings is gaining importance due to its key role in various functions in both plants and human beings. Zinc deficiency has been linked with malnutrition in human beings due to its inadequate concentration in the daily diet especially in the developing countries where the people are mostly dependent on cereal crops for their staple diet. As most of the farmer are focused on macro—nutrients for attaining higher yield, Zn being a micro—nutrient is rarely applied. Also, the frequent use of phosphatic fertilizer has aggravated Zn deficiency due to their antagonistic relation with each other. The antagonism is found in both soil and plant. In soil Zinc and phosphorus react to form an insoluble compound Zinc phosphate, while in plant presence of phytate decreases the bioavailability of Zn. In this regard an effort has been made to enhance the availability of Zn in food grains by different means, amongst these biofortification is widely used method for fortification of minerals in food. The biofortification techniques used throughout the world includes Zn enrichment through breeding methods, which comprises of conventional and genetical engineering methods. There are different pros and cons relates to these breeding and genetics methods. The second most common methods are the agronomic technique of biofortification it involves the fertilizer application both as soil applied and foliar applied, biofertilizers, seeding priming etc. It has been concluded at the end that the agronomics methods are more user friendly and cost effective as compared to the breeding methods which are time consuming. Amongst the agronomic methods priming with Zn solution has resulted to be promising when compared with other techniques.
Introduction:
Mediterranean diets (MedDiets) are linked to substantial health benefits. However, there is also growing evidence that the intensification of food production over the last 60 years has resulted in nutritionally relevant changes in the composition of foods that may augment the health benefits of MedDiets.
Objective:
To synthesize, summarize, and critically evaluate the currently available evidence for changes in food composition resulting from agricultural intensification practices and their potential impact on the health benefits of MedDiets.
Methods:
We summarized/synthesized information from (i) systematic literature reviews/meta-analyses and more recently published articles on composition differences between conventional and organic foods, (ii) desk studies which compared food composition data from before and after agricultural intensification, (iii) recent retail and farm surveys and/or factorial field experiments that identified specific agronomic practices responsible for nutritionally relevant changes in food composition, and (iv) a recent systematic literature review and a small number of subsequently published observational and dietary intervention studies that investigated the potential health impacts of changes in food composition resulting from agricultural intensification.
Results and discussion:
There has been growing evidence that the intensification of food production has resulted in (i) lower concentrations of nutritionally desirable compounds (e.g., phenolics, certain vitamins, mineral micronutrients including Se, Zn, and omega-3 fatty acids, α-tocopherol) and/or (ii) higher concentrations of nutritionally undesirable or toxic compounds (pesticide residues, cadmium, omega-6 fatty acids) in many of the foods (including wholegrain cereals, fruit and vegetables, olive oil, dairy products and meat from small ruminants, and fish) that are thought to contribute to the health benefits associated with MedDiets. The evidence for negative health impacts of consuming foods from intensified conventional production systems has also increased but is still limited and based primarily on evidence from observational studies. Limitations and gaps in the current evidence base are discussed. Conclusions: There is now substantial evidence that the intensification of agricultural food production has resulted in a decline in the nutritional quality of many of the foods that are recognized to contribute to the positive health impacts associated with adhering to traditional MedDiets. Further research is needed to quantify to what extent this decline augments the positive health impacts of adhering to a traditional MedDiet.
Historical variation in the mineral composition of edible horticultural products was determined from UK and USA food survey data. From these data, it was possible to measure the variation in the mineral composition of edible horticultural products in general, and in edible horticultural products grouped as vegetables, fruits or nuts, in the 1930s and in the 1980s (or later) for both countries.Thus, the hypothesis that the mineral composition of edible horticultural products had altered since the 1930s was tested. The average concentrations of Cu, Mg and Na in the dry matter of vegetables, and the average concentrations of Cu, Fe and K in fruits decreased significantly between the 1930s and the 1980s in the UK.The same hypothesis was tested with comparable data from the USA, whose historical horticultural and consumer practices have paralleled those of the UK. Data from the USA showed that the average Ca, Cu and Fe concentrations in the dry matter of vegetables, and the average concentrations of Cu, Fe and K in fruits had decreased significantly since the 1930s.There were insufficient data to determine if the mineral composition of any single edible horticultural species had altered significantly over time either in the UK or in the USA. The nutritional implications of this study are discussed. Since horticultural products in general, and fruits and nuts in particular, are relatively small contributors of minerals to the average UK diet, historical changes in mineral composition are unlikely to be significant in overall dietary terms.
One major strategy to increase the level of zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) in cereal crops, is to exploit the natural genetic variation in seed concentration of these micronutrients. Genotypic variation for Zn and Fe concentration in seeds among cultivated wheat cultivars is relatively narrow and limits the options to breed wheat genotypes with high concentration and bioavailability of Zn and Fe in seed. Alternatively, wild wheat might be an important genetic resource for enhancing micronutrient concentrations in seeds of cultivated wheat. Wild wheat is widespread in diverse environments in Tarkey and other parts of the Fertile Crescent (e.g., Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, Israel, and Jordan). A large number of accessions of wild wheat and of its wild relatives were collected from the Fertile Crescent and screened for Fe and Zn concentrations as well as other mineral nutrients. Among wild wheat, the collections of wild emmer wheat, Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccoides (825 accessions) showed impressive variation and the highest concentrations of micronutrients, significantly exceeding those of cultivated wheat. The concentrations of Zn and Fe among the dicoccoides accessions varied from 14 to 190 mg kg DW for Zn and from 15 to 109 mg kg DW for Fe. Also for total amount of Zn and Fe per seed, dicoccoides accessions contained very high amount of Zn (up to 7 μg per seed) and Fe (up to 3.7 μg per seed). Such high genotypic variation could not be found for phosphorus, magnesium, and sulfur. In the case of modern cultivated wheat, seed concentrations of Zn and Fe were lower and less variable when compared to wild wheat accessions. There was a highly significant positive correlation between seed concentrations of Fe and Zn. Screening different series of dicoccoides substitution lines revealed that the chromosome 6A, 611, and 5B of dicoccoides resulted in greater increase in Zn and Fe concentration when compared to their recipient parent and to other chromosome substitution lines. The results indicate that Triticum turgidum L. var. dicoccoides (wild emmer) is an important genetic resource for increasing concentration and content of Zn and Fe in modern cultivated wheat.
The selenium concentration of representative bread‐making wheat ( Triticum aestivum L) samples was measured in national grain surveys collected in 1982 ( n (number of samples) = 180), 1992 ( n = 187) and 1998 ( n = 85) from major wheat‐growing regions around the UK. The means and distributions of selenium concentrations over the three years were similar, with mean grain concentrations of 0.025, 0.033 and 0.025 mg kg ⁻¹ dry weight respectively and inter‐quartile ranges varying from 0.015 mg kg ⁻¹ in 1982 to 0.019 mg kg ⁻¹ in 1992 samples. No long‐term changes in the distribution of wheat selenium concentrations were found over the 17 year period. Geographical mapping of the concentrations identified an area of eastern England as having high grain concentrations compared with other UK regions. There were no significant correlations between grain selenium and grain sulphur concentrations for the national survey samples. However, at an individual field experimental site, increasing the rate of sulphur addition was found to decrease grain selenium concentration significantly. The daily UK dietary contribution of selenium from wheat‐based products was estimated and the daily intake was calculated to be 6.4 µg selenium, around one‐tenth of the UK recommended intake values for men and women.
© 2002 Society of Chemical Industry
Micronutrient malnutrition (`Hidden Hunger') now afflicts over two billion people worldwide, resulting in poor health, low worker productivity, high rates of mortality and morbidity, increased rates of chronic diseases (coronary heart disease, cancer, stroke, and diabetes), and permanent impairment of cognitive abilities of infants born to micronutrient-deficient mothers. The consequences of food system failures include lethargic national development efforts, continued high population growth rates, and a vicious cycle of poverty for massive numbers of underprivileged people in all nations. Our food systems are failing us globally by not providing enough balanced nutrient output to meet all the nutritional needs of every person, especially resource-poor women, infants and children in developing countries. Agriculture is partly responsible because it has never held nutrient output as an explicit goal of its production systems. Indeed, many agricultural policies have fostered a decline in nutrition and diet diversity for the poor in many countries. Nutrition and health communities are also partly responsible because they have never considered using agriculture as a primary tool in their programs directed at alleviating poor nutrition and ill health globally. Now is the time for a new paradigm for agriculture and nutrition. We must consider ways in which agriculture can contribute to finding sustainable solutions to food system failures through holistic food-based system approaches, thereby closely linking agricultural production to improving human health, livelihood and well being. Such action will stimulate support for agricultural research in many developed countries because it addresses consumer issues as well as agricultural production issues and is, therefore, politically supportable.
Over three billion people are currently micronutrient (i.e. micronutrient elements and vitamins) malnourished, resulting in egregious societal costs including learning disabilities among children, increased morbidity and mortality rates, lower worker productivity, and high healthcare costs, all factors diminishing human potential, felicity, and national economic development. Nutritional deficiencies (e.g. iron, zinc, vitamin A) account for almost two-thirds of the childhood death worldwide. Most of those afflicted are dependent on staple crops for their sustenance. Importantly, these crops can be enriched (i.e. 'biofortified') with micronutrients using plant breeding and/or transgenic strategies, because micronutrient enrichment traits exist within their genomes that can to used for substantially increasing micronutrient levels in these foods without negatively impacting crop productivity. Furthermore, 'proof of concept' studies have been published using transgenic approaches to biofortify staple crops (e.g. high beta-carotene 'golden rice' grain, high ferritin-Fe rice grain, etc). In addition, micronutrient element enrichment of seeds can increase crop yields when sowed to micronutrient-poor soils, assuring their adoption by farmers. Bioavailability issues must be addressed when employing plant breeding and/or transgenic approaches to reduce micronutrient malnutrition. Enhancing substances (e.g. ascorbic acid, S-containing amino acids, etc) that promote micronutrient bioavailability or decreasing antinutrient substances (e.g. phytate, polyphenolics, etc) that inhibit micronutrient bioavailability, are both options that could be pursued, but the latter approach should be used with caution. The world's agricultural community should adopt plant breeding and other genetic technologies to improve human health, and the world's nutrition and health communities should support these efforts. Sustainable solutions to this enormous global problem of 'hidden hunger' will not come without employing agricultural approaches.
Fe homeostasis is considered in the context of the UK diet, using information on Fe intake and status from the National Diet and Nutrition Surveys. The importance of assessing Fe availability rather than total Fe intake is discussed. Dietary and host-related factors that determine Fe bioavailability (Fe utilised for Hb production) are reviewed using information from single-meal studies. When adaptive responses are taken into consideration, foods associated with higher Fe status include meat (haem-Fe and the 'meat factor') and fruits and fruit juice (vitamin C). Foods that may have a negative impact include dairy products (Ca), high-fibre foods (phytate) and tea and coffee (polyphenols), but the effects are more apparent in groups with marginal Fe deficiency, such as women of childbearing age. Analysis of dietary intake data on a meal-by-meal basis is needed to predict the influence of changing dietary patterns on Fe nutrition in the UK. Current information suggests that in the UK Fe deficiency is a greater problem than Fe overload.
Plant breeders, challenged to create more nutritious crops, face seemingly radical choices that constitute a 'breeder's dilemma'. In the search for higher yields and lower farming costs, have breeders inadvertently selected for crops with reduced nutritional quality? To create foods that keep pace with our growing understanding of what constitutes healthy diets, plant breeders may need to make a significant shift away from traditional selection criteria. Subsidizing crop nutritional value rather than yield could be an important and economical driver for this shift in perspective.
The final permanent solution to micronutrient malnutrition in developing countries is a substantial improvement in dietary quality-higher consumption of pulses, fruits, vegetables, fish and animal products that the poor already desire but cannot presently afford. Meanwhile breeding staple foods that are dense in minerals and vitamins provides a low-cost, sustainable strategy for reducing levels of micronutrient malnutrition. Getting plants to do the work of fortification, referred to as "biofortification," can reach relatively remote rural populations that conventional interventions are not now reaching and can even have benefits for increased agricultural productivity. Biofortification, thus, complements conventional interventions. The symposium articles discuss several examples of ongoing research projects to develop and disseminate nutrient-dense staple food crops and issues that remain to be resolved before successful implementation can be attained.
The grain and straw yields and nitrogen contents of an old and a modern winter wheat cultivar were compared on a series of plots on the Broadbalk wheat experiment at Rothamsted Experimental Station, England, over a three year period. The plots had received amounts of fertilizer nitrogen ranging from 0 to 288 kg ha-1 and, except for one, all had received ample amounts of phosphorus, potassium and magnesium fertilizer. In each plot, the plants in a 2.0 × 2.0 m area were supported to prevent lodging, those in the remaining area being non-supported. Different sections of the experiment allowed rotational and agrochemical treatments, and their interactions with plot, i.e., nitrogen fertilization, and cultivar, to be assessed.
Four sets of near-isogenic lines carrying different combinations of the alleles Rht-B1b , Rht-D1b and Rht-B1c for gibberellin-insensitive dwarfism in hexaploid wheat ( Triticum aestivum L. ) were compared with tall controls in a series of yield trials in eastern England and central Germany. In all four varietal backgrounds the effects of Rht-B1b and Rht-D1b were similar (plant height ≈ 86 and 83% of tall controls respectively) and in combination reduced plant height to c. 58%. The Rht-B1c allele caused more severe dwarfism ( c. 50%) and, when combined with Rht-D1b , reduced plant height still further to c. 41%.
Data from the trials were consistent with a model for height/yield relationships in which the pleiotropic effects of the Rht alleles on yield can be inferred from their primary function: insensitivity to gibberellin limits stem extension growth, decreasing assimilate demand for this organ and diverting it to the developing ear (which is not itself dwarfed). The net balance between the resulting increase in harvest index and the curvilinear relationship observed between plant height and total shoot yield results in optimum grain yields at intermediate plant heights.
Yield advantages of shorter plants over tall controls were evident over several trials with mean grain yields ranging from 200 to 760 g m ⁻² . The optimum plant height for yield improvement in different genetic backgrounds was achieved by different Rht alleles according to the background varietal height, such that intrinsically taller genotypes required more potent Rht alleles to achieve maximum potential grain yield.
Ear yield components showed increases in grain number due to Rht pleiotropy, from which it is inferred that the number of grains per ear is limited by supply of assimilates pre-anthesis. Increases in grain number were associated with decreases in mean weight per grain which varied according to severity of dwarfism and varietal background, so that the net effect on grain yield per ear was sometimes positive, sometimes negative, and sometimes neutral in different Rht /variety combinations.
The variations in major and minor element concentrations in winter wheat grain from a UK survey and from three experiments on farms with high yields (>10tha−1) are given. In the survey, the concentrations of P, K, S, Ca and Mg varied twofold, the elements Fe, Zn and Cu varied threefold, whilst Mn varied by a factor of five. Small varietal differences in grain composition were detected. In the field experiments only the concentrations of Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn and S changed significantly as yields increased, and most of the changes were positive, except for Mn, which did not increase with yield. Foliar fungicidal sprays containing Mn increased grain Mn in 1981 and 1982, but S-containing sprays did not alter grain S in 1983. The offtakes of all the elements studied are given both nationally and for high and low yields on the three farms. These offtakes are compared with the inputs of P, K and Mg in fertilisers and the likely inputs of S from the atmosphere.
A rapid method is described for the colorimetric determination of 1.5–15 μg phytate phosphorus in concentrations as low as 3 μg ml−1 in extracts of cereal grains and cereal products. The phytic acid is precipitated with an acidic iron-III-solution of known iron content. The decrease of iron in the supernatant is a measure for the phyticacid content.
The yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. em. Thell) has greatly improved through breeding, but it is not known how this has affected seed micronutrient content. In the present study, the iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and selenium (Se) content of seed of 14 US hard red winter wheat varieties from production eras spanning more than a century was measured. The seed that was analyzed was obtained from a replicated field trial conducted at two locations in Kansas. The Fe, Zn, and Cu content was obtained by inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy (ICPES) and Se content was obtained by hydride-generated atomic absorption spectrometry (HG-AAS). Significant effects of location on micronutrient content of seed were observed. Similarly, depending on the micronutrient, significant differences in seed micronutrient content between varieties were detected at one or both locations. A significant negative regression of seed Zn content on both yield and variety release date was observed at both locations, while seed Fe content exhibited a significant negative regression on yield and variety release date at one location. Regression of seed Se content on variety release date was significant and negative at one location. These results suggest that genetic gains in the yield of US hard red winter wheat have tended to reduce seed Fe, Zn, and Se concentrations. However, the extent to which this effect manifests itself is influenced by environmental effects. Published in 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
Current and past efforts in breeding for industrial quality (processing, malting, baking, extruding, etc.), as opposed to yield, are reviewed as a prelude to discussion of the criteria that need to be met in breeding programs to improve the nutritional quality of crops for human consumption. In field crops, almost no attempts to improve nutritional value have been made. Recent studies in fact indicate that most criteria can be easily satisfied: existence of sufficient genetic variation, suitable selection methods and markers, workable heritabilities, and compelling reasons for doing so. However, establishing the efficacy in deficient human populations of elite material chosen by simple selection criteria is a major challenge that requires collaboration with human nutritionists. In some cases, developing marketing strategies for nutritionally superior types that may not – by color or other characteristics – appeal to target communities is also an issue breeders must bear in mind. Nevertheless, the fact recently established that desirable traits can be combined with high yield overcomes many obstacles. The widely demonstrated acceptance of new cultivars by farmers, in developing as well as industrialized countries, will ensure high impact of worthwhile improvements in nutritional value. To combine these new traits with high yield will increase the cost of breeding programs considerably, but the benefit–cost ratio is likely to be larger also.
Plant foods can be improved as sources of essential micronutrients either by increasing the concentrations of nutrients in the food, increasing the bioavailability of micronutrients in the food, or both of these. Quantities of minerals in edible portions of crops are influenced by numerous complex, dynamic and interacting factors, including plant genotype, soil properties, environmental conditions and nutrient interactions. Similarly, numerous dietary and host factors interact to affect the bioavailability to animals and people of mineral nutrients in plant foods. Micronutrient bioavailability apparently can be improved by either increasing the quantity of substances within plant foods that enhance the absorption and utilization of micronutrients or by decreasing the quantity of dietary antinutrients that inhibit micronutrient absorption; however, processes that control and regulate the bioavailability of trace elements in plant foods consumed in mixed diets are not fully understood. Use of either stable or radioactive isotopes incorporated intrinsically into edible portions of plant foods during plant growth will likely provide the most reliable estimates of the bioavailability of micronutrients consumed in mixed diets. Increasing the dietary supply of staple plant foods rich in trace elements combined with increased knowledge of micronutrient bioavailability from these foods will meaningfully improve the nutritional health and well being of people.
Marginal zinc deficiency and suboptimal zinc status have been recognized in many groups of the population in both less developed and industrialized countries. Although the cause in some cases may be inadequate dietary intake of zinc, inhibitors of zinc absorption are most likely the most common causative factor. Phytate, which is present in staple foods like cereals, corn and rice, has a strong negative effect on zinc absorption from composite meals. Inositol hexaphosphates and pentaphosphates are the phytate forms that exert these negative effects, whereas the lower phosphates have no or little effect on zinc absorption. The removal or reduction of phytate by enzyme (phytase) treatment, precipitation methods, germination, fermentation or plant breeding/genetic engineering markedly improves zinc absorption. Iron can have a negative effect on zinc absorption, if given together in a supplement, whereas no effect is observed when the same amounts are present in a meal as fortificants. Cadmium, which is increasing in the environment, also inhibits zinc absorption. The amount of protein in a meal has a positive effect on zinc absorption, but individual proteins may act differently; e.g., casein has a modest inhibitory effect of zinc absorption compared with other protein sources. Amino acids, such as histidine and methionine, and other low-molecular-weight ions, such as EDTA and organic acids (e.g., citrate), are known to have a positive effect on zinc absorption and have been used for zinc supplements. Knowledge about dietary factors that inhibit zinc absorption and about ways to overcome or remove these factors is essential when designing strategies to improve the zinc nutrition of vulnerable groups.
The final permanent solution to micronutrient malnutrition in developing countries is a substantial improvement in dietary quality--higher consumption of pulses, fruits, vegetables, fish and animal products that the poor already desire but cannot presently afford. Meanwhile breeding staple foods that are dense in minerals and vitamins provides a low-cost, sustainable strategy for reducing levels of micronutrient malnutrition. Getting plants to do the work of fortification, referred to as "biofortification," can reach relatively remote rural populations that conventional interventions are not now reaching and can even have benefits for increased agricultural productivity. Biofortification, thus, complements conventional interventions. The symposium articles discuss several examples of ongoing research projects to develop and disseminate nutrient-dense staple food crops and issues that remain to be resolved before successful implementation can be attained.
In 1927 a study at King's College, University of London, of the chemical composition of foods was initiated by Dr McCance to assist with diabetic dietary guidance. The study evolved and was then broadened to determine all the important organic and mineral constituents of foods, it was financed by the Medical Research Council and eventually published in 1940. Over the next 51 years subsequent editions reflected changing national dietary habits and food laws as well as advances in analytical procedures. The most recent (5th Edition) published in 1991 has comprehensively analysed 14 different categories of foods and beverages.
In order to provide some insight into any variation in the quality of the foods available to us as a nation between 1940 and 1991 it was possible to compare and contrast the mineral content of 27 varieties of vegetable, 17 varieties of fruit, 10 cuts of meat and some milk and cheese products. The results demonstrate that there has been a significant loss of minerals and trace elements in these foods over that period of time. It is suggested that the results of this study cannot be taken in isolation from recent dietary, environmental and disease trends. These trends are briefly mentioned and suggestions are made as to how the deterioration in the micronutrient quality of our food intake may be arrested and reversed.
To evaluate possible changes in USDA nutrient content data for 43 garden crops between 1950 and 1999 and consider their potential causes.
We compare USDA nutrient content data published in 1950 and 1999 for 13 nutrients and water in 43 garden crops, mostly vegetables. After adjusting for differences in moisture content, we calculate ratios of nutrient contents, R (1999/1950), for each food and nutrient. To evaluate the foods as a group, we calculate median and geometric mean R-values for the 13 nutrients and water. To evaluate R-values for individual foods and nutrients, with hypothetical confidence intervals, we use USDA's standard errors (SEs) of the 1999 values, from which we generate 2 estimates for the SEs of the 1950 values.
As a group, the 43 foods show apparent, statistically reliable declines (R < 1) for 6 nutrients (protein, Ca, P, Fe, riboflavin and ascorbic acid), but no statistically reliable changes for 7 other nutrients. Declines in the medians range from 6% for protein to 38% for riboflavin. When evaluated for individual foods and nutrients, R-values are usually not distinguishable from 1 with current data. Depending on whether we use low or high estimates of the 1950 SEs, respectively 33% or 20% of the apparent R-values differ reliably from 1. Significantly, about 28% of these R-values exceed 1.
We suggest that any real declines are generally most easily explained by changes in cultivated varieties between 1950 and 1999, in which there may be trade-offs between yield and nutrient content.
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