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Demographic Trends in the Twentieth Century. Census 2000 Special Reports
Abstract
This report consolidates U.S. Census information from 1900-2000 to illustrate population changes over the 20th century. The population more than tripled, from 76 million in 1900 to 281 million in 2000. It grew increasingly metropolitan each decade. In 1900, half of the population was under 22.9 years old. By 2000, half of the population was over 35.3 years old. During the century, the population over age 64 increased tenfold. The country's gender composition shifted from majority male to majority female around midcentury. From 1900-2000, the number of non-southern states with populations of at least 10 percent races other than White increased from 2 to 26, reflecting the spread of diversity nationwide. From 1980-2000, the Hispanic population more than doubled. By 2000, California, Hawaii, New Mexico, and the District of Columbia had predominantly minority populations. Before 1950, over half of all occupied housing units were rented. By 1950, homeownership became more prevalent than renting. At the end of the 20th century, householders who were Black, Hispanic, or two or more races were more likely to rent than own their homes. In 1900, the most common household contained seven or more people. From 1940-2000, it contained two people. Between 1950-2000, married couple households declined from more than three-fourths of all households to just over one-half. (SM)
... The U.S. racial and ethnic minority population grew 11 times as rapidly as the White non-Hispanic population between 1980 and 2000 (U.S.Census, 2010a). The Hispanic population alone more than doubled in the same time period (Hobbs & Stoops, 2002) and is projected to comprise almost 30% of the population in 2060 (Colby & Ortman, 2014). The Black, American Indian and Alaskan Native, and ...
... Hispanic populations all skew young, suggesting a future surge in the number of collegeaged people in these groups (Hobbs & Stoops, 2002). Between 2011 and 2022, public school enrollment is expected to decline 6% among White students and 5% among Native students (Hussar & Bailey, 2013, p. 5). ...
This study uses mixed methods research to explore the phenomenon of partnerships between higher education institutions (HEIs) and nonprofit organizations (NPOs) focused on improving college access for diverse populations. Using available quantitative data, interviews and documentary evidence collected from nonprofit, four-year, private and public HEIs in Pennsylvania, this research seeks to understand whether relationships between HEIs and NPOs are a common feature of the college access landscape; how institutions understand relationships with college access nonprofits; how they use relationships to achieve particular goals including and in addition to improving college access for diverse populations; and what motivates institutions to engage in and sustain relationships. This research also considers whether there are relationships between institutional characteristics and undergraduate student diversity. Drawing from theoretical literature on the antecedents to partnership formation developed within the field of business and from organizational learning theory, this study finds that there is little agreement on what constitutes a relationship between HEIs and NPOs and a “college access nonprofit”; that HEIs rarely articulate specific, measurable goals for the enrollment of diverse populations; that relationships are used to improve direct and indirect access to students, to build trust in HEIs, to fill perceived deficits for students and families, and to address demographic pressures. Furthermore, the study finds that relationships’ effectiveness is rarely measured and that ties between entities are rarely severed, except in the case of extreme failure to meet expectations. The findings of this study suggest that what HEIs refer to relationships are instead “less formal dyadic linkages.” HEIs forms ties to NPOs primarily in the pursuit of enhanced institutional legitimacy with respect to the recruitment of diverse students, which is perceived to enhance institutions’ ability to recruit these students with greater efficiency. Relationships are also perceived to have potential to contribute to HEI’s ability to develop a pipeline of students. In addition, this study finds that the exploitation aspect of organizational learning helps explain relationship formation between HEIs and NPOs.
... South Florida experienced a rapid change in economic and demographic factors within the last century. Florida was the only state in the U.S. to grow from a population of less than one million at the start of the 20th century to a population of over 10 million by the century's end (Hobbs and Stoops, 2002). Most of this population growth happened in the five southern counties adjacent to coral reefs (Palm Beach, Broward, Miami‑Dade, Monroe, and Collier) (Figure 7). ...
... South Florida experienced a rapid change in economic and demographic factors during the 20th century. Florida was the only state in the U.S. to grow from a population of less than 1 million at the start of the 20th century to a population of over 10 million by the century's end (Hobbs and Stoops, 2002). Most of this population growth occurred in the five southern counties adjacent to coral reefs (Palm Beach, Broward, Miami‑Dade, Monroe, and Collier). ...
... Each era covers a 20-to 35-year period. The first is from 1915 to 1944, a period that began in the middle of a major growth period for cities (Hobbs & Stoops, 2002;Massey & Denton, 1998) and ended with the creation of one of the largest federal programs, the 1944 Veterans Administrations program, that actively sponsored residential segregation (Jargowsky, 2015;Massey & Denton, 1998). The second period is from 1945 to 1970, the beginning of the era of mass suburbanization-an era that ended with a deepening city-suburban divide (Massey & Denton, 1998). ...
... The second period is from 1945 to 1970, the beginning of the era of mass suburbanization-an era that ended with a deepening city-suburban divide (Massey & Denton, 1998). The third period, from 1970 to 1990, was marked by further suburban expansion, an increase in income inequality, and a rise in concentrated poverty (Hobbs & Stoops, 2002;Jargowsky, 2015). In the fourth period, from 1990 to 2015, metropolitan areas saw significant growth in suburban diversity while urban cores saw contradictory trends: emerging gentrification and, first, a decrease (1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000), then an increase (2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013) in concentrated poverty and concentrated affluence (Frey, 2011;Jargowsky, 2015;Kneebone & Garr, 2010). ...
The authors situate the emergence and effects of contemporary market-based reforms within a framework of urban political economy that centers on racial inequality. They discuss how and why market-based reforms have evolved alongside racialized political and economic trends that have transformed cities over the past century, and they critically evaluate the research literature in light of such trends. The authors argue that deterioration of the urban core’s infrastructure, schools, and housing has created ripe conditions for market-oriented reforms to take root. They also argue that these reforms have exacerbated divides in increasingly unequal and bifurcated cities. The authors conclude that these intersections and interactions between market-based reforms and urban contexts must be addressed by policy and research.
... Specifically, the 65-and-over population still represents 40% of the whole population, with no major variations between the United States and Europe. [8][9][10] According to the World Health Organization's recently released 'World Report on Ageing and Health,' 10 to 24% of Europeans over the age of 80 have several morbidities. Furthermore, the prevalence of disability in everyday active living among Europeans aged 75 and up ranges from 14 to 50%. ...
Nowadays, the pre-operative evaluation of older patients is a critical step in the decision-making process. Clinical assessment and care planning should be considered a whole process rather than separate issues. Clinicians should use validated tools for pre-operative risk assessment of older patients to minimize surgery-related morbidity and mortality and enhance care quality. Traditional pre-operative consultation often fails to capture the pathophysiological and functional profiles of older patients. The elderly’s pre-operative evaluation should be focused on determining the patient’s functional reserve and reducing any possible peri-operative risk. Therefore, older adults may benefit from the Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment (CGA) that allows clinicians to evaluate several aspects of elderly life, such as depression and cognitive disorders, social status, multi-morbidity, frailty, geriatric syndromes, nutritional status, and polypharmacy. Despite the recognized challenges in applying the CGA, it may provide a realistic risk assessment for post-operative complications and suggest a tailored peri-operative treatment plan for older adults, including pre-operative optimization strategies. The older adults’ pre-operative examination should not be considered a mere stand-alone, that is, an independent stage of the surgical pathway, but rather a vital step toward a personalized therapeutic approach that may involve professionals from different clinical fields. The aim of this review is to revise the evidence from the literature and highlight the most important items to be implemented in the pre-operative evaluation process in order to identify better all elderly patients’ needs.
... That our nation is becoming multicultural and pluralistic should be obvious from statistics as well as personal experience. As noted in the focal paper, our national population changed from 80% Caucasian in 1980 to 59% in 2021 (Hobbs & Stoops, 2002;US Census Bureau, 2021); as of 2018, our public schools were 53% students of color and 52% eligible for free-and reduced-price lunch (NCES, 2020, Tables 203.70 and 204.10). Over a very similar time period, my family's composition changed from entirely White to having African-American, Afro-Caribbean, and Asian-American members (including children attending the public schools). ...
... These demographic shifts have produced challenges to the status quo. Women outperform males in many educational measures ( van Hek, Kraaykamp, & Wolbers, 2016); immigrant populations (particularly those that are minoritized) continue to increase in size and school enrollment (Pew Research Center, 2015); previously outnumbered racial and ethnic groups grow in size to the point of becoming a majority (Hobbs & Stoops, 2002); and more excluded groups assert their rights to recognition, respect, and equity (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995). In an era characterized by both increasingly pluralistic student bodies and the neoliberal standardization of curriculum, instruction, and assessment (Ross & Gibson, 2006) coupled with reactionary discrimination and nativism (Varsanyi, 2011), educators are faced with a multicultural conundrum: If the policy world is imposing standardized means of evaluating teachers and students, and if students (if not the teaching force, whose demographic remains roughly 85% White and 85% women; see U.S. Department of Education, 2016) are growing in cultural diversity, how can schools be conducted to honor multicultural traditions? ...
... These processes occur in more economically developed countries. The United States is the generic example: it is believed to be the first country, where the majority of the population lives in the suburbs, rather than in the cities or rural areas (Hobbs & Stoops, 2002). Urban sprawl, a direct consequence of suburbanisation, is an unrestricted growth in many urban areas of housing, commercial development, and roads over large expanses of land, with little concern for urban planning (Fouberg & Murphy, 2020). ...
This article investigates the causes of spatially uneven migration from Warsaw to its suburban boroughs. The analysis is based on the gravity model of migration extended by additional measures of possible pulling factors. We report a novel approach to modelling suburbanisation: several linear and non-linear predictive models are estimated and explainable AI methods are used to interpret the shape of relationships between the dependent variable and the most important regressors. It is confirmed that migrants choose boroughs of better amenities and of smaller distance to Warsaw city center.
... Table 2 further indicates that the population of Whites was higher than the African Based on ACS 5-year estimates data at the block group level opportunities available in the service sectors (Hobbs and Stoops 2002). Table 3 shows the six characteristics that were used to evaluate the stereotype of the MLK neighborhood as deprived. ...
In addition to recognizing a commemorative space and geography that serve to legitimize a particular racial identity, streetscapes in the U.S. named after Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., (MLK) are also a stereotyped space that is presupposed as marginalized. The main objective of this paper is to investigate whether stereotyped MLK neighborhoods differ from the lived spaces. To achieve this objective, the paper relies on two indexes of segregation: namely dissimilarity and interaction indices, the racial composition, and the socioeconomic characteristics of MLK neighborhoods in the 48 contiguous states. Both dissimilarity and interaction indices implied higher segregation in the South and Midwest. The higher proportion of the African American population relative to Whites and other races in the MLK neighborhoods, except in California, confirms that the MLK streetscapes are racially concentrated spaces. Further, analysis of socioeconomic variables does resonate with the stereotype of MLK neighborhoods as marginalized spaces. To demystify the stereotype and to reconstruct the identity of African Americans and their lived and experienced spaces, this paper draws upon studies of the broader process of racialization, critical toponymy, and stereotype theories. Based on this exploratory approach, the paper concludes that though the characteristics of MLK neighborhoods reflect their marginalized status, this status is itself the result of a broader process of racialization. This process has distributed resources unequally among racial groups, forming and buttressing negative stereotypes about African Americans while also stigmatizing their living spaces, which are all too often susceptible to a policy of benign (or not-so-benign) neglect, property devaluation, and industrial pollution.
... In Kansas, Hispanics were 2.7 percent of the total population in 1980 and 11 percent in 2010, with a growth rate of 9.3 percent. In Missouri, Hispanics were 1.1 percent in 1980 and 4 percent in 2010, with a growth rate of 2.9 percent (Cohn 2011;Hobbs and Stoops 2002). 4. ...
This study explores the socio-spatial, economic, and policing inequities experienced by Latinxs in the Kansas City metropolitan using geographic, census, and police data as well as qualitative analysis of interviews and workshops. Data show there has been an expansion of Latinx enclaves over time in the metropolitan area and suggest that enclaves function as both a protective factor for Latinxs against socio-structural hardship and also render them highly visible as targets for disproportionate criminalization. To redress the latter, we offer planning recommendations for community development and policing that promote socio-spatial equity in law enforcement practices while adapting to demographic shifts.
... Since zoning is a more rapid method of changing a community's design than master plans, which set long-term goals, these communities may have skipped the formal planning stage. The prevalence of having plans in the West may also be greater than in other regions due to the higher rate of population growth (Hobbs & Stoops, 2002;U.S. Census Bureau, 2001). Municipalities might therefore wish to be better prepared for infrastructure changes to cope with an expanding population and additionally, might have an increased demand for community design to support an active lifestyle to attract new residents. ...
Community planning documents can play an important role in promoting the design and maintenance of walkable communities. This study estimates the prevalence among US municipalities of (1) community wide planning documents and (2) inclusion of plan objectives supportive of active living within these documents.
Data from the 2014 National Survey of Community-Based Policy and Environmental Supports for Healthy Eating and Active Living (CBS HEAL), a survey of local officials, were analyzed (n = 2005). Prevalence of comprehensive or general plans, 3 specific plan types, and 3 objectives supportive of active living were analyzed using survey weights to create national estimates.
Overall, 64% of municipalities had a comprehensive/general plan, 46% had a transportation plan, 48% had a bicycle or pedestrian plan and 76% had a land use plan. Of municipalities with a plan, 78% included at least one of the three objectives measured supportive of active living. Differences in presence of plans and objectives were observed by population size of the municipality, urban status, region, and median education.
Helping communities, especially smaller or rural municipalities and those with lower median education levels, create and adopt planning documents supportive of active living may be an important step in creating more walkable communities.
... The changing ethnic, racial, and cultural composition of the United States is well-documented. Census data from 2000 indicate several trends toward a more culturally and linguistically diverse society (Hobbs & Stoops, 2002). For instance, one indicator of the changing face of America is that, although the birthrate in the United States is decreasing, the proportion of children from non-white and non-English speaking backgrounds is increasing. ...
... Water samples were collected quarterly for two years from 100 different sampling sites that encompassed the entire watershed, incorporating not only relatively pristine streams but also streams with a history of human impacts, such as runoff from agricultural activities as well as contaminated effluents from wastewater treatment plants, discharges from failing septic systems, and sewer line leaks. As approximately half of the U.S. population lives in suburban areas [54], this mixed-use watershed may be a good representation of the conditions many U.S. residents are exposed to by surface water used for recreational, agricultural, and municipal purposes. ...
Surface waters are important sources of water for drinking, industrial, agricultural, and recreational uses; hence, contamination of water by fecal, pathogenic, or antimicrobial resistant (AR) bacteria is a major environmental and public health concern. However, very little data is available on prevalence of these bacteria in surface water throughout a watershed. This study aimed to characterize Escherichia coli present in the Upper Oconee Watershed, a mixed-use watershed in Athens, GA, USA for potential pathogenicity and AR. E. coli were enumerated by colony counts, cultured by enrichment and direct plating, and characterized by phylo-groups, diarrheagenic pathotypes, and antimicrobial susceptibility. From the analysis, 99.3% (455/458) of the total samples were positive for E. coli resulting in 496 isolates. E. coli counts were as high as 1.2×10⁴ CFU/100 ml, which is above the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) threshold for recreational water (235 CFU/100 ml based on a one-time measurement). Phylo-groups B2 (31.7%; 157/496) and B1 (30.8%; 153/496) were the most prevalent among the isolates. Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) (19/496) and Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) (1/496) were the only diarrheagenic pathotypes detected. AR was observed in 6.9% (34/496) of the isolates, 15 of which were multidrug resistant (MDR; resistance to two or more classes of antimicrobials). Tetracycline resistance was most often detected (76.5%; 26/34), followed by ampicillin (32.4%; 11/34), streptomycin (23.5%; 8/34), sulfisoxazole (23.5%; 8/34), and nalidixic acid (14.7%; 5/34). Results from this study showed that E. coli is prevalent in high levels in the Upper Oconee Watershed, suggesting possible widespread fecal contamination. The presence of pathogenic, AR E. coli in the watershed indicates that environmental water can serve as a reservoir of resistant bacteria that may be transferred to humans through drinking and recreational activities.
... Geriatric surgery is showing continuous expansion worldwide, mostly in the cardiovascular, oncologic and orthopedic field. After the early studies from Etzioni [1] and Liu [2], forecasts from these authors about the increasing impact exerted by the aging population on surgical workload received confirmation in a number of studies [3][4][5][6][7]. Currently, the percentage of patients aged 65 and more in the surgical population is estimated to range from 40 to 50%, with no significant differences between US and European countries. ...
Universally recognized goals of preoperative anesthesia assessment are the evaluation of patient’s health status to define the entity of the surgical risk, and the anticipation of possible complications while optimizing and planning preventive strategies. Data obtained by Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment (CGA) and frailty evaluation are of extreme usefulness in surgical risk evaluation in older patients and in the decision about surgery. It is from the team-based discussion of such results that the most appropriate treatment can be individuated, surgery invasiveness and duration critically analyzed and if needed modified, and the best perioperative strategy carefully tailored. These data should thus be used as reference points not only in preoperative assessment but also in planning the perioperative course, from pre-habilitation to adequate intraoperative management to complications prevention and care continuity after discharge. It is from such a far-seeing approach that issues emerged from preoperative evaluation can really contribute to decision-making about surgery in the elderly.
... For instance, most if not all of these schools tout the value in diversifying their student population. As a re ection of both globalization trends and the demographic diversication within the U.S. wherein people of color are expected to comprise more than half the population somewhere around the year 2042 (Hobbs and Stoops 2002), many university leaders proclaim that their campuses bene t from the in ux of international students who bring new experiences and ideas and enrich the academic and social environment around them. ...
A growing trend among colleges in the U.S. particularly public universities, is their increased recruitment and enrollment of international students, particularly from China. This trend reflects both an inherent recognition of the value of promoting multiculturalism and cultural globalization, along with an effort to generate more revenue and to compensate for the budget shortfalls. In either case, the growing presence of Chinese students at U.S. universities also represents an increasingly common site of transnational intersection between U.S. and Chinese societies. To better illuminate one aspect of this multilevel social dynamic, this paper focuses on the motivations, expectations, and concerns of students in China who are interested in coming to the U.S. to study.
... Suburbanisation can be traced back to the beginning of the 20 th century, when it commenced in southern counties of England (Burchardt 2012). Since the 1950s it became an important social process in the United States leading to a situation where in 2000 a half of the U.S. population lived in suburban areas (Hobbs, Stoops, 2002: 10) which, though counted by statisticians as metropolitan areas and considered urban, existed as rural areas before the suburbanisation occurred. Moreover, suburbanisation appears to be a common process throughout the world, including the European Union (Cox 2009 The newcomers' influence on the local communities is not limited to the educational and cultural activities for the local communities, which they are involved in. ...
The following article deals with the problem of interrelations between spatial and social structures in the context of two different cases of migration – economically motivated immigration of Asians to the trade centre in Wólka Kosowska and urban to rural migration in the Holy Cross voivodeship. Migration, by its very nature, implies the appearance of strangers on an established group's territory. Hence, the local and spatial dimensions are crucial to the understanding of the processes of inclusion and exclusion of migrants and vice versa – newcomers' arrival gives an opportunity to examine the process of interrupting, changing and restabilising of the local spatial order. This case of migration seems to be suitable for an analysis of the relative significance of structure and agency in shaping the interactions within local communities and tracing the influence of the current global trends in economy and lifestyle in various local conditions.
... The US Census Bureau traditionally defines racial and ethnic identity using the principle of selfidentification, i.e., people themselves determine which race and ethnic group they belong to (FFEU, 2014). According to the US Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity of 1997 it can be said that the racial structure of the US population is one of the most varied in the world (Hobbs and Stoops, 2002). The largest part of the population (78.7% as of 2015) is the white race which includes people of European, Middle East or North African origin. ...
Conceptual interpretation of research practices undertaken in this study enabled the authors to identify the specific role of value policy as an efficiency factor of state management in improving race and ethnic relations in the United States. In this regard, the article aims to determine the priorities of value policy, considering the major trends of race relations development in the United States. The methodological basis for the research was formed by a sociological survey representing the formation of the system of core values in contemporary multicultural American society. Using the method of cluster analysis, the authors formed the matrix of social values differentiation according to their impact on race relations. The authors identified two types of values: Incentive values that facilitate improvement of race and ethnic relations and disincentive values which aggravate interracial conflicts. The authors defined and provided rationale for “high”, “medium” and “low” influence levels of incentive values on race relations in contemporary American society. The article explains the necessity of subordinated development of disincentive values in contrast to incentive values in value policy related to race relations. Influence levels of incentive values were used to determine the priorities in modern value policy being a factor of social and economic security of the multicultural American society. The findings were processed into conceptual provisions, so that this concept can be used in managing race ethnic relations at the federal level. © 2016 Yury Grigoryevich Volkov, Alexander Konstantinovich Degtyarev, Galina Sergeevna Denisova, Valeriya Petrovna Voytenko and Igor Pavlovich Chernobrovkin.
... Other groups, such as the Hmong, Vietnamese, Laotians, and Cambodians, tend to be comparatively recent immigrants. During the last two decades of the 20 th century, the Asian and Pacific Islander population tripled because of large scale immigration (Hobbs & Stoops, 2002). Between 2005the Asian population was the second fastest-growing minority group in the United States, with a three percent increase (U.S. Census Bureau News, 2007). ...
The lotus lily is a symbol of beauty and tranquility that rises up and breaks through the muddy darkness. Like the flower, we can break through the destructive cycle of domestic violence. Asian and Pacific Islander (API) women remain silent survivors of intimate violence. Hidden in violence statistics, unheard over crisis lines, unseen in mainstream shelters, the invisibility of API women is captured in the phrase " violence must not happen to them. " Conversely, when situations of domestic violence in API communities do become public, we may hear the opposite-" those women always face violence; it's part of their culture. " Between the myths of the peaceful and harmonious API family and that of the patriarchal violent API man coupled with a passive, obedient wife lies a complex truth. This chapter provides social workers, domestic violence advocates and other human service providers with a framework for understanding the realities of domestic violence in the API communities in the United States, as well as to offer them some guidelines for working effectively with these families and survivors of domestic violence.
... American society (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Hobbs & Stoops, 2002; Lee & Robbins 1995). Consequently, the lack of social connection (loneliness) represents one of the leading causes for people to seek therapy and counseling (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). ...
Love is all around us. It flows through every aspect of our lives and has inspired legions of people to talk, write, paint, act, and fight for it. Moreover, love affects our biological, mental, and physical states of being. A lack of love in ones life can have disastrous effects while an abundance of love can produce life-enhancing rewards. Positive psychology is the study of what makes life worth living and the strengths and virtues that enable people to live within optimal ranges of human functioning. Through a positive psychology lens and a review of the current literature, this capstone is an exploration into the contextual and biological implications of love, why it is a key component into what makes life worth living, and how people can learn to cultivate more love in their lives through empirically-tested activities and exercises.
... Residential landscapes are an integral part of urban ecosystems, accounting for nearly 41% of all urban land (Nowak et al., 1996). Though urban areas include densely populated core cities, most growth throughout the twentieth century occurred in suburban areas, home to half of the United States population in 2000 (Hobbs & Stoops, 2002). As cities expand outward to suburbs and exurbs, residential land cover-especially lawns-is expanding as well. ...
As urban areas expand in population and geographic spread, residential landscapes become more pervasive, which is often associated with an increase in turfgrass that can contribute to changes in water use and nutrient flows. Management of these landscapes is influenced at multiple scales—municipal policies, individual homeowner decision-making, and neighborhood norms, and municipal policies. Most municipalities implement policies that encourage (i.e., weed and grass height ordinances) and restrict (i.e., irrigation ordinances) lawn management. But what is the relationship between yard ordinances, homeowner awareness of these ordinances, and neighborhood yard norms? We explored this question through homeowner interviews and a review of yard ordinances in 17 cities in the Minneapolis–St. Paul Metropolitan Area as well as interviews with code enforcement officers. We found most municipalities have lawn irrigation restrictions and weed or grass height ordinances, yet generally rely on complaints from neighbors to enforce these lawn management policies. This may be helpful when it comes to policies reinforcing agreed upon social norms—like grass height ordinances—but may be difficult with policies acting against the norm—like lawn irrigation restrictions. Additionally, homeowners in suburban areas posted high rates of awareness of local policies. Homeowner comments suggest social norms regarding lawn management are present across the urban gradient; weed-free and mowed lawns were most commonly identified. These findings have implications for policy development moving forward as cities face issues related to water scarcity or try to accommodate changing resident desires for natural landscaping.
... Between 1970 and 1980 the percentage of Black women maintaining a household more than doubled. In 1980, women first became eligible to be identified as " householder of a married couple household " ; since then, they have " …represented an increasing proportion of all married couple householders for every race and Hispanic origin since 1980 " (Hobbs & Stoops, 2002). In 1950, 78% of Black families were married couples, compared with 56% in 1980 and 28.5% in 2010. ...
AHRQ’s Chartbook on Health Care for Blacks, derived from the National Healthcare Quality and Disparities Report, summarizes trends in health care disparities by race related to access, Heckler Report priorities, and National Quality Strategy priorities. Key findings include increases in suicide and mental health disparities, improvements in access to care since the Affordable Care Act, and poorer quality of care related to person-centeredness and care coordination.
In the United States, opposition to traditional standardized tests is widespread, particularly obvious in the admissions context but also evident in elementary and secondary education. This opposition is fueled in significant part by the perception that tests perpetuate social injustice through their content, design, and use. To survive, as well as contribute positively, the measurement field must rethink assessment, including how to make it more socioculturally responsive. This paper offers a rationale for that rethinking and then employs provisional design principles drawn from various literatures to formulate a working definition and the beginnings of a theory. In the closing section, a path toward implementation is suggested.
Over the last several decades, the Latino population has been the primary driver of US population growth. It is likely that the large growth of the Latino population is affecting the changing demography of cancer. This chapter features two analyses. The first analysis examines the absolute increases in cancer cases and deaths between 1999 and 2016 to assess the relative share of the growth that took place among Latinos. The second analysis develops projections of Latino cancer cases and deaths between 2016 and 2060 to determine the Latino share of the projected increase in cancer. The analysis was conducted with information from the CDC US Cancer Statistics public data and the US Census Bureau population projections. The results illustrate the growing presence of Latinos among cancer cases and deaths over the last 18 years and over the next four decades. The Latino incidence of cancer more than doubled and their number of cancer deaths nearly doubled between 1999 and 2016. The findings also suggest that these trends will intensify between 2016 and 2060. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the policy implications of the results.
By the end of 2020, over 1.8 million Americans will be diagnosed with cancer and 600,000 will die from the disease. Despite experiencing lower incidence rates of cancer compared to non-Hispanic Whites, the Hispanic population in the United States faces a number of barriers to care, which may result in more involved, costlier, and potentially less successful treatments. Hispanic men in particular experience disproportionate cancer-related health disparities compared to other racial and ethnic groups and Hispanic women. Hispanic men cancer survivors (HMCS) have unique supportive care needs and use a variety of coping mechanisms, which remain largely unaccounted for and unaddressed. This chapter presents a brief description of cancer epidemiology and relevant disparities in diagnosis and care for the Hispanic population in the United States. It also explores merging research centered on preliminary data about the supportive care needs of HMCS and concludes with recommendations for public health research and practice.
Over the last several decades, the survival for pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) has increased from about 40–90%. However, current treatment strategies are associated with several acute and long-term toxicities, including neurotoxicity. Further, racial and ethnic disparities persist in both incidence and outcomes for ALL. In particular, Latino children experience both the highest incidence of ALL and less favorable outcomes. The incidence of neurotoxicity during ALL therapy potentially jeopardizes treatment efficacy, and long-term neurocognitive impairment profoundly affects quality of life for survivors. Emerging evidence indicates that Latino patients may be particularly susceptible to these adverse side effects of therapy. Unfortunately, studies of neurotoxicity during ALL therapy have not included large populations of Latino children. Therefore, well-designed studies are needed to characterize neurotoxicity outcomes in Latino patients, while considering factors associated with disparities in cognitive performance in the general population, including socioeconomic status and acculturation. Ultimately, a better understanding of the various factors likely responsible for disparities in neurotoxicity is needed to improve outcomes for Latino children with ALL; these factors include inherited genetic variation, clinical characteristics, and sociocultural differences.
Breast cancer is the leading cause of death among Hispanic women. The number of Hispanic breast cancer survivors is increasing because the US Hispanic population is fast-growing and breast cancer survival is improving. However, this vulnerable population has received little attention. Obesity and weight gain affect Hispanic and African American/Black women disproportionately. Obesity affects several factors relevant to cancer survivorship, including cancer treatment and patient-reported outcomes such as health-related quality of life (QoL). As a first step toward addressing these issues, a pilot study was conducted to assess the feasibility of assembling a cohort of Hispanic breast cancer survivors in New Jersey. Methods were similar to those used in the ongoing Women’s Circle of Health Follow-Up Study, a cohort of African American/Black breast cancer survivors in New Jersey. Hispanic breast cancer survivors were very interested and willing to participate. There were interesting differences in body mass index and central adiposity between Hispanic and African American/Black breast cancer survivors, but both groups had a high prevalence of body fatness and comorbidities. Hispanic breast cancer survivors had lower QoL, particularly obese women. More research is needed to understand survivorship needs in minority and medically underserved women after a breast cancer diagnosis.
Latinos have higher incidence rates of cervical, gall bladder, liver, and gastric cancer, and higher mortality rates for six cancer sites than US Whites. This review chapter focuses on Latino cancer disparities, how the exposome can be applied to understanding Latino cancer disparities, and how environmental exposures lead to alterations in key biological pathways at the cellular, molecular, and system level, helping to explain the increased risk for population level cancer disparities among Latinos. An exposome-wide association study (ExWAS) approach is proposed as a novel conceptual framework to assess the role of multiple chemical and non-chemical exposures in the cause and progression of cancer among Latinos across the life course. Also discussed is how this strategy could be exploited by using biomarkers of susceptibility, exposure, and effect; and how a trans-omics approach, using recent advances in genomics, epigenomics, transcriptomics, metabolomics, proteomics, and lipidomics, could be used to deploy new biomarkers that serve both prognostic and diagnostic purposes. Also outlined are the knowledge gaps and scope for future studies in this area with implications for public health and policy interventions.
Precision medicine has emerged as an optimal health-care delivery platform, which emphasizes integration of individual patient characteristics into patient care. For lung cancer, precision approaches have focused mostly on targeted therapies directed at tyrosine kinases and immunotherapy. It is proposed that refinements should focus on improved risk stratification of patients at heightened risk of lung malignancy, namely patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). African ancestry is associated with worsened clinical outcomes in COPD and lung cancer, which is relevant for Latinx populations given that varying degrees of African ancestry exist among several Latinx subgroups. The work reviewed here focuses on ORF1p, a protein encoded by Long Interspersed Element-1 (LINE-1) and associated with genetic instability. Because high expression of ORF1p is associated with poor prognosis in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), it is hypothesized that circulating ORF1p can be monitored as a proxy of genetic instability in patients with COPD and lung cancer. Circulating ORF1p levels correlate with FEV1 deficits and airflow limitation (the hallmark of COPD) in former smokers, and tissue expression of ORF1p is increased in TP53 mutant NSCLC compared to wildtype. Understanding the role of ORF1p in COPD and lung cancer and its utility as a biomarker of genetic instability may lead to advances in lung cancer care and development of novel targeted therapies.
As Latinxs become exposed to US culture, their risk for many chronic diseases increases, including the risk of cancer. On average, less acculturated Latinxs consume more nutrient-dense foods including fruits, vegetables, and whole grains; they are also more active than their US counterparts because they use active transportation. Cultural and behavioral patterns of recent immigrants may prove to be protective; these patterns are based on the Latinx values of collectivism, familismo , and personalismo . As generational status in the United States increases, positive health behaviors related to dietary intake and activity diminish. Interventions that reinforce these practices may mitigate the negative effects of the acculturation process by capitalizing on behaviors that are protective against the risk of cancer. Traditional Latinx cultural values can be integrated into public health practice and intervention, preserving traditional Latinx practices that are protective and promote positive health outcomes. The integration of cultural beliefs and values into research studies will increase relevancy for Latinx participants and contribute to compliance and long-term participation for improved population health.
Financial hardship is increasingly understood as a serious threat to achieving cancer health equity. Food insecurity, defined as an inability to access enough healthy food because of a lack of money or other resources, is an extreme manifestation of financial hardship that occurs when patients shift money from their food budget to cover other expenses, including cancer treatment. Emerging evidence suggests that cancer-related financial hardship disproportionately impacts Latinos; however, the research on financial hardship, food insecurity, and access to medical care is limited. Results are presented from a cross-sectional survey comparing the prevalence of financial hardship and food insecurity among population-based Hispanic and non-Hispanic cancer survivors, and the relationship between ethnicity, food insecurity, and forgone medical care is examined. The substantially higher prevalence of food insecurity among Hispanic cancer survivors highlights the need for food insecurity screening and prevention programs in community oncology practice.
This chapter provides an overview of recent natural experiments, demonstrating the effects of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) on health-care disparities for Latino adults and youth. In brief, the ACA has had positive impacts on health-care access and utilization for Latinos, but disparities persist. Moreover, inequities in access to care are more pervasive for Mexicans and Central Americans, particularly for those who are noncitizens and live in states that have not expanded Medicaid as part of the ACA. Current policy dilemmas are discussed including the growth of Latino populations in states that have not expanded Medicaid and recent anti-immigrant rhetoric and border enforcement.
Among Hispanic women, breast cancer is the most common cancer accounting for close to 30% of the total cancer cases. It is estimated that in 2018 alone, 24,000 Hispanics were diagnosed with invasive breast cancer. Of significant importance is that breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer death (16%) among Hispanic women, with over 3000 patients dying in 2018 secondary to this disease.
Despite the decrease in breast cancer mortality rates seen in recent years, the magnitude of that decrease among Hispanics is lower compared to the decrease seen among non-Hispanic White women (1.1% per year vs 1.8% per year). Potential contributing factors associated with this phenomenon include the fact that Hispanics are more likely to be diagnosed with more advanced stages and to have tumors with aggressive biology. In addition, sociodemographic factors and difficulty accessing medical care are likely to play an important role. It has been described that Hispanic women are less likely that non-Hispanic Whites to receive appropriate and timely breast cancer treatment. In this chapter, we will review the complexities of breast cancer diagnosis and treatment. We will briefly review some of the challenges in cancer care delivery that Hispanics experience and will review data describing the detrimental impact that treatment delays can have among minorities and some of the unique challenges that Hispanics experience.
Breast cancer is the most common cancer among US Hispanics/Latinas; however, Hispanic/Latina women in the United States have historically shown a relatively low breast cancer incidence compared to non-Hispanic White or African American/Black women. Hispanics/Latinos are genetically diverse, with varying proportions of European, Indigenous American, African, and to a lesser extent, Asian continental genetic ancestry. This heterogeneous group has often been treated as a monolithic unit in cancer epidemiology, due to small sample sizes and the concomitant limitations in statistical power. Only a few breast cancer studies including Hispanics/Latinas have analyzed the correlation between individual genetic ancestry proportion and tumor subtype. Most of these studies were unable to provide conclusive evidence due to the reduced number of patients with available tumor subtype information (either from immunohistochemical markers or gene expression data). This chapter provides a brief description of results reported from breast cancer studies including US Hispanic/Latina or Latin American patients assessing the association/correlation between genetic ancestry and breast cancer subtype. Also discussed are possible explanations for reported findings and a perspective on how further studies could lead to more precise tumor subtype-specific risk assessment, treatment efficacy, and outcome prognosis in US Hispanics/Latinas and Latin American women.
Achieving personalized healthcare for all people, including the most vulnerable Hispanic communities, may appear to be an insurmountable task or an impossible reality. Biotech pioneer and thought leader Genentech, a member of the Roche Group, has taken deliberate and strategic steps toward reaching this goal. Strategic priorities for this effort include developing policies focused on inclusive practices, increasing the amount of genomic data and scientific insights from underrepresented populations, and leveraging partner relationships to develop actionable strategies to increase clinical research participation. Through collaboration with the broader healthcare ecosystem, progress can be made to help remove systemic barriers for communities of color and build a future of precision medicine.
Hispanic/Latina breast cancer survivors (BCS) in the United States experience disparities in survivorship outcomes, including worse health-related quality of life (HRQOL) and symptom burden than non-Hispanic/Latina BCS. Despite documented efficacy among BCS in general, few psychosocial interventions are specifically designed for Hispanic/Latina BCS. With increasing technology use among US Hispanics/Latinos, e-health interventions such as smartphone applications can deliver more easily accessible, scalable, and culturally tailored psychosocial interventions. Two culturally informed smartphone applications for Hispanic/Latina BCS— My Guide (intervention) and My Health (control)—were developed and evaluated. Results demonstrated the feasibility of study procedures and the high acceptability of both applications, which showed improvements in breast cancer well-being and symptom burden over time. A third application— My Guide for Breast Cancer Treatment —was developed to expand the focus of My Guide to Hispanic/Latina women currently in active treatment for breast cancer; a second pilot randomized controlled trial will compare this new application to usual enhanced care. Given the lack of culturally tailored, evidence-based, e-health psychosocial interventions for Hispanic/Latina BCS, My Guide and My Guide for Breast Cancer Treatment may bridge a gap in cancer care, providing needed psychosocial resources to this underrepresented population. E-health supportive and behavioral interventions focused on breast cancer, and its treatment may improve patient engagement as well as patient-reported outcomes among Hispanic/Latina women during active treatment for breast cancer and into survivorship.
Cancer is the second leading cause of death among non-Hispanic white (NHW) men and women in the United States—but is the leading cause of death among Latinos (American Cancer Society, Cancer facts and figures for Hispanics/Latinos 2018–2020. American Cancer Society, Inc., Atlanta, 2018). The US Latino population was 60.6 million in 2019, as one of the largest, youngest, and fastest growing minority groups in the United States, its population will nearly double by 2060, making up 27.5% of the projected US population (Vespa et al., Demographic turning points for the United States: population projections for 2020 to 2060. U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC. Report No.: P25-1144. https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2020/demo/p25-1144.html. Accessed 25 Aug 2021 , 2020; Noe-Bustamante et al., Hispanic population surpassed 60 million in 2019, but growth has slowed. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/07/07/u-s-hispanic-population-surpassed-60-million-in-2019-but-growth-has-slowed/. Accessed 28 Aug 2021, 2020). Thus, advancing the science of cancer in Latinos has become an imperative for the nation, as Latinos will contribute a significant portion to its future cancer burden.
An estimated 34,800 cancers in the United States were caused by HPV between 2012 and 2016. Among those cancers (cervical, vulvar, vaginal, anal, oropharyngeal, and penile), the overwhelming majority can be prevented with vaccination and cervical cancer screening and treatment. While the incidence of cervical cancer has significantly declined in all populations in the United States since 1975, Hispanic women continue to have significantly higher rates of cervical cancer than non-Hispanic White and Black women. In 2018, the director of the WHO announced his call to action for the global elimination of cervical cancer which is defined as an incidence of <4/100,000. Mathematical models indicate that the United States can achieve the goal of cervical cancer elimination (reducing incidence from ~7/100,000 to <4/100,000) by 2030 if we meet the goals set for the country for both vaccination and screening/treatment. The fastest way to achieve the goal is to ensure that all age-eligible women follow cervical cancer screening guidelines, which are for 93% of females to be screened for cervical cancer. Currently only 80% of women follow this recommendation, with lower percentages among Hispanic women (70–78%). Of concern, the percentage of women following screening recommendations appears to be on the decline in the United States. While the rate of HPV vaccination coverage is far below the national goal of 80%, overall Hispanic adolescents have higher vaccine coverage (56.6%) compared to non-Hispanic White (47.8%) and Black (53.3%) adolescents. There is a need to communicate the HPV vaccine’s effectiveness to increase its acceptance, and there is also an ongoing need to promote cervical cancer screening. In addition, providers must consistently deliver strong and linguistically/culturally relevant recommendations for both vaccination and screening.
To optimize engagement of Latino communities in cancer research, University of Southern California researchers are working with communities on prevention of cervical cancer, a highly preventable and treatable disease. Two recent studies from their signature initiatives, Es Tiempo and Tamale Lesson , are presented to illustrate the situation in the Latino community regarding the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination and cervical cancer screening. These population-based studies included promotores de salud (lay community health workers) and community members who were engaged from conceptualization, recruitment, translation, cultural adaptation, information dissemination, and other important aspects of the research. A third exploratory effort used virtual reality as a research tool to better understand vaccine hesitancy, especially among boys and explored end-of-life quality improvements for immigrant Latino populations. These studies serve as a backdrop for discussing common strategies to increase participation in cancer research in key areas such as information delivery, consultation with stakeholders and partners, and collaboration with community opinion leaders. Strategies are discussed, which optimize engagement in cancer research, stimulate communication, and empower participants to engage in research. These strategies shape attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, improving outcomes for Latinas at risk of cervical and other HPV-related cancers.
The second ASCL conference was held in February 2020, about 1 month after the first case of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was documented in the United States and before evidence of community spread. Since then, COVID-19 has become a global pandemic that has disproportionately infected, hospitalized, and killed ethnic and racial minorities in the United States (Jacobson et al., Am J Prev Med 61(5):644–651, 2021; Moore et al., MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 69:1122–1126, 2020; Shiels et al., Ann Intern Med. https://doi.org/10.7326/m21-2134 , 2021; American Cancer Society, Cancer facts & figures 2021. American Cancer Society, Atlanta, 2021). According to a report of provisional life expectancy estimates from the National Center for Health Statistics, the life expectancy for US Hispanics decreased 3 years (81.8–78.8) between 2019 and 2020. As a result, the life expectancy advantage held by Hispanics over non-Hispanic whites narrowed by 60%, suggesting poorer health and mortality outcomes for the US Hispanic population. It is estimated that 90% of this decline in the life expectancy gap is the result of mortality caused by COVID-19 (Arias et al., Provisional life expectancy estimates for 2020. National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, 2021). Some speculate that this disease disparity exists because Hispanics and other underrepresented groups receive the greatest exposure to the virus. They are more likely to live in densely populated areas and multigenerational households; use public transportation; and have essential public-facing jobs in the service and healthcare sectors, where working from home is not an option (American Cancer Society, Cancer facts & figures 2021. American Cancer Society, Atlanta, 2021; Hooper et al., JAMA 323(24):2466–2467, 2020; Balogun et al., JAMA Oncol 6(10):1531–1532, 2020). If infected, they are also more likely to experience severe symptoms of COVID-19 because of comorbidities such as diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease, asthma, and other chronic conditions (Hooper et al., JAMA 323(24):2466–2467, 2020).
There are a variety of clinical practices and effective community interventions that can improve cancer outcomes in Latino populations; however, these programs are not sufficiently implemented in practice. Furthermore, although there are existing platforms for the dissemination of evidence-based interventions, they are primarily used by researchers. The goal of implementation science is to bridge this gap between research and practice by understanding methods to promote the adoption and integration of evidence into a variety of settings where people are seeking care, including clinical, public health, and community settings. Implementation science hinges on understanding the multilevel context in which implementation occurs and engages stakeholders to ensure that strategies address the critical barriers; are feasible, acceptable, and appropriate; and are likely to be integrated, sustained, and scaled. By advancing implementation science and concentrating on the how in addition to the what , we can ensure that cancer discoveries are able to most effectively reduce the burden of cancer for Latinos.
This article describes an overview of key findings from the Comparative Welfare Entitlements Project (CWEP). CWEP compiles major features of the generosity of unemployment, sickness and public pension programs over the last several decades in 21 countries. Describing and extending earlier work to measure the institutional variation in major social insurance programs over time, we provide previously unpublished methodological details of widely used measures of program generosity; measures which have appeared in over 200 analyses during the last decade and a half. We find a high level of variation in wage replacement and benefit conditionality across programs in most countries; calling into question the notion of an historically stable configurations of characteristics, at least during the last 45 years. For instance, our research shows that several prototypical social democratic welfare states experienced the highest declines in generosity in the last three decades. Furthermore, we also show that, as late as the mid‐1970s, some ‘social democratic’ welfare states still trailed some ‘conservative’ welfare states, including prototypical ones like Germany.
This commentary focuses on one of the positive impacts of COVID‐19, which was to tie societal inequity to testing in a manner that could motivate the reimagining of our field. That reimagining needs to account for our nation's dramatically changing demographics so that assessment generally, and standardized testing specifically, better fit the needs of a multicultural society.
Objective
To derive a US-based value set for the EQ-5D-5L questionnaire using an international, standardized protocol developed by the EuroQol Group.
Methods
Respondents from the US adult population were quota-sampled on the basis of age, sex, ethnicity, and race. Trained interviewers guided participants in completing composite time trade-off (cTTO) and discrete choice experiment (DCE) tasks using the EuroQol Valuation Technology software and routine quality control measures. Data were modeled using a Tobit model for cTTO data, a mixed logit model for DCE data, and a hybrid model that combined cTTO and DCE data. Model performance was compared on the basis of logical ordering of coefficients, statistical significance, parsimony, and theoretical considerations.
Results
Of 1134 respondents, 1062, 1099, and 1102 respondents provided useable cTTO, DCE, and cTTO or DCE responses, respectively, on the basis of quality control criteria and interviewer judgment. Respondent demographic characteristics and health status were similar to the 2015 US Census. The Tobit model was selected as the preferred model to generate the value set. Values ranged from −0.573 (55 555) to 1 (11 111), with 20% of all predicted health states scores less than 0 (ie, worse than dead).
Conclusions
A societal value set for the EQ-5D-5L was developed that can be used for economic evaluations and decision making in US health systems. The internationally established, standardized protocol used to develop this US-based value set was recommended by the EuroQol Group and can facilitate cross-country comparisons.
The presence of Asian students can be strongly felt in U.S. universities these days. As non-native English-speaking (NNES) students, many of them face challenges in reading and writing in English, inside and outside the classroom. Research suggests that challenges specific to Asian students include indirection in making points, lack of personal voice, and discomfort in collaborative work. While some studies have examined these students’ difficulties and strategies in academic literacy, very few have explored how university subject teachers accommodate these students’ reading and writing abilities to facilitate learning. We studied American professors’ practices in using writing to facilitate learning at an English-medium summer school in China, a school which constitutes part of transnational American higher education. All professors came from well-ranked American universities and taught a variety of courses typically offered to freshmen and sophomores in their home institutions. The majority of students are Chinese international students returning home from North America for the summer. Focusing on humanities and social sciences professors, who made up the majority of the faculty, the study has identified several key accommodation strategies that these professors adopted for their Chinese students. We conclude the study by discussing implications for assisting Asian students with their written English in English-medium university content courses. The professors’ practices also raise questions about higher education in the United States.
Compared to their grandparents living in the 1970s, our more self-reliant and empowered American aging baby boomers will be better able to access the goods, services, and care they need to age in place autonomously in their current dwellings. The emergence of the Internet economy and the prospects of gerontechnological advances will only increase this connectivity divide. However, one unintended consequence of increased connectivity may be a generation of more socially isolated older baby boomers.
Although research documents a link between neighborhood physical disorder and psychological distress, we know little about the extent to which this association varies by age. Utilizing the person–environment fit model and drawing on data from the fourth wave of the Americans’ Changing Lives Survey, we examine the extent to which age influences the association between perceptions of neighborhood physical disorder and psychological distress, as measured by depressive symptoms. We employ both continuous and categorical measures of age to test for a potential moderating effect. Overall findings based on linear regression analyses reveal that the mental distress resulting from the perception of physically deteriorating neighborhood declines with age. Stated otherwise, we find that the psychological distress associated with the perception of neighborhood physical disorder is far less pronounced for the young-old (60 years and above) and late-old (70 years and above) adults as compared with their young middle-aged (40–49 years) and late middle-aged (50–59 years) counterparts.
As educational history and urban history have developed in recent decades, a significant gap has opened up between them. On one side, educational historians have focused on the rise and fall of big-city school districts. On the other side, urban historians have documented how governmental housing, tax, and transportation policies fueled the postwar decline of cities and expansion of outlying suburbs. But these two fields have failed to connect with one another. In general, educational historians have not yet connected the decline of urban schools with the growth of the suburbs, and the broader political and economic shifts in the metropolitan context. Likewise, urban historians have rarely discussed what role schools played in the transformation of cities and suburbs. This chapter seeks to bridge the historiographical gap between urban, suburban, and educational history by demonstrating how these works can inform one another. It highlights major books that have served as the foundations in each field over the past few decades, as well as the rising body of new scholarship that attempts to span the distance between them.
By the middle of this century, racial/ethnic minority populations will collectively constitute 50% of the US population. This temporal shift in the racial/ethnic composition of the US population demands a close look at the race/ethnicity-specific burden of morbidity and premature mortality among survivors of childhood cancer. To optimize targeted long-term follow-up care, it is essential to understand whether the burden of morbidity borne by survivors of childhood cancer differs by race/ethnicity. This is challenging because the number of minority participants is often limited in current childhood cancer survivorship research, resulting in a paucity of race/ethnicity-specific recommendations and/or interventions. Although the overall childhood cancer incidence increased between 1973 and 2003, the mortality rate declined; however, these changes did not differ appreciably by race/ethnicity. The authors speculated that any racial/ethnic differences in outcome are likely to be multifactorial, and drew on data from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study to illustrate the various contributors (socioeconomic characteristics, health behaviors, and comorbidities) that could explain any observed differences in key treatment-related complications. Finally, the authors outlined challenges in conducting race/ethnicity-specific childhood cancer survivorship research, demonstrating that there are limited absolute numbers of children who are diagnosed and survive cancer in any one racial/ethnic minority population, thereby precluding a rigorous evaluation of adverse events among specific primary cancer diagnoses and treatment exposure groups. Cancer 2016. © 2016 American Cancer Society.
The sixth chapter examines how consumption per capita tends to track income per capita across countries and within individual countries with diverse income levels and cultures. It discusses the Life-Cycle Hypothesis concerned with the maximisation of consumption during the life-cycle. It also illustrates life-cycle hump-shaped trends. It raises conceptual and measurement issues including household-size equivalence measures. These issues include the question of cross-sectional findings and longitudinal trends and the use of pseudo panels. It examines issues related to consumption and savings in old age and differential mortality. It then reviews empirical findings related to household size, employment, work-related expenditures, durable and non-durable goods related to consumer behaviour. Finally, it assesses factors affecting consumer behaviour in retirement, a growing demographic trend, including credit/liquidity constraints, income and life expectancy uncertainty, bequest motives, leisure choices and unanticipated shocks.
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