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The High Cost of Leaving: An Analysis of the Cost of Teacher Turnover
Abstract
The cost of teacher turnover to schools and school districts has only recently been studied. This research reveals that when high-quality teachers leave the classroom, the effect on both student performance and school and district fiscal operations is significant and deleterious. The implications for study in this area include the planning of teacher induction programs that can improve teacher retention and student achievement, and educational finance reforms that have the potential to increase the efficiency of school district finances and operations. In this article, the two fiscal measurement instruments used to determine the cost of teacher attrition are compared and critiqued--the School Turnover Analysis and the Teacher Turnover Cost Calculator. The article concludes with recommendations for future research and policy reform, and encourages the increased use of teacher attrition cost measurement tools in schools and school districts. (Contains 1 figure and 1 table.)
... Approximately 25% of teachers surveyed responded that they lacked industry experience, a requirement for CTE certification. This percentage reflects the difficulty that BCS has experienced in acquiring and retaining certified teachers, which is not uncommon in urban public schools (Watlington, 2010). At the time of the project, Carver AOHS was functioning without a CTE/CA instructor. ...
... Teachers leaving the profession most often cite lack of professional support in the form of planning time (Borman, 2008). On the other hand, professional support that includes participating in a school mentoring program, school-based teacher networks, communal professional development and collaboration are contributing factors in retaining quality teachers (Borman & Dowling, 2008;Leland & Murtadha, 2011;Watlington, Shockley, Guglielmino & Felsher, 2010). Another contributing factor in teacher retention and building peer cohesion is communal professional development (Ainscow, Muijs, & West, 2006;Leland & Murtadha, 2011). ...
... BCS should find a solution to this pressing issue. Students in classrooms without an experienced teacher suffer achievement (Shakrani, 2008, Watlington 2010 as well as the non-cognitive feelings of a lack of trust in the replacement teachers (Coordinator interview). This is an issue that affects all students in all BCS high schools and can help BCS address the related, systemic issue of excessive teacher turnover. ...
In the last three decades, career academies have grown in popularity as a mechanism to bolster high school students’ college and career readiness. Career academies offer small learning communities, project-based/work-based learning opportunities, and personalized academic support for students (Orr, Bailey, Hughes, Karp, & Kienzl, 2004). In an effort to improve students’ academic and career
outcomes, education, business, and community leaders joined forces in 2010 to create career academies in Birmingham, Alabama. Since then, Birmingham City Schools (BCS) and a local educational nonprofit organization, Birmingham Education Foundation (Ed.), have collaborated to establish one or more career academy programs in all seven public high schools. In the spring of 2016, Birmingham
Education Foundation and Birmingham City Schools requested that Ed.D. students at Peabody College study the implementation and outcomes of Birmingham’s career academies. The following capstone project report is the result of this research request.
... 17,18 When teachers leave a school due to budget cuts or lack of funding, the resulting effects on student performance and school and district fiscal operations are "significant and deleterious." 61,62 Research has corrected the misconception that low teacher retention is due to limited student enrollment and/or teacher retirement; in actuality, teacher shortages are largely the result of teachers leaving schools or the profession before retirement. 61,62 The cost of this is not only fiscal, but also emotional and psychological, with other teachers, students, and staff potentially facing negative impacts. ...
... 61,62 Research has corrected the misconception that low teacher retention is due to limited student enrollment and/or teacher retirement; in actuality, teacher shortages are largely the result of teachers leaving schools or the profession before retirement. 61,62 The cost of this is not only fiscal, but also emotional and psychological, with other teachers, students, and staff potentially facing negative impacts. The costs of teacher shortages also disproportionately impact schools that serve marginalized populations, including rural schools and students. ...
... The costs of teacher shortages also disproportionately impact schools that serve marginalized populations, including rural schools and students. 61,62 As such, retention of teachers necessitates systemic and policy-level interventions. In addition to retention of educators in the profession, the APA's 2022 report indicated that many teachers experienced violence from students and parents. ...
Objective
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic deleteriously impacted physical and mental health. In the summer of 2020, return-to-learn plans were enacted, including virtual, hybrid, and in-person plans, impacting educators and students. We examined (1) how return-to-learn plan was related to depressive and social anxiety symptoms among educators and (2) how psychological flexibility related to symptoms.
Methods
Educators ( N = 853) completed a survey via Qualtrics that assessed internalizing symptoms, psychological flexibility, and occupational characteristics. Two one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) examined between-group differences in return-to-learn plans across depression and social anxiety. Two hierarchical linear regressions examined the relation between psychological flexibility components and depressive and social anxiety symptoms.
Results
Median T -scores were well above the national normative means for General Depression (median T -score: 81) and Social Anxiety (median T -score: 67). There were no significant differences between reopening plans in general depression nor social anxiety T -scores. Psychological flexibility accounted for 33% of the variance in depressive symptoms and 24% of the variance in social anxiety symptoms.
Conclusions
Results indicated high levels of psychiatric symptoms among educators during COVID-19, and psychological flexibility was associated with lower symptoms. Addressing educator mental health is of utmost importance in future research.
... According to the Institute of Educational Sciences School Pulse Data (2023), public schools are facing significant challenges that are inhibiting them from recruiting and retaining a qualified workforce and meeting the diverse needs of the students and families they serve (Chetty et al., 2014;Nguyen et al., 2020). Historically, the inability to retain a qualified workforce has been mostly due to retirement and/or an increase in student populations (Watlington et al., 2010). These reasons have shifted to educators prematurely leaving the field at unprecedented rates (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017). ...
... This has left education systems significantly understaffed with approximately 8% of teachers leaving the profession, accounting for almost 90% of the annual teacher demand (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017;Will et al., 2023). Turnover has a profound impact as it costs approximately $2.2 billion annually nationwide when educators leave the field rising to $4.9 billion per year when educators transfer schools or job placements (Watlington et al., 2010). ...
... En Estados Unidos, Watlington et al. (2010) estudia esta temática y la dividen en tres dimensiones llamadas: de separación, reemplazo y entrenamiento. La primera dimensión cubre el financiamiento de la partida del docente, incluyendo entrevistas de salida y pago de licencias o vacaciones; la segunda corresponde al reclutamiento considerando el financiamiento de los anuncios de búsqueda y tiempo destinado a la revisión de currículos, chequeo de referencias y realización de entrevistas; y, finalmente, está la inducción contemplando materiales, mentores y actividades. ...
... En el desarrollo de la agenda de investigación, algunos temas interesantes de revisar en el país se relacionan con la recomendación de Watlington et al. (2010) de estandarizar la información sobre el costo financiero de la rotación y deserción, la de Kraft et al (2016) de evaluar los contextos organizacionales de las escuelas o la de Carrasco et al. (2018) de monitorear la dotación e identificar las demandas de docentes futuras así como determinar las mejores prácticas costo-efectivas, siguiendo a Watlington et al. (2010). También podría ser importante caracterizar y comprender el perfil de quiénes rotan o deserta, pero sobre todo por qué deciden hacerlo y qué necesitan para regresar y así poder invertir eficazmente en iniciativas focalizadas y priorizar las condiciones laborales más importantes, explican Borman y Dowling (2008), Lindqvist et al. (2014) y MINEDUC (2017). ...
La investigación nacional sobre rotación y deserción docente es promisoria, pero está desactualizada, pues aún no cubre las modificaciones en las condiciones laborales implementadas por la Política Nacional Docente en 2017. En este contexto, este ensayo busca sistematizar las razones para actualizar las estimaciones de rotación y deserción docente en el país y las principales propuestas de política pública para prevenirla y/o mitigarla. Considerando la evidencia nacional e internacional, la tesis desarrollada defiende cinco razones que explican su relevancia y cinco recomendaciones de política pública. Así, destaca, por un lado, no solo la Política Nacional Docente, sino también la eficacia escolar, el costo financiero, la equidad educativa y el déficit docente y, por otro, la reconceptualización de la decisión de rotar y/o desertar, los diferentes perfiles de docentes, las condiciones laborales no cubiertas aún por la Política Nacional Docente, los roles diferenciados que debe tener el gobierno, la escuela y el nivel intermedio, y el incentivo a la agenda de investigación. Las conclusiones hacen una invitación a fortalecer un acercamiento coordinado y comprensivo del complejo fenómeno de la rotación y deserción docente, especialmente tras los cambios sociopolíticos y sanitarios que vive Chile en términos de la Política Nacional Docente, pero también de la ley de Nueva Educación Pública y la pandemia por COVID-19.
... La decisión de renunciar es un factor que afecta a la organización, a los compañeros, a los supervisores, a los supervisados, a los clientes y al individuo (Aksu, 2008;McKinney et al., 2007;Staw, 1980;Watlington et al., 2010). En múltiples investigaciones se clasifican los factores que afectan la organización en las áreas de costos de separación, costos de reemplazo y costos de capacitación. ...
... Dejándose llevar por su terminología, estos costos se explican por sí mismos. (Aksu, 2008;McKinney et al., 2007;Watlington et al., 2010). Sin embargo, también existe un área de costos indirectos más difíciles de cuantificar (Aksu, 2008;McKinney et al., 2007;Staw, 1980). ...
La intención de renunciar se utiliza para entender por qué las personas renuncian. Esta se define como una inclinación consciente, deliberada y mayormente planificada de renunciar al empleo con miras de ocupar un puesto en otra organización. El propósito del presente estudio es auscultar cómo la intención de renunciar se relaciona con la satisfacción con la supervisión y el cinismo organizacional. Este estudio se realizó mediante el análisis secundario de datos obtenidos con una muestra de 605 participantes. Los resultados del primer análisis indican que el cinismo medió completamente la relación entre la satisfacción con la supervisión y la intención de renunciar. Los resultados del segundo análisis indican que el cinismo organizacional modera la relación entre la satisfacción con la supervisión y la intención de renunciar. Se concluye que debe estar presente el cinismo organizacional para que se desarrolle la intención de renunciar.
... to $ 26,502 per teacher leaving the classroom (Watlington, Shockley, Guglielmino, & Felsher 2010). This cost is not the only issue that school districts face when teachers leave. ...
... Overall teacher attrition has been a significant area of concern for decades (MacDonald, 1999). While reasons vary for overall teacher attrition, the fact remains that costs due to attrition of qualified teachers can be significant in terms of monetary loss and student achievement within school districts (Watlington et al., 2010, Borman & Downing, 2008. This is especially the case for math and science teachers who leave the classroom early and fail to persist to retirement (Ingersoll & May 2012). ...
This study investigated the correlations between occupational citizenship behaviors, self-efficacy, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment of math and science teachers. The purpose was to discern how these variables interacted to determine how best to support these teachers so they may be more likely to stay teaching in their organizations until retirement. The researcher surveyed math and science teachers within the State of Alabama. There were 314 math and science teachers who completed the survey instrument. Six hypotheses were evaluated to determine if all the variables had positive relationships with each other. From the correlation analysis, used for hypothesis testing, total scores of all latent variable scales were calculated and used for the analyses. Four were supported by the analysis results while two were not.
Due to the hypothesis testing results, the researcher conducted exploratory analysis including path analysis of the total scores of the latent variable scales and further correlation analysis of their subscales. The further analyses yielded more useful information used to further explain the interactions between the study variables.
Results of all analyses were used by the researcher to make recommendations to school districts and post-secondary institutions on how best to provide training to practicing teachers and pre-service teachers. Further recommendations for future research were also proposed.
... A staff induction programme would help new staff acclimatise to the unique culture and ethos of Youthreach and support in-service work commitment development. Induction programmes are key to reducing the social and fiscal cost of teacher turnover in education settings with high levels of at-risk students (Watlington et al., 2010), especially those that utilise mentors and focus on high-leverage activities (Schmidt et al., 2017). ...
A national review of Ireland's Youthreach education programme for early school leavers found staff retention to be a future challenge for the programme (Smyth et al., 2019). With no previous research into staff retention in Youthreach, this study explores the unique characteristics of the programme to identify variables influencing staff intention to leave. This mixed-methods study used emerging themes from interviews with former staff to identify constructs of interest and select quantitative tools grounded in the culture and perspective of the participants. Analysis of the quantitative data included a hierarchical multiple regression model to assess the strength of the relationships between intention to leave and independent variables. Alongside complementing existing research on teacher retention, the study draws attention to emerging themes specific to Youthreach; the most significant of these being staff burnout, role equity, and work commitment, which are included in the final regression model. The study findings highlight the profound emotional impact that working with at-risk young people had on Youthreach staff. A strong sense of inequity in professional standing contributed to intention to leave and was a possible recruitment barrier.
... Enhancing SETs' work wellbeing-defined by their capacity to appropriately respond to work challenges and feel healthy, happy, and successful while teaching (Scaria et al., 2020)-presents an opportunity to support a school community through improved student outcomes, better teacher health and teaching practices, and less time and district money spent on hiring and training (Fox et al., 2020;Synar & Maiden, 2012;Watlington et al., 2010). Recently, researchers have begun to supplement research on SET burnout with studies on work wellbeing (Fox et al., 2020;Walter, Kutscher, et al., 2023), with important implications for promoting positive teacher affective (i.e., relating to feelings, moods, or attitudes) experiences in schools. ...
Teacher burnout and wellbeing are crucial to address as chronic teacher shortages persist, especially for special education teachers (SETs). Extending Brunsting et al.'s prior review on special educator burnout published in 2014, we synthesize 29 studies from 2013 to 2023 assessing factors associated with SETs' work wellbeing or burnout. Most studies were quantitative, used cross-sectional analyses of convenience samples of SETs, and explored a range of factors, including working conditions (i.e., structure of work responsibilities and supports to meet those responsibilities) or affective responses to stress. Some recent studies provided initial responses to prior calls for longitudinal analyses, mixed methods studies, and intervention development. Our synthesis identifies strengths of the literature base and areas for future research, as well as implications for teacher educators, practitioners , and policy makers.
... The attrition rate among teachers has emerged as a pressing concern for educational systems worldwide (UNESCO & International Task Force on Teachers for Education 2030, 2024; UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2024;Viac & Fraser, 2020). Teachers' departures not only disrupt and impose significant costs on schools but can also lead to large classrooms and inadequate replacements (e.g., Atteberry et al., 2017;Henry & Redding, 2020;Watlington et al., 2010). ...
Teacher attrition remains a significant challenge in K–12 education, driven by rising concerns about workload, administrative support, and compensation. This qualitative study explored the factors contributing to teacher attrition and identified strategies to improve retention. Semi-structured interviews and focus groups were conducted with 28 teachers across 16 U.S. states who had either left the profession or were actively considering departure. Thematic analysis revealed four primary drivers of attrition: unsustainable workloads, inadequate administrative support, particularly regarding student behavior, insufficient compensation, and diminished professional autonomy. Participants also reported experiences of moral conflict and burnout, shaped by systemic challenges and shifting expectations following the COVID-19 pandemic. While some teachers indicated they would not return under any circumstances, others identified potential interventions, including increased pay, stronger leadership support, and reduced non-instructional responsibilities. These findings suggest that teacher attrition stems from multiple factors, highlighting the need for systemic reforms to support teacher well-being and retention.
... The loss of such employees can disrupt organisational effectiveness and efficiency by reducing the collective ability of those who remain (Allen, 2008;Allen & Griffeth, 1999;Ford & Forsyth, 2021;Menzies, 2023;Sorensen & Ladd, 2020). Recruitment and training of replacements of similar competency and experience typically require substantial additional resources (Allen et al., 2017;Barnes et al., 2007;Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017;Ford & Forsyth, 2021;Gibbons et al., 2018;Sorensen & Ladd, 2020;Watlington et al., 2010). ...
Past research on teacher shortages due to turnover has not adequately distinguished between teachers leaving the profession (attrition) and moving between schools (migration), hindering the identification of tailored retention strategies for schools and/or the profession. This study, part of a comprehensive project including a systematic review, meta-analysis, and empirical investigation, surveyed 930 current and former K-12 teachers in Victoria, Australia. It explored their reasons for quitting, migrating, or remaining in the profession. Thematic analysis revealed that career factors and school characteristics primarily drive migration, whereas personal life stages and role compatibility influence attrition. Factors supporting retention include personal choice, job compatibility, and positive relationships with students and colleagues. Migration often stems from a quest for professional advancement and dissatisfaction with school culture. Conversely, attrition is predominantly driven by job dissatisfaction and burnout. The findings suggest that while migration can yield positive outcomes for departing teachers, some teachers may feel compelled to stay due to factors like poor employability, fear of change, or personal obligations. Importantly , the study captured voluntary and involuntary career decisions, with the latter often overlooked previously. This research underscores the need for tailored strategies that acknowledge and address both voluntary and involuntary aspects of teacher turnover.
... The negative effects of teacher turnover impacts the educational community because student achievement declines, school-community relations are disrupted, the number of untrained instructors rises, and school expenses rise. (Atteberry et al., 2017, Hanushek et al., 2016Ronfeldt et al., 2013;Sorensen & Ladd, 2020;Watlington et al., 2010). Those educational leaders who are prepared to enact a professional development plan of action not only support their ELL students but also retain good teachers. ...
The increasing linguistic diversity in K-12 classrooms across the United States underscores the need for effective strategies to support English Language Learners (ELLs). This paper presents a two-year leadership plan designed to enhance ELL instruction through faculty professional development in assessment, evaluation, scaffolding, and differentiation practices. The proposed plan integrates a Knowledge Management System (KMS) to track teacher progress, document English Language Learner (ELL) student achievement, and facilitate data-driven decision-making. Year 1 focuses on ELL assessment and evaluation, ensuring fair grading practices and effective progress monitoring. Year 2 emphasizes scaffolding and differentiation, equipping educators with the tools needed to provide equitable learning experiences. A Gantt chart serves as a living document, mapping out incremental training objectives, collaborative discussions, and instructional interventions aligned with academic milestones. This structured approach benefits teachers by providing meaningful, sustainable professional growth opportunities, increases administrative oversight through measurable progress tracking, and reassures parents that the school is committed to supporting ELL student success. By aligning professional development with targeted instructional strategies, this plan fosters improved student outcomes, greater teacher efficacy, and a cohesive, school-wide commitment to equitable education for ELLs.
... In England, teacher retention is a persistent and seemingly intractable challenge, and similar concerns are noted internationally (Madigan & Kim, 2021), with attrition rates of between thirty and fifty per cent being reported in Australia (Brandenburg et al., 2024;Kelly et al., 2019), the United States (Sutcher et al., 2019) and Chile (Educar, 2021). Such attrition can lead to reduced educational quality and wasted invested public resources in teacher education (Hanushek et al., 2016;Ovenden Hope, 2022;Watlington et al., 2010). Alongside this, the earlier results of the 2012 PISA saw university-based pre-service teacher educators vilified for their perceived inability to adequately prepare teachers (Ellis, 2023). ...
... Weston includes in giving evidence to the House of Commons inquiry an interesting case for expanding the existing NATRE-led 'New 2 RE' initiative. The loss of experienced teachers from the workforce has been shown to have negative consequences for student achievement (Kelchtermans, 2017), as well as proving expensive, passing on negative financial impacts (Ryan et al., 2017;Watlington et al., 2010) to schools and governments. ...
This paper, which was originally a keynote address, offers an analysis of the crisis in retention, and recruitment of teachers of Religious Education (RE). A reflexive assessment is offered to the political lament ‘where have all the RE teachers gone?’ The author, drawing on over three decades of experience and involvement with religious education both in school and higher education, ponders on the complexity of responding to the attrition rates where skilled RE teachers leave the profession at a much faster rate than new entrants are trained. It concludes by calling for unity of purpose amongst the wider RE community in England.
... Research indicates that new teachers are more likely to leave the field within their initial years of working compared to veteran teachers, and high-stress environments contribute to teachers leaving the profession [18]. Educator turnover negatively affects social resources with colleagues (e.g., relationship quality and structure) [19], student performance, and school district finances [20]. ...
Background
Teachers experienced increased stressors and stress during the initial onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. While many educators returned to in-person instruction in the 2021–2022 school year, they faced changing job demands and stressors which has important implications for educator well-being. We sought to understand the stressors and health impacts faced by U.S. educators in the 2021–2022 school year, two years following the acute phase of the pandemic.
Methods
Thirty-four certified educators based in Connecticut, USA participated in four virtual focus groups in February 2022. A semi-structured focus group script, designed by the research team and guided by the job demands-resources model, was administered to understand stressors and stress impacts. Data were transcribed and analyzed using the constant comparative method to identify themes and sub-themes. Themes were summarized based on how many participants mentioned them.
Results
Analysis of the qualitative data yielded three themes concerning the well-being impacts of stress: physical health and health behaviors, psychological health, and relationships and social well-being behaviors. The majority of educators indicated impacts in these domains with 76% indicating impacts on physical health and health behaviors (e.g. poor sleep, physical exhaustion, lack of exercise, unhealthy eating), 62% indicating impacts on psychological health (e.g. emotional exhaustion, anxiety, negative self-evaluation); and 68% indicating impacts on relationships social well-being behaviors (e.g. connections with family or friends, connections with others, relationships with coworkers). The majority (94%) of educators indicated that stressors from the school or district with the majority (91%) citing stressors related to protocols/expectations (e.g. excessive or increased demands, insufficient or decreased resources) and some (38%) administrators. Over half (62%) indicated personal stressors including personal/home life (41%), high personal expectations (18%), and income (18%). Some (35%) indicated either the pandemic (26%) or safety concerns (9%) were stressors. Some (24%) cited students’ parents as a stressor and a few indicated community (12%), students (12%), and state or national level (9%) stressors.
Conclusion
Educator well-being continued to be impacted in the post-pandemic era. Targeted interventions are needed to reduce school and district-related demands and to address stress-related educator well-being.
... [10][11][12] Staffing levels are correlated with mortality across medicine, nursing and allied health professionals, with evidence also suggesting that increased nursing staff seniority reduces inpatient mortality levels. 13 14 Conversely, high staff turnover is correlated with poor organisational performance [15][16][17][18] ; moreover, it is associated with high financial costs across multiple fields including education, 19 hospitality 20 and healthcare. 21 22 Recruitment can be an effective means to increase staffing levels, but without addressing retention, it is unlikely to be successful in the longer term. 1 3 A 2021 literature review on retention in emergency medicine found that while up to 35 factors are associated with retention, none predominate and the interplay between factors remains unclear 23 ; a finding mirrored in a 2018 review of the broader STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY ⇒ 11 weeks of ethnographic fieldwork allowed for a comprehensive sampling of different aspects of emergency medicine work across all areas of the emergency department and all times of day and night. ...
Objectives
To gain a deep understanding of factors driving retention in emergency medicine. To understand in detail the day-to-day lived experience of emergency medicine doctors, to identify and explore factors influencing retention, to situate these descriptions within the current educational and health policy contexts and to advance the debate and make policy and practice recommendations.
Design
Ethnography and semistructured interviews.
Setting
Two purposively sampled emergency departments in England, with additional interview participants recruited via social media and relevant stakeholder organisations.
Participants
41 interview participants comprising 21 emergency physicians across 2 sites, 10 former emergency physicians and 10 stakeholders, with 132 hours of observation over 11 weeks in one emergency department in England.
Results
Three key themes were developed as relevant to the day-to-day lived experience of work in the emergency department, presenting challenges to retention and opportunities for change. First, emergency physicians needed to develop workarounds to mitigate the sensory and material challenges of working in a difficult environment.
Second, education influences retention through valuing, fostering competence and entrustment and supporting interdependence. These were primarily observable in the workplace through senior staff prioritising the education of more junior staff.
Third, community was important for retention. Linked to education through communities of practice, it was built by brief interpersonal interactions between emergency department workers.
Situating these descriptions in current policy contexts identified less than full-time working, portfolio careers and mentorship as retention strategies. Self-rostering and annualisation facilitated these retention strategies.
Conclusions
The emergency department represents a difficult environment with many challenges, yet by focusing on how doctors navigate these difficulties, we can see the way in which retention occurs in everyday practices, and that valuing staff is critical for retention.
... The annual cost of replacing public school teachers that leave the profession in the United Stated is nearly $2.2 billion (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2005;Borman & Dowling, 2008). Replacement costs are further confounded by productivity costs (Watlington et al., 2010). It takes time for new teachers to become familiar with the system, with school practices, and students' learning, and to learn to perform as effectively as those leaving (Borman & Dowling, 2008;Ingersoll & Smith, 2003). ...
Teacher turnover has become a growing concern in many countries around the world because of the associated staffing shortages and the unavoidable impact on educational quality. This study aims to better understand teachers’ motivation to leave or to stay in the profession in the context of English language teaching in the Vietnamese university sector. Data collected from 30 semi-structured interviews with EFL teachers from 14 universities in Vietnam revealed an array of factors driving attrition. Findings reveal that Vietnamese university EFL teachers’ turnover intentions included a desire to pursue a passion other than teaching, job enthusiasm erosion, job-related stress, workplace conflicts, heavy workloads, and personal-related reasons. However, not all teachers translated their leaving intentions into actual behaviours. A negotiation process involving different mediators was undertaken before teachers decided to leave or to remain in teaching. Findings also highlight the importance of intrinsic motivation in keeping teachers engaged and committed to teaching.
... A high turnover of counselors will have adverse effects on universities and students. Consequently, this negative impact can be mitigated by identifying the underlying cause and implementing measures whenever possible (Watlington et al., 2010). The objective of this research is to examine the influencing factors of TI among college counselors in China and see if JS mediates the link between these variables, as well as whether the moderating effect of JE is significant. ...
Plain Language Summary
Purpose: This study aims to explore the influencing factors of college counselors’ TI in the context of China based on the Social Exchange Theory. Method: Data gathered from 161 college counselors in China were analyzed using a structural equation model. Conclusion: The results show that these variables significantly predict the TI of counselors. At the same time, logically speaking, the mediating role of JS and the moderating role of JE are also legitimate. According to the developed framework, this study provides suggestions for university management to decrease the TI of counselors and improve the stability of counselors. At the same time, it also makes up for the lack of research on the TIs of college counselors in China. It has certain theoretical and practical implications. Implications: Firstly, this study theoretically explains why the influence of OJ on the TI of counselors is affected by their JE. Secondly, this research contributes to a better understanding of what elements are involved in shaping TI. Limitation: Firstly, because this research is carried out exclusively in the setting of China, its applicability to the circumstances of other nations is likely to be restricted. Secondly, the factors that influence TI among college class teachers should be studied longitudinally. Thirdly, the current study consisted solely of quantitative measures. Fourthly, we discussed the moderating effect of JE on OJ and TI.
... Educator turnover negatively affects social resources with colleagues (e.g., relationship quality and structure) [11], student performance, and school district nances [12]. ...
Background
The teaching profession, already characterized by high stress and burnout, experienced exacerbated challenges during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. While educators faced changing job demands over the course of the pandemic with switches in remote and in-person teaching along with COVID-19 transmission prevention strategies, the demands and resulting impact in the years that follow are still being explored. We sought to understand the stressors and health impacts of U.S. educators in the 2021–2022 school year, 2 years following the acute phase of the pandemic.
Methods
Thirty-four certified educators based in Connecticut, USA participated in 4 virtual focus groups in February 2022. A semi-structured focus group script, designed by the research team and guided by the job demands-resources model, was administered to understand stress impacts and stressors. Data were transcribed and analyzed using the constant comparative method to identify themes and sub-themes. Themes were summarized by frequency as well as by individuals.
Results
The majority of respondents reported educator well-being impacts of stress fell into three categories: physical health impacts and behaviors (76%; e.g. poor sleep, physical exhaustion, lack of exercise, unhealthy eating), psychological health impacts (62%; e.g. emotional exhaustion, anxiety, negative self-evaluation); and social well-being impacts and behaviors (68%; e.g. connections with family or friends, connections with others, relationships with coworkers). Sources of reported stressors included the school or district (94%), personal (65%), situational (35%), and to a lesser extent parents (24%), other work factors (15%), community (12%), students (12%), and state or national level (9%) factors. At the school/district level, stressors were related to protocols/expectations (91%, e.g. excessive or increased demands, insufficient or decreased resources) or administrators (38%). Personal level stressors included personal life (41%); other personal factors (20%); and income (17%); situational factors included the pandemic (26%) and safety concerns (9%).
Conclusion
Focus groups allowed us to assess the health and working conditions of Connecticut’s public education workforce 2 years following the acute phase of the pandemic. Lasting effects are relevant in the post-pandemic era and continue to pose challenges as teacher shortages increase. Targeted interventions are needed to reduce school and district-related demands and to address stress-related educator well-being.
... According to Watlington, Shockley, Guglielmino, & Felsher (2010) and Fallon (2006), teacher preparation programs must improve to ensure teacher quality; furthermore, Fallon (2006) believed the path to educational reform and improvement is through the current teacher preparation programs. After all, the youth of America needs to retain effective teachers that have the skills and knowledge to increase student achievement. ...
... Rates of between thirty and fifty per cent are reported in Australia (Kelly et al. 2019), England (Allen and Sims 2018), the United States (Sutcher et al. 2019) and Chile (Educar 2021). Research highlights that this attrition can lead to reduced educational quality and wasted invested public resources in teacher education (Watlington et al. 2010, Hanushek et al. 2016. Notably, high attrition rates found in contexts such as the United States, Australia and Chile also have high levels of accountability and performativity, including in relation to teacher education (Goodwin 2021). ...
This paper reports the findings from a small-scale study of ten mentors' experiences of supporting Early Career Teachers (ECTs) in secondary schools in England following the introduction of the Early Career Framework (ECF) in 2021. Data were collected via semi-structured interviews with individual mentors based in London, Manchester and York, UK. The findings suggest that mentors experience some challenges supporting ECTs through the use of mandated training materials. The data report the contradictions of being required to support trainees through a programme governed by the statutory requirements of the Department for Education (DfE) in England, whilst also being part of a complex, nuanced school community. The authors examine mentors' experiences as they balance the compliance requirements of the ECF alongside seeking to support ECTs with the realities of classroom life in their own settings. The paper discusses the emergence of a mediated mentor professionalism as mentors seek to navigate competing demands. We argue that this case study illustrates the potential for the international sector to challenge postulated solutions of homogenised mentoring cur-ricula and practices to the recruitment and retention of ECTs. ARTICLE HISTORY
... The financial losses for a school can range from $10,000 to $15,000 by one school leader's estimation. This is consistent with our own personal experience as administrators in international schools, as well as with research conducted in public schools on the cost of teacher turnover (e.g., Milanowski and Odden, 2007;Watlington et al., 2010). ...
This study on breaking contract at international schools provides insights from interviews with 13 international school administrators. Through an examination of the reasons for, and impacts of, breaking contract, five types of international school contract non-completion are identified. In addition to a typology for future studies of this phenomenon, the study outlines five impacts of contract non-completion and four key domains for school leaders to consider in relation to contract non-completion at international schools.
... For example, Gilmour and Wehby (2020) found the proportion of students with emotional disturbance on a SET's caseload significantly predicted attrition, regardless of the teachers' certifications; this was the only disability category for which this was the case. Because teacher attrition is developmentally costly to students (Ronfeldt et al., 2013) and financially costly to districts (Sutcher et al., 2019;Watlington et al., 2010), policy makers and school leaders urgently need information regarding factors that shape teachers' decisions to remain in their positions or leave. ...
Due to ongoing and severe teacher shortages, preparing and sustaining a skilled special education teacher (SET) workforce is a top policy priority. Understanding predictors of SETs’ intent to leave is crucial for policy makers and school leaders alike, as they seek to develop interventions to support retention efforts. In this study, we examined attrition intentions among SETs serving students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBDs), using longitudinal survey data from a nationally representative sample of teachers in the 2019–2020 school year (fall-winter-spring). We measured teachers’ self-efficacy and burnout in fall, winter, and spring as well as teachers’ intent to leave in spring. We found all three dimensions of fall burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment) had an indirect effect on spring intent to leave. All three dimensions of burnout in the spring predicted intent to leave, as did winter scores on depersonalization. Cross-time relationships between of dimensions of self-efficacy and burnout were revealed; however, at no timepoint was self-efficacy a significant predictor of intent to leave in spring, whether directly or indirectly. We discuss implications for both practitioners and researchers.
... Financially, it is expensive for school districts (and their tax base) to repeatedly replace teachers (Barnes et al., 2007;Watlington et al., 2010). Synar and Maiden (2012) offered a model for estimating the cost of teacher turnover in a large district; the estimate was over $14,500 per turnover (over $17,000 today), which include costs such as advertisement, job fair, review of application materials, interviewing, criminal background checks, orientation, and training. ...
In this study, we examine teachers’ perceptions concerning the relative importance of different administrative supports for teacher retention across school levels (i.e., middle and high schools), retention status (i.e., low or high), and locale (i.e., rural and urban). Results from our Best–Worst Scaling analyses, with a sample of 178 South Carolina teachers from 12 schools, indicate respect as the most important type of administrative support for the full teacher sample, and subgroups (school type, retention status, locale). The relative importance of other types of supports suggested heterogeneity across settings. Results are supplemented with qualitative teacher interview data.
... Currently in the USA, 40-50% of teachers leave the profession due to burnout within their first five years of teaching (Caruso, 2019, p. 2). Consequently, school divisions are left to face high financial costs in the form of teacher recruitment such as position advertisement, hiring incentives, and administrative processing; and teacher replacement such as training materials, professional development, and orientation (Barnes et al., 2007;Watlington et al., 2010). The Alliance for Excellent Education (2014) reported the annual cost of teacher replacement in the USA to be $1 billion to $2.2 billion, which equates to a replacement cost of $4365-$9501 per teacher. ...
A large majority of teachers experience high daily stress. Over time this stress can lead to teacher burnout, which can manifest itself psychologically, emotionally, and physically. While stress and its effects are unavoidable, these pressures can be mitigated if appropriate action is taken. When teachers have professional development opportunities, they are able to learn new, complex skills that can influence their competence and, in turn, improve their psychological well-being. Furthermore, providing teachers with collaboration structures such as mentoring and peer-professional groups enables teachers to alleviate emotional exhaustion leading to teacher burnout.
... The high teacher turnover rates in any educational institute create instability that negatively affects the services received by their students (Ronfeldt et al., 2013), school quality, and student performance (Adnot et al., 2017). Moreover, it can create a financial burden on schools due to the high cost (Carver-Thomas and Darling-Hammond, 2019) and financially affect the whole educational system (Watlington et al., 2010;Synar & Maiden, 2012). Teacher turnover is generally linked to retirement, but the majority of teachers leave their profession because of many other reasons (Podolsky et al., 2016;Carver-Thomas and Darling-Hammond, 2019) as many teachers switch even at the beginning of their career (Scallon et al., 2021). ...
School leaders have had a significantly increased impact on society since inclusive education was recognized as a need in the pedagogy sector. This study investigates the role of principals in promoting inclusivity and differentiating their leadership styles. The study highlights the inclusive behaviors of successful leaders that prepare them to lead effectively in special education schools. The results demonstrate that principals in inclusive schools have an inherent consciousness of inclusivity that enables them to create a culture of equality in the community. In their efforts to foster an inclusive vision, principals undertake and direct various school reform practices to build the capacity of school staff and create a work environment that facilitates collaboration for instructional modification and educational progress.
... 4 Teacher turnover can harm student achievement and has a high financial cost. 5 Also, fewer applicants are entering the profession. Between the 2008-2009 and the 2016-2017 school year, universities in the U. S. reported a 27.4 percent drop in teachers completing ou will not fail here; we won't let you!" said the lead teacher for our 1st-grade team of five teachers at a K-5 public school. ...
... Turnover can be beneficial for students in cases where the departing teachers are ineffective or low performing and the entrance of "new blood" into faculties can enhance innovation and student learning (Grissom & Bartanen, 2019;Ingersoll, 2001;Ingersoll & May, 2012). On the other hand, a growing number of studies have shown that turnover in teaching can incur substantial financial costs (e.g., Alliance for Excellent Education, 2005; Barnes et al., 2007;Milanowski & Odden, 2007;Synar & Maiden, 2012;Texas Center for Educational Research, 2000;Villar & Strong, 2007;Watlington et al., 2010) and can have a negative impact on faculty quality, student achievement and school performance (e.g., Boyd et al., 2007;Clotfelter et al., 2006;Henry & Redding, 2018;Keesler, 2010;Krieg, 2004Levy et al., 2010Merrill, 2014;Ronfeldt et al., 2013;Smylie & Wenzel, 2003;Sorensen & Ladd, 2020). Along with his research, there has also been a growing recognition in the realm of educational policy and reform that teacher turnover is a serious national problem that needs to be addressed (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2005; American Federation of Teachers, 2022; Aragon, 2016;García & Weiss, 2019; National Commission on Teaching and America 's Future, 2003). ...
Purpose: The objective of this study is to provide an overall national portrait of elementary and secondary teacher shortages and teacher turnover in rural schools, comparing rural schools to suburban and urban schools. This study utilizes an organizational theoretical perspective focusing on the role of school organization and leadership in the causes of, and solutions to, teacher shortages and staffing problems. Data/Methods: The study entailed secondary statistical analyses of the nationally representative Schools and Staffing Survey, its successor the National Teacher Principal Survey, and their supplement the Teacher Follow-Up Survey, conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics. Findings: The analyses document that, contrast to urban and suburban schools, the student population and teaching force in rural schools has dramatically shrunk in recent decades, that despite this decrease in students, and demand for teachers, rural schools have faced serious difficulties filling their teaching positions, and that these teacher staffing problems are driven by high levels of preretirement teacher turnover. Moreover, the data document that teacher turnover varies greatly between different kinds of schools, is especially high in high-poverty rural schools, and is closely tied to the organizational characteristics and working conditions of rural schools. Implications: Research and reform on teacher shortages and turnover have focused on urban environments because of an assumption that schools in those settings suffer from the most serious staffing problems. This study shows that teacher shortages and teacher turnover in rural schools, while relatively neglected, have been as significant a problem as in other schools.
... Frustrated resignation is the termination of employment by an employee due to prolonged, intolerable discomfort and unhappiness at their place of employment. According to Watlington et al. (2010), employees might become frustrated by the treatment (deliberate and inadvertent) they receive at work, just as bosses can be by their workers' performance. Such unease or discontent may originate from the management, coworkers, clients, or others. ...
The study investigated the relationship between labor laws compliance and the reduction of employee resignation. The objective of the study was to empirically determine how labor laws compliance relates to the reduction of employee resignation in electrical engineering firms in Rivers State in terms of forced resignation, inclusive resignation, and frustrated resignation. Therefore, the exploratory survey research design was adopted for the study. The study population consisted of eight hundred and forty-six (846) permanent staff from twenty-five (25) fully registered Electrical Engineering Firms in Rivers State. By employing the Krejcie and Morgan Sample Size Determination Table of 1970, the study's sample size consisted of two hundred and sixty-five (265) permanent staff from twenty-five (25) fully registered Electrical Engineering Firms in Rivers State. Considering the disparity in the staff strength of the organizations, Bowley's (1960) Population Appropriation Formula was applied to determine the sample unit for each of the firms. A total of two hundred and sixty-five (265) copies of the questionnaire were distributed, and the researcher could retrieve 253 copies of the questionnaire correctly filled. The data obtained from the field were analyzed using Spearman's Rank Order Correlation Coefficient and t-test with the aid of SPSS Version 22.0. In the study, three hypotheses were tested using Spearman Rank Order Correlation. The study found a significant positive relationship between labor laws compliance and the reduction of employee resignation in electrical engineering firms in Rivers State in terms of forced resignation, inclusive resignation, and frustrated resignation. The study concluded that labor laws compliance are labor tools organizations can utilize to reduce employee resignation, especially in terms of forced resignation, inclusive resignation, and frustrated resignation. The study recommended, among others, that electrical engineering firms should pay fair wages, overtime allowances, extra bonuses, and attractive salaries in order to boost employee satisfaction, which will bring about significant employee retention.
... Therefore, the workplace and the characteristics of the teaching profession can lead to a risk to mental health and health in general if psychosocial factors that are negative for the person accumulate, which results in cataloging teaching as a risky profession. To explain how a person feels about his or her profession, it is necessary to consider the recognition that other people have of that job, the economic remuneration, and the personal satisfaction obtained after doing it, highlighting that teachers value negatively both social recognition and their salary [14,18,42,43]. ...
It is increasingly common to find alarming news related to tragic events occurring in schools around the world. Being able to deal with these situations without getting hurt is a task not suitable for everyone. In general, teachers are the ones who must deal with this type of situation in addition to other daily problems that appear in any classroom that make the level of stress to which they are subjected can become dangerous. This research aims to know the current situation of teachers in a region of southeastern Spain in terms of their level of work stress, resilience, and other associated variables, for which an ex post facto quantitative approach study was designed. For this purpose, an ad hoc sociodemographic questionnaire, and questions based on the Teaching and Learning International Survey of the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development, the Maslach Burnout Inventory, and the Brief Resilient Coping Scale were applied. The participating sample consisted of 470 teachers. The main findings were that 6% of teachers had burnout (high emotional exhaustion, high cynicism, and low professional effectiveness simultaneously). Resilience correlated inversely with stress, emotional exhaustion, cynicism, excessive teaching, and difficulty maintaining classroom discipline. In conclusion, knowing the needs of teachers allows us to reflect on what kind of prevention and intervention programs are necessary to improve the well-being of teachers and thus improve the quality of education.
... Employee engagement is important because it leads to high task performance (e.g. Peccei, 2013), whereas having employees with low turnover intentions can help organizations maintain continuity of tasks and processes and avoid costs of seeking, hiring, and training new staff (Watlington et al., 2010). As discussed above, management should consider the nature of any particular macro event in the work context that an organization may be facing and identify what group is likely to be impacted most profoundly and why; ...
This study examines the role that citizenship plays in moderating the relationship between job‐skill level, work‐related depression, engagement, and turnover‐intentions for UK based employees across 6 months in the year following the Brexit referendum. In two waves of data collection, citizenship moderated the relationship between job‐skill level and depressive states; among EU citizens, those in low skilled jobs experienced greater depressive states than employees in high skilled jobs, this difference was not found among UK citizens. Furthermore, depressive states were subsequently related with low work engagement and high turnover intentions and citizenship moderated the indirect‐effect of job skill on engagement and turnover intentions via depressive states. This study shows that during the turbulent times following the Brexit referendum, EU citizens in the UK with low‐skilled jobs were most affected by depressive states, were subsequently less engaged and showed higher levels of intent to quit.
The Learning Policy Institute launched an updated version of its teacher turnover calculator in 2024. The calculator provides an interactive way to estimate the financial cost of teacher turnover for practitioners and policymakers, and it offers per-teacher estimates of the cost of turnover for districts of different sizes. The per-teacher estimates are based on five studies that calculated the financial costs of the separation, recruiting, hiring, and training activities associated with teacher turnover. Table 1 lists the nine districts included in these underlying studies, along with their size, per-pupil expenditures, geographic context, and per-teacher turnover costs as estimated in each study. While the underlying studies calculated costs in the year of data collection, Table 1 values were adjusted for inflation to present costs in 2024 dollars. The per-teacher estimates offered in the calculator are:
• 16,450 for medium districts (10,000–50,000 students)
• $24,930 for large districts (more than 50,000 students)
These estimates were created by averaging the reported turnover costs for every district in each size category. Given the differences in district contexts and reported turnover costs within each category, users of the calculator may also refer to district-specific turnover costs to determine if their district is similar to any of the studied districts and adjust estimates as needed. As described in the rest of the supplement, these estimates do not fully capture all the financial costs of turnover and do not account for other costs of turnover, including negative impacts on student learning and school climate.
L’idée d’une éthique professionnelle pour les personnes enseignantes a du mal à émerger en France, et ce pour de nombreuses raisons. Pour travailler cette idée, nous proposons ici de déplacer notre regard à l’extérieur des frontières nationales, et de comprendre comment ce domaine se développe au Québec. L’objectif de ce travail est donc d’établir un tour d’horizon de la formation en éthique professionnelle enseignante (ÉPE) au Québec, pour les personnes étudiantes qui se destineraient au métier d’enseignant au primaire. Pour ce faire, nous nous intéressons à la formation initiale que les universités québécoises offrent dans ce domaine, au sein des parcours d’enseignement des facultés et départements d’éducation. À partir des rares données publiquement disponibles, et donc accessibles pour ces personnes étudiantes, notre analyse présente les objectifs de cette formation, les lieux et les programmes où elle se réalise, ainsi que les ressemblances et divergences de contenu de ces formations en fonction des universités québécoises.
Teacher shortages, especially in high-need subjects and schools, are a long-standing issue in many districts, and teacher turnover is a key driver. In this article, we examine the association between Urban Advantage (UA), a professional development-focused science initiative, and middle school science teacher retention in the nation’s largest school district, New York City (NYC). We use detailed teacher-level administrative personnel data on 19 cohorts of teachers from NYC and UA program participation data and estimate likelihood of turnover using a discrete-time hazard model. UA teachers are roughly 3.8 percentage points less likely than similarly situated non-UA teachers to leave their school the following year. This study contributes to the limited evidence on how professional development-focused programs can promote teacher retention in hard-to-staff subjects and schools.
Many teachers across the United States are leaving their posts preretirement. While some teachers leave for personal reasons, there has been an increase in teacher turnover for school-based factors. One way administrators can support their faculty is through professional development opportunities. This study aimed to investigate whether there was a relationship between the total amount of instructional staff training expenditures and teacher retention while controlling for factors influencing teachers’ decisions to stay or leave. A cross-sectional, restricted maximum likelihood mixed-effects multiple regression model was used to analyze and examine the relationship between instructional staff training expenditures and teacher retention during the 2018–2019 school year. The relationship proved to be significant, albeit directionally negative. However, school climate, a highly cited variable in retention literature, emerged as a salient covariate. Scholars and educational leaders can use the recommendations found in this article to further research and support school administrators’ efforts to mitigate teacher turnover.
This longitudinal, quantitative study utilised 2019-2022 survey data from teachers at one Chinese internationalised high school in Jiangsu Province, China to examine teachers’ immediate professional plans through the lens of teacher working conditions (TWCs). The relationship between teacher perceptions of working conditions and their immediate professional plans was further explored in light of teachers’ status as international vs local, and the primary factor affecting teachers’ willingness to stay at the school. Results from the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression analysis revealed that teachers planning to leave or move; international teachers; and teachers who indicated primary stay factors (the most important factors affecting teachers’ willingness to continue teaching at the school) of instructional practices and support, school leadership, or time during the work day (adequate time during the school day to plan and collaborate) were associated with lower scores on the overall teacher working conditions perceptions index. These findings add to a growing body of research examining TWCs in international school contexts, specifically within Chinese internationalised schools. Given the transformational shifts these schools have recently experienced due to educational policy changes and COVID-19-related restrictions, school leaders may want to re-examine the organisational characteristics and supports at their schools with an eye toward retaining members of their ethnically heterogeneous teaching faculties.
Though research in acoustic phonetics entails laboratory conditions, the rapid technological development accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic bids the question of remote recording,
the success of which could provide phoneticians with more research opportunities. This paper explores the feasibility of remote sample collection in the context of examining the degree of aspiration in initial voiceless stops in Serbian and English with Serbian EFL students. Since the role of positive Voice Onset Time (VOT) in English and Serbian differs significantly, a clear contrast between English long-lag and Serbian short-lag stops might prove challenging for Serbian EFL students. To examine the degree of VOT acquisition, audio recordings are made for 5 advanced and 5 proficient speakers. The participants are firstly recorded in
laboratory conditions. Next, the participants are asked to read the same material in a quiet space within their homes, record their speech using mobile phones, and deliver the recordings via email. For each token, both laboratory and remote recordings are examined using the speech analysis software Praat (Boersma & Weeninik, 2023). Results indicate that remote recording via smart phones yielded reliable samples with measurable VOT for the voiceless plosives /p t k/ in both English and Serbian. Proficient speakers displayed VOT values that approached native-like patterns. In contrast, the less proficient group exhibited shorter VOT durations, but a significantly clearer distinction between the use of aspiration in Serbian and English. Additionally, a surprising finding shows that proficient speakers assign longer VOT to Serbian plosives too, likely owing to L2 transfer.
Background:
During the COVID-19 pandemic, teachers quickly shifted to remote teaching with many teachers experiencing increased work demands with limited resources, affecting both mental health and work.
Methods:
Within a cross-sectional study, we evaluated the relationship between one type of work demand, non-standard work schedule characteristics, and depressive and burnout symptoms in kindergarten through 8th grade U.S. teachers working remotely in May 2020. We further assessed the impact of COVID-19 and work resources. Work schedule characteristics were self-assessed across six domains on a 5-point frequency scale from always (1) to never (5). We used multilevel Poisson models to calculate prevalence ratios (PRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).
Results:
In fully adjusted models, frequently working unexpectedly was associated with a higher prevalence of depressive symptoms (PR = 1.18, 95% CI = 1.07-1.31, p < 0.01), high emotional exhaustion (PR = 1.17, 95% CI = 1.05-1.30, p < 0.01), and high depersonalization (PR = 1.40, 95% CI = 1.02-1.92, p = 0.03). Remote work resources were significantly associated with a lower prevalence of depressive symptoms (PR = 0.88, 95% CI = 0.79-0.98, p = 0.02). There was a linear association between low coworker support and a low sense of personal accomplishment (PR = 0.68, 95% CI = 0.53-0.87, p < 0.01).
Conclusions:
Frequently having to work unexpectedly while remote teaching was associated with symptoms of depression and burnout during the COVID-19 pandemic. Workplaces should support predictable working times to lessen the disruption caused by unexpected work to promote worker well-being.
According to United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the devastation caused by the global COVID-19 pandemic has elevated the teacher turnover crisis to one of the most harrowing issues facing our society. Stress and burnout among school professionals have reached new highs, resulting in a need to better understand the individual and contextual factors that can ameliorate stress and improve well-being and resilience. Using a relationship-based framework of resilience, this study shifts our gaze from burnout toward understanding the resilience factors associated with lower stress to inform the field’s pathway toward addressing the workforce crisis while better supporting the resilience of educators, students, families, professionals, and educational systems during the pandemic and beyond. Findings from a logistic regression model show a significant decrease in the likelihood of intention to leave as relationship-based resilience factors increased. Implications discuss the importance of opportunities that increase family–school–community support, social-emotional well-being and safety, and other strategies that build relationships, foster resilience, and improve retention of the school-based workforce.
The preparation of highly qualified teachers is one of the most important factors when considering the education of our children. Teacher preparation programs are largely responsible for teacher training and are therefore in a key position to lead the profession to ensure teachers are equipped with the best, most relevant and effective theory, practices, and strategies. In this chapter, it is argued that we are at an important juncture in the training of future teachers. As such, the chapter presents several areas that a reimagined teacher preparation program should focus on. It explores the important roles in teacher licensure, focuses on teaching for diversity, explores new recruitment and retention practices for teachers and changes needed in curriculum as well as how all of these can have a positive impact future of teacher education programs.
Effective leadership styles or practices are linked with a teacher's decision to quit or stay with an organization. Therefore, this chapter has focused on the effective leadership practices that can help to reduce teacher turnover in schools, which is a pressing issue in school education nowadays. The chapter has gathered the data from the literature to reveal the effective practices leading to a reduction in teacher turnover. The results revealed that school leaders should follow practices including ensuring job satisfaction, improving working conditions, providing mentorship, resolving disciplinary issues related to students, working on developing better collegial relationships, and providing compensations, incentives, and recognition to teachers.
Teachers’ perceptions of long-term career success are largely related to the levels of support they receive early on in their careers. This study on teacher retention and the factors that influence teacher choice to remain in the field after the first five years of employment, examined three schools of varying demographics and socioeconomic status in a large public school district in Central Florida. Participants interviewed were in the first three to five years of their teaching career. Information derived from each interview was used to determine trends and factors that influence teacher retention and attrition. The main finding was that when teachers feel supported through professional development, time for collaboration with colleagues, and autonomy, they are more likely to remain in the teaching profession. Keywords: teacher retention, elementary schools, teacher recruitment, principal leadership, organizational systems in schools
Teachers’ satisfaction and turnover rate are directly connected. Using the Model of Retention, Turnover and Attrition by Gardner (2010), this work analyzed about four Japanese language teachers at extension school and educational learning center in Macau. The data concluded the participants felt unsatisfied because of unrelated assignments, limitation of career development, and anxiety and unsteady of employment. The results showed that respondents had negative feelings towards their job responsibilities and employers. Accordingly, teachers usually face long-term stress and burnout because of multiple responsibilities. Therefore, the unsupportive school context could create a negative effect on job satisfaction and retention of teachers. The theoretical model suggests that negative job attributes have a direct relationship with teacher status and job satisfaction.
Teaching is an incredibly challenging profession and the need for qualified, effective, and passionate teachers continues to increase. This is true even in years of economic downturn, when the role of a teacher becomes even more pivotal in providing knowledge and training to the next generation of the American workforce. However, while there is no question that the charge of educators is vital, research shows us that many of our novice teachers choose to exit the field while still in the early stages of their careers. At one time, many teachers spent 30 or more years in the classroom; this is a trend which is seemingly becoming more of the exception than the norm. “A teaching career in the United States is now down to eleven years,” (Haberman, 2005, p. 336).
This article reports on a study investigating relationships among the reasons for entry, preparation experiences, workplace conditions, and future career plans of 15 early-career teachers working in urban Los Angeles. Specifically, the authors examine why these teachers stay in, shift from, or consider leaving the urban schools in which they teach. Our analysis highlights the need to reconceptualize teacher retention to acknowledge and support the development of deep, varied, successful careers in urban education. Findings demonstrate that these urban teachers will remain in urban education if they can adopt multiple education roles inside and outside the classroom and receive professional support during the whole of their careers, not just the beginnings of their teaching.
public engagement activities that examine how K-12 finance can be redesigned to better support student performance. The project addresses the basic question, “How can resources help schools achieve the higher levels of student performance that state and national education standards now demand?” Check in with us periodically to see what we’re learning and how that information may reshape education finance to make money matter for America's schools. You can find us at www.schoolfinanceredesign.org.
This study describes a benefit-cost analysis of a comprehensive mentoring program for beginning teachers conducted in a medium-sized California school district. Using actual program cost informa-tion and data on student achievement, teacher reten-tion, and mentor evaluations, the authors performed a benefit-cost analysis to determine whether com-prehensive mentoring for beginning teachers makes financial sense. The data showed that, contrary to expectations, increases in teacher effectiveness yielded greater savings than the reduction in costs associ-ated with teacher attrition. Overall, the benefit-cost analysis showed that, after 5 years, an investment of $1 produces a positive return to society, the school district, the teachers, and the students, and the state almost recovers its expenses. Implications are drawn for both education and public policy.
Many school districts experience difficulties attracting and retaining teachers, and the impending retirement of a substantial fraction of public school teachers raises the specter of severe shortages in some public schools. Schools in urban areas serving economically disadvantaged and minority students appear particularly vulnerable. This paper investigates those factors that affect the probabilities that teachers switch schools or exit the public schools entirely. The results indicate that teacher mobility is much more strongly related to characteristics of the students, particularly race and achievement, than to salary, although salary exerts a modest impact once compensating differentials are taken into account.
Contenido: Costos y beneficios de los recursos humanos; Costos de la rotación de personal, el absentismo, y la mala administración de los recursos humanos; Los costos ocultos del absentismo y la incapacidad laboral; Costos de los programas de promoción de la salud en el lugar de trabajo; Impacto financiero del comportamiento del personal; Los efectos estratégicos y financieros de los programas de capacitación laboral; Programas de recursos humanos y retorno de la inversión; Estimación del valor económico del desempeño laboral; Relación de la administración de recursos humanos efectiva con las ganancias.
The shortages of special education personnel are nowhere more severe than in low incidence disabilities in rural schools. This article presents the results of a national study that identified shortage estimates, state certification patterns, personnel preparation programs, and distance delivery mechanisms and examined relationships among these data to assess the state of shortages of special educators in the areas of vision impairments, hearing impairments, severe disabilities, and early intervention. The authors outline current issues and future trends in preparing personnel in low incidence disabilities for rural areas.
This study compares the educational performance of both highly rural and highly urban area students to students from areas of moderate population density. The results suggest (1) that students from both highly rural and highly urban areas perform similarly, but less well, in terms of educational achievement than students from moderate areas, and (2) that empirical studies of student educational performance should include measures of both cognitive skills and educational market competition as explanatory variables. The policy implications of this research include our recommendation that policymakers consider students from highly urban areas to be subjects of concern similar to students from highly rural areas in attempts to affect expected student achievement. Implications also include our recommendation that policymakers recognize that competitive educational market systems that allow educational consumers greater choice in the acquisition of educational services are those systems within which student academic achievement is higher.
Many school districts experience difficulties attracting and retaining teachers, and the impending retirement of a substantial fraction of public school teachers raises the specter of severe shortages in some public schools. Schools in urban areas serving economically disadvantaged and minority students appear parlicularly vulnerable. This paper investigates those factors that affect the probabilities that teachers switch schools or exit the public schools entirely. The results indicate that teacher mobility is much more strongly related to characteristics of the students, particularly race and achievement, than to salary, although salary exerts a modest impact once compensating differentials are taken into account.
In recent years, researchers and policymakers have told us again and again that severe teacher shortages confront schools. They point to a dramatic increase in the demand for new teachers resulting from two converging demographic trends: increasing student enrollments and increasing numbers of teachers reaching retirement age. Shortfalls of teachers, they say, are forcing many school systems to lower their standards for teacher quality (National Commission on Teaching and America's Future, 1997).
Brookings Papers on Education Policy 2004 (2004) 201-218
School district budgets are in the news. In the past year, superintendents in Seattle, Rochester, and Baltimore have all left their jobs under pressure because of unexpected deficits, and as of summer 2003 Oakland's superintendent was in similar trouble because of a 8 million it did not know it had—enough, according to the Philadelphia Inquirer, to employ 180 teachers.
Tracking money is a huge challenge for school districts for many reasons: Their revenues come from many sources (state, local, federal, and philanthropic) at different times. Funders require separate record-keeping for each program, and their rules about cost accounting differ. Districts therefore maintain separate accounting systems for funds from different sources, and information is often kept on separate computer systems, bought and programmed at different times, so they cannot talk to one another.
Expenditure systems are also fragmented and isolated from one another. After five years of trying, Washington, D.C., schools still cannot say how many people they have on the payroll. Philadelphia's surplus became apparent only when the district linked up its separate systems for paying employees and funding benefits, to reveal that some employees were covered by insurance multiple times.
No wonder, then, as business analyst Larry Miller has commented, a superintendent can ask five different district budget managers the same question and get five different answers.
With that as background, it should be no surprise that districts do not know what they spend on particular functions. San Diego superintendent Alan Bersin has tried for two years to find out what different central office services cost and he still cannot say for sure. And determining how much has been spent at any one school is even more difficult. Schools are not cost centers, so districts do not track the dollar value of resources (teachers, services, and equipment) that flow into them. District budgeting processes create big and hidden differences in school budgets. The fact that districts do not know how much is spent at one school versus another allows for serious inequities that often hurt the schools most in need of resources.
This paper focuses on one aspect of district spending ambiguity, namely, differences in per pupil spending masked by teacher salary cost averaging. It shows how an often-discussed phenomenon—that schools serving poor children get less qualified teachers than schools in the same district serving more advantaged children—is hard-wired into district policy. It profiles the budget layering that is then created in attempts to remedy these unacceptable consequences. It also shows how more open funding and accounting practices can help re-sort the most capable teachers so that schools serving poor students can become better staffed.
This paper is the result of five years' study of school district budgets. We did not rely, as most researchers do, on published district budgets but assembled real-dollar budgets for schools from the ground up. This involved identifying the schools to which personnel (administrators and teachers) were assigned and calculating the true dollar cost of employing those individuals, based on their actual salaries and benefit rates. This approach gets results that differ strongly from...
In recent years there has been a growing interest in support, guidance, and orientation programs—collectively known as induction—for beginning ele mentary and secondary teachers during the transition into their first teach ing jobs. This study examines whether such supports have a positive effect on the retention of beginning teachers. The study also focuses on different types and components of induction, including mentoring programs, collective group activities, and the provision of extra resources and reduced workloads. The results indicate that beginning teachers who were provided with multi ple supports, were less likely to move to other schools and less likely to leave the teaching occupation altogether after their first year. Some forms of assis tance and support, however, did not appear to increase beginners' retention.
This article investigates the possibility that the organizational characteris tics and conditions of schools are driving teacher turnover. The data used in this investigation come from the Schools and Staffing Survey and its sup plement, the Teacher Follow-up Survey, conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 1996). This analysis indicates that the amount of turnover accounted for by retirement is relatively minor when compared with that associated with other factors such as teachers' job dis satisfaction and teachers' pursuit of other jobs. In fact, school staffing prob lems are not principally due to teacher shortages; they do not seem to stem from an insufficient supply of qualified teachers but from an excess demand. The data indicate that a revolving door exists, that large numbers of qual ified teachers are departing their jobs for reasons other than retirement. Popular education initiatives, such as teacher recruitment programs, will not solve schools' staffing problems if they do not also address the organi zational sources of low teacher retention.
Retention of a competent teaching force is a growing concern among the nation’s educators and policy makers. Providing new teachers with quality induction programs may mitigate significant teacher attrition and teacher staffing issues now facing many school districts in the United States. This article reports positive results in the long-term retention of novice teachers who participated in an induction partnership jointly administered by the University of Colorado and six school districts. The study tracks 10 cohorts of inductees into their 5th year of teaching and researches components of the program that impact retention. The article also describes program characteristics— initially developed from prior research and refined by data from ongoing program evaluations— that have proven effective in raising teacher competence and retention rates. Finally, the author suggests how this induction research might inform the decisions of local and national policy makers.
A small group of Boston Public School teachers met for a year to explore the question of what keeps teachers going, a question that bears asking because of the precarious situation of public education today. In this article, I describe the work of the What Keeps Teachers Going? inquiry group as a way to challenge current notions of what it means to be a “highly qualified teacher” as defined in the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Rather than “best practices” or prescribed pedagogy, we found that a combination of interrelated conditions and values keep excellent teachers going, including love, autobiography, hope, anger, intellectual work, and the ability to shape the future. This article ends with implications for professional development and a call for new national priorities in public education.
This paper discusses conceptual and methodological issues that a-rise when educational researchers use data from large-scale, survey research to examine the effects of teachers and teaching on student achievement. Using data from Prospects: The Congressionally Mandated Study of Educational Growth and Opportunity 1991-1994, we show that researchers' use of different statistical models has led to widely varying interpretations about the overall magnitude of teacher effects on student achievement. However, we conclude that in well-specified models of academic growth, teacher effects on elementary school students' growth in reading and mathematics achievement are substantial (with d-type effect sizes ranging from .72 to .85). We also conclude that various characteristics of teachers and their teaching account for these effects, including variation among teachers in professional preparation and content knowledge, use of teaching routines, and Patterns of content coverage, with effect sizes for variables measuring these characteristics of teachers and their teaching showing d-type effect sizes in the range of .10. The paper concludes with an assessment of the current state of the art in large-scale, survey research on teaching. Here, we conclude that survey researchers must simultaneously improve their measures of instruction while paying careful attention to issues of causal inference.
Special education programs that serve at-risk students are facing very real personnel needs that colleges and universities alone cannot meet. Alternative certification programs (ACP) may help meet these needs. Effective university-school district partnership programs that include critical teaching training components may offer an attractive alternative to traditional teacher training programs. Teacher retention and increased student learning are probable outcomes resulting from quality model ACP.
In this paper, the Arne Duncan, the United States Secretary of Education, discusses the need for a sea change in America's schools of education, and focuses on the need to improve teacher preparation programs. Many schools of education have provided high-quality preparation programs for aspiring teachers for years. In the last decade, many education schools have also upgraded their programs or launched rigorous practice-based initiatives to adapt to the realities of preparing instructors to teach diverse students in the information age. Yet, many of the nation's 1,450 schools, colleges, and departments of education are doing a mediocre job of preparing teachers for the realities of the 21st century classroom. America's university-based teacher preparation programs need revolutionary change--not evolutionary tinkering. Duncan contends that, to keep America competitive, and to make the American dream of equal educational opportunity a reality, schools of education need to recruit, reward, train, learn from, and honor a new generation of talented teachers. He urges every teacher education program today to make better outcomes for students the overarching mission that propels all their efforts. America's great educational challenges require that this new generation of well-prepared teachers significantly boost student learning and increase college-readiness.
In this paper, we report the results of a pilot study of the cost of teacher turnover in five school districts. We examine the rate of turnover, the relationship between turnover and teacher and school characteristics, and the costs associated with recruiting, hiring, and training replacement teachers. We find evidence that turnover costs, although difficult to quantify, are significant at both the district and the school level. We also find that teachers left high minority and low performing schools at significantly higher rates. This has implications for the differential impact of the costs of teacher turnover on high-need schools. The relationship between teacher turnover and other school and teacher characteristics varied across the five school districts. (Contains 46 tables, 20 figures, and 38 footnotes.)
Administrative data from North Carolina are used to explore the extent to which that state's relatively sophisticated school-based accountability system has exacerbated the challenges that schools serving low-performing students face in retaining and attracting high-quality teachers. Most clear are the adverse effects on retention rates, and hence on teacher turnover, in such schools. Less clear is the extent to which that higher turnover has translated into a decline in the average qualifications of the teachers in the low-performing schools. Other states with more primitive accountability systems can expect even greater adverse effects on teacher turnover in low-performing schools. © 2004 by the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management.
The Job Demands–Resources Model was used as the basis of the proposal that there are two parallel processes involved in work-related well-being among teachers, namely an energetical process (i.e., job demands → burnout → ill health) and a motivational process (i.e., job resources → engagement → organizational commitment). In addition, some cross-links between both processes were hypothesized. Structural equation modeling was used to simultaneously test the hypotheses in a sample of Finnish teachers (N = 2038). The results confirmed the existence of both processes, although the energetical process seems to be more prominent. More specifically, (1) burnout mediated the effect of high job demands on ill health, (2) work engagement mediated the effects of job resources on organizational commitment, and (3) burnout mediated the effects of lacking resources on poor engagement. The robustness of these findings is underscored by the fact that they were obtained in one half of the sample (using random selection) and cross-validated in the other half.
Considerable controversy surrounds the impact of schools and teachers on the achievement of students. This paper disentangles the separate factors influencing achievement with special attention given to the role of teacher differences and other aspects of schools. Unique matched panel data from the Harvard/UTD Texas Schools Project permit distinguishing between total effects and the impact of specific, measured components of teachers and schools. While schools are seen to have powerful effects on achievement differences, these effects appear to derive most importantly from variations in teacher quality. A lower bound suggests that variations in teacher quality account for at least 7« percent of the total variation in student achievement, and there are reasons to believe that the true percentage is considerably larger. The subsequent analysis estimates educational production functions based on models of achievement growth with individual fixed effects. It identifies a few systematic factors a negative impact of initial years of teaching and a positive effect of smaller class sizes for low income children in earlier grades but these effects are very small relative to the effects of overall teacher quality differences.
This paper disentangles the impact of schools and teachers in influencing achievement with special attention given to the potential problems of omitted or mismeasured variables and of student and school selection. Unique matched panel data from the UTD Texas Schools Project permit the identification of teacher quality based on student performance along with the impact of specific, measured components of teachers and schools. Semiparametric lower bound estimates of the variance in teacher quality based entirely on within-school heterogeneity indicate that teachers have powerful effects on reading and mathematics achievement, though little of the variation in teacher quality is explained by observable characteristics such as education or experience. The results suggest that the effects of a costly ten student reduction in class size are smaller than the benefit of moving one standard deviation up the teacher quality distribution, highlighting the importance of teacher effectiveness in the determination of school quality. Copyright The Econometric Society 2005.
The social costs of inadequate education: A summary by symposium chair. Paper prepared for the symposium on The Social Costs of Inadequate Education Teachers College
- H M Levin
Levin, H. M. 2005. The social costs of inadequate education: A summary by symposium chair. Paper
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The relationships between demographic variables and teacher retention: A longitudinal study
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Teacher attrition: A costly loss to the nation and to the states
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How much does your employee turnover cost?
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Measuring the benefits and costs of mentor-based induction: A value-added assessment of new teacher effectiveness linked to student achievement
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The labor market consequences of an inadequate education. Paper prepared for the symposium on The Social Costs of Inadequate Education Teachers College
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Association of Community Organizations for Reform Now) Where have all the teachers gone? The costs of teacher turnover in ACORN neighborhood schools in Chicago
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National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality Teacher recruitment: Strategies for widening the teaching pool in a shrinking economy
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Significant research and readings on comprehensive induction
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New teacher induction: How to train, support and retain new teachers
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Where have all the teachers gone? The costs of teacher turnover in ACORN neighborhood schools in Chicago
- Acorn Chicago
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all the teachers gone? The costs of teacher turnover in ACORN neighborhood schools in Chicago.
http://www.acorn.org/index.php?id=315.
Teacher recruitment: Strategies for widening the teaching pool in a shrinking economy
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The political costs of unequal education. Paper prepared for the symposium on The Social Costs of Inadequate Education Teachers College
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Overview of research: What we know and don't know about the consequences of science and math teacher turnover. Paper prepared for the National Commission on Teaching and America's Future Symposium on the Scope and Consequences of K12 Science and Mathematics Teacher Turnover
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