Article

The Relation Between Toy Gun Play and Children's Aggressive Behavior

Taylor & Francis
Early Education and Development
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Abstract

To assess the relation between toy gun play and aggression, thirty-six 3- to 5-year-olds were observed in free play in their daycare center and coded for amount of real aggression, pretend aggression, rough-and-tumble play (R & T), and nonaggressive pretend play. Based on a questionnaire completed by the parents, the children were also coded for the amount they played with toy guns in the home, the rated aggressive level of their preferred television programs, the rated aggressive level of their most preferred toys, and amount of parents' physical punishment of the children. Of all children, 56% played with toy guns in the home, most of whom were boys. Multiple regression analyses indicated that amount of parents' punishment strongly predicted real aggression in both boys and girls, and amount of toy gun play strongly predicted real aggression in boys. However, when it came to pretend aggression, aggressive level of children's preferred toys was the strongest predictor, while toy gun play negatively predicted pretend aggression. Toy gun play did not predict nonaggressive pretend play, but parents' punishment negatively predicted nonaggressive pretend play. These results indicate that toy gun play and parental punishment are positively associated with a higher level of real aggression but not pretend aggression. This pattern is discussed in terms of a cuing effect theory versus a cathartic effect theory. It also argues for distinguishing between real and pretend aggression and other forms of play in future studies.

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... Stem- ming from these concerns, education policy and lawmakers have used this as a peripheral argument to reinforce an agenda set on supporting The Violent Crime Reduction Act in England in 2006, implemented in England and Wales in 2010, banning realistic toy guns that might be used to imitate real guns in juvenile crimes (Wheal & Tilley, 2009), although concerns about accidental shootings by police are also at issue. Others have argued that toy weapon play can alleviate preexisting aggressive tendencies brought about by other life challenges, includ- ing such disorders as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or depres- sion (Watson & Peng, 1992). There are few empirical studies of toy weapon play. ...
... Use of toy weapons often oc- curs early in development, giving such toys the potential for more influence than video games. Research into such weapon play provides some support for Smith et al. progression from this to later aggressive delinquency (Turner & Goldsmith, 1976;Watson & Peng, 1992), although the few studies reported often rely on small samples. Most of this research is limited to cross-sectional or short-term experi- mental studies that look at minor, not necessarily problematic acts of aggression. ...
... Most of this research is limited to cross-sectional or short-term experi- mental studies that look at minor, not necessarily problematic acts of aggression. In other words, much of the literature is limited by considerations of 'normal aggression' rather than of seriously harmful acts, possible reflecting pathology (Watson & Peng, 1992). Few studies consider the effects of this type of faux weapon play on more serious outcomes such as juvenile crime. ...
... While there is generally a lack of an association between child-to-child rough-and-tumble play and physical aggression (Pellegrini, 1988(Pellegrini, , 2006, more frequent rough-and-tumble play with the father during childhood has been related to increased physical aggression in retrospective (Paquette, Carbonneau, Dubeau, Bigras, & Tremblay, 2003), contemporaneous (Flanders, Leo, Paquette, Pihl, & Séguin, 2009), and longitudinal (Flanders et al., 2010) research. In addition, one study found that children direct more physical aggression toward malethanfemalepeersduringplay (Ostrov&Keating,2004).Thus, sex-segregated play could lead to greater physical aggression in boysthaningirls.Furthermore,althoughafewstudieshavereported no significant association between playing with male-typical and aggressivetoys,suchastoygunsandswords,andaggression (Etaugh & Happach, 1979;Sutton-Smith, Gerstmyer, & Meckley, 1988), other studies havefound increased physicalaggressioninchildren playing with such toys during play sessions (Feshbach, 1956;Hel-lendoorn&Harinck,1997;Potts,Huston,&Wright,1986;Sanson & Di Muccio, 1993;Turner & Goldsmith, 1976;Watson & Peng, 1992). It has also been reported that playing with such toys increases physical aggression immediately after play sessions (Feshbach, 1956;Turner & Goldsmith, 1976). ...
... Some previous research only included boys or a disproportionately small number of girls (Potts et al., 1986;Turner & Goldsmith, 1976). Among prior studies that included both boysandgirls,somefoundarelationshipinboysonly (Feshbach, 1956;Paquette et al., 2003;Watson & Peng, 1992). In contrast, the present study suggests that the positive association between Thisinconsistencywithpriorfindingsisperhapsduetodifferent sampling methods. ...
... In contrast, the present study suggests that the positive association between Thisinconsistencywithpriorfindingsisperhapsduetodifferent sampling methods. Most prior studies were based on small, convenience samples, often including fewer than 50 children in total, and found low prevalence of male-typical play behavior in girls (Feshbach, 1956;Hellendoorn & Harinck, 1997;Ostrov & Keating, 2004;Turner & Goldsmith, 1976;Watson & Peng, 1992). These sampling issues may have limited statistical power and variability in male-typical play behavior among girls. ...
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Gender differences in play behavior and physical aggression have been consistently reported. Theoretical perspectives concerning evolutionary, social, and social-cognitive mechanisms suggest that male-typical play behavior during childhood increases subsequent physical aggression. The evidence supporting these connections is limited, however. The present study investigated the association between gender-typed play behavior in early childhood and physical aggression in early adolescence using a sample drawn from a longitudinal, population study, the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Based on gender-typed play behavior as measured by the Pre-School Activities Inventory at age 3.5 years, samples of masculine (64 boys, 60 girls), feminine (80 boys, 66 girls), and randomly selected control children (55 boys, 67 girls) were recruited at age 13 years and administered the Reinisch Aggression Inventory. After controlling for a range of sociodemographic variables, maternal characteristics, and behavioral problems, including hyperactivity and conduct problems at age 3.5, significant group differences in physical aggression at age 13 were found among children classified as masculine, control, and feminine at age 3.5. Masculine children exhibited significantly more physical aggression than control children or feminine children, and control children exhibited significantly more physical aggression than feminine children. The association between gender-typed play behavior and physical aggression was not moderated by sex. These results suggest that the degree of childhood gender-typed play behavior independently predicts the degree of physical aggression at adolescence in boys and in girls.
... While there is generally a lack of an association between child-to-child rough-and-tumble play and physical aggression (Pellegrini, 1988(Pellegrini, , 2006, more frequent rough-and-tumble play with the father during childhood has been related to increased physical aggression in retrospective (Paquette, Carbonneau, Dubeau, Bigras, & Tremblay, 2003), contemporaneous (Flanders, Leo, Paquette, Pihl, & Séguin, 2009), and longitudinal (Flanders et al., 2010) research. In addition, one study found that children direct more physical aggression toward malethanfemalepeersduringplay (Ostrov&Keating,2004).Thus, sex-segregated play could lead to greater physical aggression in boysthaningirls.Furthermore,althoughafewstudieshavereported no significant association between playing with male-typical and aggressivetoys,suchastoygunsandswords,andaggression (Etaugh & Happach, 1979;Sutton-Smith, Gerstmyer, & Meckley, 1988), other studies havefound increased physicalaggressioninchildren playing with such toys during play sessions (Feshbach, 1956;Hel-lendoorn&Harinck,1997;Potts,Huston,&Wright,1986;Sanson & Di Muccio, 1993;Turner & Goldsmith, 1976;Watson & Peng, 1992). It has also been reported that playing with such toys increases physical aggression immediately after play sessions (Feshbach, 1956;Turner & Goldsmith, 1976). ...
... Some previous research only included boys or a disproportionately small number of girls (Potts et al., 1986;Turner & Goldsmith, 1976). Among prior studies that included both boysandgirls,somefoundarelationshipinboysonly (Feshbach, 1956;Paquette et al., 2003;Watson & Peng, 1992). In contrast, the present study suggests that the positive association between male-typical play behavior and physical aggression is similar across the sexes. ...
... Thisinconsistencywithpriorfindingsisperhapsduetodifferent sampling methods. Most prior studies were based on small, convenience samples, often including fewer than 50 children in total, and found low prevalence of male-typical play behavior in girls (Feshbach, 1956;Hellendoorn & Harinck, 1997;Ostrov & Keating, 2004;Turner & Goldsmith, 1976;Watson & Peng, 1992). These sampling issues may have limited statistical power and variability in male-typical play behavior among girls. ...
Article
Full-text available
Gender differences in play behavior and physical aggression have been consistently reported. Theoretical perspectives concerning evolutionary, social, and social-cognitive mechanisms suggest that male-typical play behavior during childhood increases subsequent physical aggression. The evidence supporting these connections is limited, however. The present study investigated the association between gender-typed play behavior in early childhood and physical aggression in early adolescence using a sample drawn from a longitudinal, population study, the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Based on gender-typed play behavior as measured by the Pre-School Activities Inventory at age 3.5 years, samples of masculine (64 boys, 60 girls), feminine (80 boys, 66 girls), and randomly selected control children (55 boys, 67 girls) were recruited at age 13 years and administered the Reinisch Aggression Inventory. After controlling for a range of sociodemographic variables, maternal characteristics, and behavioral problems, including hyperactivity and conduct problems at age 3.5, significant group differences in physical aggression at age 13 were found among children classified as masculine, control, and feminine at age 3.5. Masculine children exhibited significantly more physical aggression than control children or feminine children, and control children exhibited significantly more physical aggression than feminine children. The association between gender-typed play behavior and physical aggression was not moderated by sex. These results suggest that the degree of childhood gender-typed play behavior independently predicts the degree of physical aggression at adolescence in boys and in girls.
... One further aspect of gender stereotyping examined in the current study is playing with toy weapons, a behavior that is more common among boys (Caufield 2002; Smith 1994; Watson and Peng 1992; Wegener-Spohring 1994; Halim et al. 2013b). Indeed , playing with toy weapons is often included in gender stereotype measures for preschool age children (e.g., Golombok and Rust 1993). ...
... Recent school shootings, such as the one in Newtown, CT, tend to exacerbate fears over playing with toy weapons, resulting in policies such as kindergarteners being expelled from school for bringing toy guns to class (Walsh 2013). Though there is some controversy about the acceptability of weapon play, and specifically regarding war play related to superheroes (see Holland 2003; Popper 2013), research has found that children who do play with toy weapons tend to be more physically aggressive (Watson and Peng 1992). Additionally , a large body of research shows that children who view violence on television (including violence with weapons) tend to be more aggressive both in the short and long term (Anderson et al. 2003). ...
... Whether weapon play is problematic in preschool-age children is under scrutiny (Holland 2003; Popper 2013). Although some research suggests that playing with weapons is associated with aggressive behavior in children (Watson and Peng 1992), parents and teachers in a number of cultures hold a wide range of attitudes concerning the acceptability of such play (Costabile et al. 1992). Perhaps more concerning is the potential spillover effect of weapon play on aggressive behavior, given that research has found a weapons effect whereby simply viewing a weapon is associated with increased aggressive thoughts and behavior (Anderson et al. 1998). ...
Article
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Although content analyses have found that superhero programs in the media portray strong gender stereotypes of masculinity, little research has examined the effects of viewing such programs. In the current study, 134 mothers of preschool children (from the Western and Northwestern United States) reported their child’s superhero exposure in the media, male-stereotyped play, weapon play, and parental active mediation of the media at two time points (1 year apart). Results revealed that boys viewed superhero programs more frequently than girls, with nearly a quarter of boys viewing superhero programs at least weekly. Analyses revealed that superhero exposure was related to higher levels of male-stereotyped play for boys and higher levels of weapon play for both boys and girls from Time 1 to Time 2, even after controlling for initial levels. Parental active mediation did not negate these effects, and even served to strengthen one finding for girls. Specifically, among girls with high superhero exposure, weapon play was highest for girls who received frequent active mediation. Implications of the results are discussed with a focus on whether such programs are developmentally appropriate for preschool children.
... Most operational definitions of physical aggression include physical harm or threat of harm including behaviors such as hitting, pushing, or threatening to beat up a peer (Brook et al., 2001;Casas et al., 2006;Crick et al., 1997;Ostrov & Keating, 2004), whereas definitions of relational aggression include harm by damaging relationships, such as spreading rumors (Casas et al., 2006;Crick et al., 1997;Ostrov & Keating, 2004). Many studies have concluded that boys display aggression more than girls (Cantor & Nathanson, 1997;Watson & Peng, 1992). Further, boys also express more aggressive themes in their play than girls (Russ, 2004). ...
... Bushman, 1998;Bushman & Geen, 1990;Feshbach & Singer, 1971). However, others argue that aggressive themes in pretend play can be beneficial (Oppenheim, Nir, Warren, & Emde, 1997;Trotter, Eshelman, & Landreth, 2003;Watson & Peng, 1992). ...
... The literature on the impact of aggressive themes has often focused on the effects in early elementary years (for examples, see Cantor & Nathanson, 1997;Connor & Kathleen, 1989;Crick et al., 1997;Huston-Stein, Fox, Greer, Watkins, & Whitaker, 1981;Ostrov & Keating, 2004;Stayer & Roberts, 2004;Watson & Peng, 1992). It has been argued that aggression is especially prominent during the preschool years as children struggle with the desire for freedom and demands of attending school (Cantor & Nathanson, 1997). ...
... Based on Miller's (1987) additional findings, we predicted that girls' toys would be rated higher on manipulability and creativity. Several previous researchers have noted the association between boys' toys and gun play or violence (Goldstein, 1995;Hellendoorn & Harinck, 1997;Klugman, 1999;Watson & Peng, 1992). Therefore, we hypothesized that boys' toys would be associated with aggression and violence. ...
... Certainly there has been grave concern about violence in television and video games (Anderson & Bushman, 2001;Bushman & Huesmann, 2001), both of which are more likely to be part of boys' experiences than girls.' Most of the concern about violence in boys' toys has dealt with guns (Watson & Peng, 1992), although there has been some analysis of the extent to which the promotion of action figures centers on aggression and violence (Klugman, 1999). To our knowledge, there has been no previous mention of the extent to which boys' toys are associated with danger, risk, and excitement. ...
... There is research that does show that children's toys and games do impact their development. For example, the presence of toys such as guns and action figures has been shown to increase the level of aggressive play (Goldstein, 1995;Hellendoorn & Harinck, 1997;Watson & Peng, 1992). In addition to increasing aggression (Anderson & Bushman, 2001), video games have been shown to improve certain cognitive and spatial skills (De Lisi & Wolford, 2002;Green & Bavelier, 2003;Greenfield, deWinstanley, Kilpatrick, & Kaye, 1996). ...
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In Study 1, 292 undergraduates rated 126 toys as to whether they were suitable for boys, girls, or both. From these ratings, we established five categories of toys: strongly masculine, moderately masculine, neutral, moderately feminine, and strongly feminine. Using these categories, we constructed four toysets; each consisted of 15 toys, three from each category. In Study 2, 706 undergraduates individually rated the toys from one of the toysets on 26 scales that measured the toys' characteristics. We found that girls' toys were associated with physical attractiveness, nurturance, and domestic skill, whereas boys' toys were rated as violent, competitive, exciting, and somewhat dangerous. The toys rated as most likely to be educational and to develop children's physical, cognitive, artistic, and other skills were typically rated as neutral or moderately masculine. We conclude that strongly gender-typed toys appear to be less supportive of optimal development than neutral or moderately gender-typed toys.
... In studies of large arrays of toys, feminine toys are rated as more nurturing and domestically oriented and less aggressive (Blakemore & Centers, 2005). Observational studies suggest that feminine toys such as dolls elicit more nurturance and masculine toys such as toy weapons elicit more aggression (Caldera & Sciaraffa, 1998;Hellendoorn & Harinck, 1997;Watson & Peng, 1992). For example, in Caldera and Sciaraffa, children engaged in more caretaking behavior (e.g., feeding, combing hair, and dressing) and parents more caretaking and nurturing behaviors (e.g., hugging, kissing, and cuddling) when playing with a doll (feminine) than with a clown (less gender specific). ...
... Masculine toys, such as action figures and weapons, model and foster the emulation of aggressive acts. Along this line, physical aggression in boys, such as getting into fights and roughand-tumble play, correlated positively with masculine play, validating adults' perceptions (Blakemore & Centers, 2005) and observations (Hellendoorn & Harinck, 1997;Watson & Peng, 1992) indicating the aggressive nature of masculine toys. ...
Article
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Children’s play preferences are highly gender-typed. At the same time, much research revolves around spatial and social skills that sometimes show male- and female- advantages, respectively. There is evidence that play with masculine toys is associated with better spatial skills and emerging evidence suggests that play with feminine toys is associated with better social skills. However, several research gaps limit current knowledge on these aspects of gender development. First, the study of childhood gender development has been largely Eurocentric; second, the link between gender- typed play and social skills development is not well-supported. We tested 644 five- year-old Hong Kong Chinese children on five gender-typed skills, play preferences, and parental gender socialization. The pattern of gender differences was remarkably similar with those in the West. Boys preferred masculine toys more than girls and were better at mental transformation and targeting accuracy while girls preferred feminine (and neutral) toys more than boys and were better at empathy and were less aggressive, although there was no significant gender difference in comforting skill. There was little evidence that these gender differences varied with socioeconomic status (parental income and education). Play correlated with some outcomes in expected ways. This is in contrast to parents’ gender socialization, which showed some expected differences by child gender but minimally correlated with children’s skills. These findings shed light on the generalizability of current knowledge on early gender differences and may facilitate gender developmental research outside the West. Although the study did not test the direction of effects, they substantiate the growing discourse on gender-typed play as an important learning mechanism.
... Caldera and Sciaraffa (1998) found that baby dolls elicited more nurturing and caretaking behavior in 18-to 23month-old U.S. infants and their parents than did clowns, concluding that feminine toys are unique in their provision of nurturing and caretaking opportunities. In contrast, masculine toys elicited more aggression in studies of Dutch children aged 4-7 years old (Hellendoorn and Harinck 1997) and U.S. children aged 3-5 years-old (Watson and Peng 1992). Although not tested directly in these studies, these findings suggest that play with different toys could influence social skills outside play. ...
... Both play with feminine toys (e.g., baby dolls) and generating comforting strategies are about generating ideas for pro-social interaction. In contrast, masculine toy play often encourages competition and aggression (Blakemore and Centers 2005;Hellendoorn and Harinck 1997;Watson and Peng 1992). Children who engage frequently in masculine toy play may thus have fewer opportunities to develop the motivation and skills to comfort another. ...
Article
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In the present study, we tested whether children’s play with feminine toys is related to social abilities in which girls typically excel. We measured gender-typed toy play, empathy, and comforting skill in 80 Grade 1 children (about 6 years-old) in Hong Kong, China. Toy play was assessed with a standard observational paradigm; empathy, with the Empathy Quotient-Child Questionnaire; and comforting skill, with an infant-cry paradigm requiring the generation of comforting strategies. As predicted, boys and girls differed in their preferences for play with masculine and feminine toys, but not for gender-neutral toys. Importantly, toy play was related to comforting skill. Girls scored higher on the comforting task, and girls who played more with feminine toys and boys who played more with gender-neutral toys generated more comforting strategies. Regression and mediational analyses also suggested a stronger role of gender-typed play on comforting than the other way round. Contrary to hypothesis, there was no gender difference in empathy, and no relationship between empathy and toy play. These results extend previous understandings of the link between play and development and suggest that early gender-typed experiences may have long-term consequences for the development of some social skills.
... Para esses autores, pais autoritários, que usam a punição física como prática educativa, contribuem para a formação de filhos com problemas comportamentais. Watson e Peng (1992) observaram crianças pré-escolares norte-americanas em uma situação naturalística, interessados na relação entre o brincar com armas de brinquedo, a punição física e a exposição a modelos de comportamento agressivo da mídia, e cada uma das seguintes categorias: agressividade real (real aggression), agressividade de faz-de-conta (pretend aggression) e brincadeira turbulenta (rough-and-tumble play). Os resultados sugerem que a punição física é o fator mais significativo , dentre os estudados, para a aprendizagem de comportamentos agressivos, bem como sua manifestação disfuncional. ...
... Não se pode afirmar que fatores sócio-econômicos e culturais não sejam relevantes, mas os dados sugerem algumas tendências universais na relação observada especialmente entre a punição física e o comportamento agressivo infantil. Em ambas as culturas aqui comparadas parece haver uma tendência de que à medida que a freqüência de comportamentos agressivos aumenta, a freqüência de episódios de brincadeira turbulenta diminui (Vieira, 2007; Watson e Peng, 1992). Essa relação pode estar apontando para uma possível incompatibilidade entre as duas categorias comportamentais. ...
Article
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We investigated the interaction between social learning factors measured by questionnaires and aggressive and playful behaviors of pre-school children, through direct observation during their playful break time. The subjects were 15 boys between four and six years old who were enrolled in a non-profit child care center in Goiânia-GO, Brazil. A multivariate analysis of variance indicated significant effects of aggressive models at home on aggression levels during playful behavior. Children exposed to abusive physical punishment, adult fighting and violent TV programs engaged in more episodes of aggression during playful breaks. Boys who reported to play with toy guns at home did not engage in aggressive behavior more often than those who did not, but they displayed a higher proportion of pretended aggression. Results also indicated that aggressive behavior becomes more frequent as the number of aggressive models at home increases.
... Two pieces of research from the 1990s (Watson & Peng, 1992;Orpinas et al., 1999) may help to clarify this perceived causal link. Watson and Peng videotaped 36 children between three and five years old (19 girls and 17 boys) in a day care setting in the Boston area of USA. ...
... Clearly it is impossible to make a definitive connection between this research and the previous example (Watson & Peng, 1992) as they consider children from very different age ranges and the former presents data on parental attitudes to fighting, whilst the latter considers actual physical punishment of children. However, it is perhaps not unreasonable to read a common message from parents to children across these different sets of data. ...
Article
This article considers the genesis of a zero tolerance approach to war, weapon and superhero play in early years settings in the UK over the last 30 years. This exploration is located in the development of anti-sexist perspectives and concerns about effective early intervention in the spiral of male violence and it is suggested that this has resulted in the ‘Othering’ of young boys in settings where this policy is enforced. Research challenging assumptions about the connection between war, weapon and superhero play and aggressive behaviour is discussed and the possible benefits of a more relaxed approach to these areas of play, which are more consistent with Scandinavian notions of gender pedagogy, are highlighted.
... Not least, there is an assumption that such play, especially with realistic-looking toys, normalizes war and violence. Allowing children to play in such ways eventually makes children violent (Hellendoorn & Harinck, 1997;Watson & Peng, 1992). Altogether, from an adult perspective, there seems to be ample social risk in allowing aggressive or violent play-themes. ...
Article
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The focus of this theoretical paper is to explore three biopsychosocial levels of children’s risky play: (1) mental health and emotion regulation, (2) social functioning and challenging norms, and (3) physical health and development. As such, in this paper, we expand Sandseter’s and Kennair’s focus in their original article in 2011 on the evolved function of risky play as an anti-phobic mechanism, and consider other types of risk than physical risks and other types of play, including other types of emotional regulation than anxiety reduction. Motivated by the thrilling emotions involved in risky play, one matures in competency and masters new and more complex psychosocial settings. Play with emotional, social, and physical risk may have evolved to increase the child’s psychosocial competency here-and-now, but also train them for future adult contexts. We recommend that future research consider how risky play in all contexts may have a similar function.
... This study finds that children who played with toys showed a lower development potential in the socio-emotional domain. However, some studies found that choosing sex-stereotyped toys, playing with toy guns, and parent's uncaring emotions when a child is playing with toys suppresses the children's socio-emotional development (Caldera, Huston, & O'Brien, 1989;Laible & Thompson, 2002;Peretti & Sydney, 1984;Valentino, Cicchetti, Toth, & Rogosch, 2011;Watson & Peng, 1992). Whether our findings support this line of research needs required detailed data and further investigation. ...
Article
Early childhood development (ECD) is a crucial determinant of adulthood capabilities. This paper investigates the current ECD status among young children of 3–4 years of age in Bangladesh and its relation to various socio-demographic and familial factors using data from the latest round of the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS). Results from the logistic regressions confirm many existing findings for developing countries and draw new insights specific to the country. Physical and mental disabilities hinder all types of early development. Enrolment in pre-school education programmes, the presence of children's books at home and parents' engagement in certain learning-stimulating activities are crucial for development in literacy-numeracy and learning. Development in the physical domain is fundamentally associated with wealth status. Failure to attain adequate social-emotional development can be largely attributed to domestic hostility toward children and mothers' experience of functional difficulties.
... Children's exposure to war toys has been contested in contrasting societal messages for young children related to the appropriateness of military toys [19]. Playfighting and use of war toys have been considered detrimental symbols of violence and aggression [20][21][22]. Hartmann and Borugere [17] find that war toys are controversial and unwanted for ethical and psychological reasons in many European countries. However, toys have been disseminating discourses of war for decades globally [23,24]. ...
Article
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Social and cultural sustainability is outlined as creating surroundings that include and stimulate positive interactions, such as promoting a sense of community and a feeling of belonging to a community, by being safe and attached to the local area. Artefacts chosen in early childhood education (ECE) institutions are integrated parts of the culture in which the ECE institutions are embedded; artefacts, thus, are understood as serving belonging and cultural sustainability. The study examined what insight into cultural sustainability could be surfaced in conflicting perspectives about military artefacts in ECE. Focus group interviews were conducted with Chinese and Norwegian graduate students and ECE researchers, during which photographs of a Chinese kindergarten where military artefacts and toys were highly represented. Conflicting perspectives on military artefacts among the participant surfaced how belonging are closely intertwined with protection and where to belong: locally, nationally or internationally. The skeptical approach to military artefacts is challenged by awareness of different ways to promote national pride and entanglement among generations. The findings indicate a need for more research on conditions for belonging and the normative complexities of artefacts in cultural sustainability.
... The reason for that could be that parents play rougher with boys than with girls and react more negatively to the aggressive behaviors of daughters than to those of sons (Mills & Rubin, 1990;Parke & Slaby, 1983). Furthermore, the guns, tanks, missile launchers, and other symbolic implements of destruction that boys often receive encourage the enactment of aggressive concepts-and actually promote aggressive behavior (Feshbach, 1956;Watson & Peng, 1992). During the preschool years, children come to view aggression as a male attribute in their gender schemas; and by middle childhood, boys expect aggressive acts to provide them with benefits that are more tangible and to elicit less disapproval from either parents or peers than girls do (Hertzberger & Hall, 1993;Perry et al., 1989). ...
... Distintos autores sugieren que los juguetes bélicos (Turner y Goldsmith, 1976;Watson y Peng, 1992) y los videojuegos violentos (Anderson y Bushman, 2001, 2002Huesmann, Moise, Podolski y Eron, 2003) promueven emociones negativas, pensamientos y conductas agresivas en la infancia y la adolescencia: ser "inmunes" o insensibles al horror de la violencia; imitar la violencia que ellos ven y demostrar un comportamiento más agresivo debido a una mayor exposición a la violencia; aceptar la violencia como una forma de manejar los problemas. Estudios también han demostrado que mientras más realista y repetida sea la exposición a la violencia, mayor será el impacto en los niños (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry aacap, 2015). ...
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Las armas de fuego (AF) están cada vez más presentes en la vida de los adolescentes y jóvenes mexicanos de ambos sexos. Este estudio explora los puntos de vista que sobre las AF tienen las jóvenes universitarias de Guadalajara, México e identifica factores asociados con el hecho de querer tener un arma de este tipo. Entre septiembre de 2013 y marzo de 2014 se aplicó un cuestionario a una muestra representativa -estratificada por sexo- de estudiantes menores de 26 años de varios centros universitarios de la Universidad de Guadalajara (n=764). Este estudio se centró en las jóvenes universitarias (n=379). Se realizó un estudio transversal, con aspectos tanto descriptivos como analíticos; mediante un análisis de regresión logística múltiple se estableció la asociación entre distintas variables seleccionadas y la variable dependiente estudiada (le gustaría tener un AF propia). Los resultados revelan que casi 25% de las jóvenes quisieran tener un AF propia. El análisis multivariado realizado permitió identificar que tener una postura favorable hacia las AF, tener como favorito un videojuego violento, tener amigos con AF en su casa, pero sobre todo preferir juguetes bélicos cuando niña y considerar necesario tener un AF para defenderse son factores significativamente asociados a querer tener un AF. Palabras claves: armas de fuego; mujeres; adolescente; adulto joven; violencia ABSTRACT Firearms (FA) are increasingly present in the lives of Mexican adolescents and young men and women. The present study aims to explore the points of view about FA of young university students in Guadalajara, Mexico and identify factors associated to desire to have a weapon of this type. Between September 2013 and March 2014, a questionnaire was applied to a representative sample - sex-stratified - of students under 26 years of age from several university centers of the University of Guadalajara (n = 764). This study focused on women university students (n = 379). A cross-sectional study was carried out, with both descriptive and analytical aspects; through a multiple logistic regression analysis, the association between different selected variables and the dependent variable studied (would like to have an own FA) was established. The results reveal that almost 25% of the young women would like to have their own FA. The multivariate analysis allowed to identify that having a favorable attitude towards FAs, having a violent videogame as a favorite, having friends with FA at home, but especially preferring when girl war toys and considering it necessary to have an FA to defend themselves are significantly associated factors to want to have an own FA. Key Words: Firearms; women; adolescent; young adult; violence
... Distintos autores sugieren que los juguetes bélicos (Turner y Goldsmith, 1976;Watson y Peng, 1992) y los videojuegos violentos (Anderson y Bushman, 2001, 2002Huesmann, Moise, Podolski y Eron, 2003) promueven emociones negativas, pensamientos y conductas agresivas en la infancia y la adolescencia: ser "inmunes" o insensibles al horror de la violencia; imitar la violencia que ellos ven y demostrar un comportamiento más agresivo debido a una mayor exposición a la violencia; aceptar la violencia como una forma de manejar los problemas. Estudios también han demostrado que mientras más realista y repetida sea la exposición a la violencia, mayor será el impacto en los niños (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry aacap, 2015). ...
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Firearms (FA) are increasingly present in the lives of Mexican adolescents and young men and women. The present study aims to explore the points of view about FA of young university students in Guadalajara, Mexico and identify factors associated to desire to have a weapon of this type. Between September 2013 and March 2014, a questionnaire was applied to a representative sample - sex-stratified - of students under 26 years of age from several university centers of the University of Guadalajara (n = 764). This study focused on women university students (n = 379). A cross-sectional study was carried out, with both descriptive and analytical aspects; through a multiple logistic regression analysis, the association between different selected variables and the dependent variable studied (would like to have an own FA) was established. The results reveal that almost 25% of the young women would like to have their own FA. The multivariate analysis allowed to identify that having a favorable attitude towards FAs, having a violent videogame as a favorite, having friends with FA at home, but especially preferring when girl war toys and considering it necessary to have an FA to defend themselves are significantly associated factors to want to have an own FA.
... el uso de armas de fuego:... luchas) son factores que también se asocian significativamente con que la joven exprese que le gustaría tener un af de su propiedad. Aunque fueron pocas las jóvenes que declararon preferir juguetes que imitaban armas en su niñez, fue este el factor más contundente asociado a querer disponer de un af.Distintos autores sugieren que los juguetes bélicos(Turner y Goldsmith, 1976;Watson y Peng, 1992) y los videojuegos violentos(Anderson y Bushman, 2001, 2002Huesmann, Moise, Podolski y Eron, 2003) promueven emociones negativas, pensamientos y conductas agresivas en la infancia y la adolescencia: ser "inmunes" o insensibles al horror de la violencia; imitar la violencia que ellos ven y demostrar un comportamiento más agresivo debido a una mayor exposición a la violencia; aceptar la violencia como una forma de manejar los problemas. Estudios también han demostrado que mientras más realista y repetida sea la exposición a la violencia, mayor será el impacto en los niños (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry aacap, 2015). ...
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In this book, the affiliation to different educational or health institutions by participating researchers (multi-center) is evidenced in several chapters. And the coincidence in an object of study with different disciplinary approaches (interdisciplinary). Works that start from basic (experimental) science to those where social aspects determine the latency, clinical period and resolution (restoration of health or death) of the disease are presented. Epidemiological action is harmonized with the functions of public health, in such a way that the results of research are based on health actions and policies.
... Distintos autores sugieren que los juguetes bélicos (Turner y Goldsmith, 1976;Watson y Peng, 1992) y los videojuegos violentos (Anderson y Bushman, 2001, 2002Huesmann, Moise, Podolski y Eron, 2003) promueven emociones negativas, pensamientos y conductas agresivas en la infancia y la adolescencia: ser "inmunes" o insensibles al horror de la violencia; imitar la violencia que ellos ven y demostrar un comportamiento más agresivo debido a una mayor exposición a la violencia; aceptar la violencia como una forma de manejar los problemas. Estudios también han demostrado que mientras más realista y repetida sea la exposición a la violencia, mayor será el impacto en los niños (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry aacap, 2015). ...
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Resumen: Las armas de fuego (af) están cada vez más presentes en la vida de los adolescentes y jóvenes mexicanos de ambos sexos. Este estudio explora los puntos de vista que sobre las af tienen las jóvenes universitarias de Guadalajara, México e identifica factores asociados con el hecho de querer tener un arma de este tipo. Entre septiembre de 2013 y marzo de 2014 se aplicó un cuestionario a una muestra representativa –estratificada por sexo– de estudiantes menores de 26 años de varios centros universitarios de la Universidad de Guadalajara (n= 764). Este estudio se centró en las jóvenes universitarias (n= 379). Se realizó un estudio transversal, con aspectos tanto descriptivos como analíticos, mediante un análisis de regresión logística múltiple se estableció la asociación entre distintas variables seleccionadas y la variable dependiente estudiada (le gustaría tener un af propia). Los resultados revelan que casi 25% de las jóvenes quisieran tener un af propia. El análisis multivariado realizado permitió identificar que tener una postura favorable hacia las af, tener como favorito un videojuego violento, tener amigos con af en su casa, pero sobre todo preferir juguetes bélicos cuando niña y considerar necesario tener un af para defenderse son factores significativamente asociados a querer tener un af.
... Even though prior literature has shown that aggressive children tend to show higher levels of poorly aggressive negative affect during pretend play (Butcher & Niec, 2005), and one would surmise that children with aggressive problems would bring more aggressive affect to their play, it has also been found that expression of aggression in play can in fact be adaptive and is associated with less aggression and more prosocial behaviors in the classroom (Fehr & Russ, 2013). This finding comes from the mastery theory in which children who are able to play out aggressive themes in their play actually show less aggressive behavior in the classroom (Oppenheim et al., 1997;Trotter, Eshelman, & Landreth, 2003;Watson & Peng, 1992). Therefore, it is possible that children with aggressive problems in our sample have limited capacity to use play as an outlet for affect expression (i.e., channel their aggression into the play area), which could ultimately help them to work through or learn to control and regulate aggressive impulses. ...
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Play assessment can be used therapeutically to determine whether and how play would be an appropriate intervention mode for children with clinical diagnoses, and to track their therapeutic progress. However, detailed and standardized play protocols that can catalogue children’s play behaviors in psychodynamic therapy are not widely available. The aim of this study was to empirically construct profiles of play using items selected from the Children’s Play Therapy Instrument (CPTI), reflecting the complex play patterns of children with mental health difficulties. These constructed play profiles integrate quantitative items associated with cognitive, affective, social qualities of play, as well as children’s coping strategies. The initial session of 62 children in psychodynamic play therapy was recorded, transcribed and coded using the CPTI, and children’s play profiles were computed. The reliability of the play profiles, and their preliminary associations with children’s symptomatic and behavioral functioning were tested. Results showed that the play profiles showed good inter-rater reliability, internal consistency and their associations were in expected directions with the majority of the criterion measures. Given the limitations of the current empirical play measures in clinical settings, the preliminary validation provided in this study of the play profiles add a significant contribution to existing literature.
... Miller's research (1987) also suggests that play with gender-stereotyped toys may be related to the development of differential cognitive (e.g., verbal/spatial) or social (nurturance/aggression) skills in girls and boys. Research also suggests that toy gun play and parental attitudes are associated with aggressive behavior, particularly in boys (Hellendoorn & Harinck, 1997;Watson & Peng, 1992). Play may also provide children with opportunities to learn strategies for problem solving. ...
Article
Television today is the most powerful media used to convey all types of messages. It is found in every home, whether upper, middle, or low class of society. Television viewing is quite common these days. Children today spend a maximum of their free time watching television where they are exposed to a large number of advertisements. They watch almost 2-3 hours of television everyday, which includes their favourite cartoons and other programmes. The number of TV running homes has come a long way; more than 100 million TV households have been accounted for so far. Accessibility to television is increasing day by day and has been accepted by the society. A variety of programmes are available round the clock. Many targeted programmes and commercials on television are attracting more and more number of children towards it. Television viewing brings about cognitive development and conveys knowledge, skills, and information to children. It encourages learning and imparts overall awareness. It brings about both theoretical and concrete thinking and initiates change in behaviour and attitudes. Hence, the beneficial and adverse effects of television is a matter of great concern. Television viewing has negative impacts too. It may place children in passive roles. It dissuades them from reading, playing, exercising, studying, and so forth. It decreases actual social communication and develops violent and destructive behaviour in children (Gupta, Saini, Acharya & Miglani, 1994). This study was conducted to take note of TV viewing behaviour among children from urban and rural areas of Goa. A sample of 200 children of 6-12 years of age across Goa was selected. It was found that more number of children in rural areas watched advertisements as compared to their urban counterparts. On an average, children watched 2 hours or less of TV daily; while on holidays, they watched TV for more than 3 hours. As age advances, children's interest towards television decreases. It was also observed that parents discussed about TV advertisements more with girls and older children and that too only when their children enquired about it from them.
... A study by Watson and Peng (1992) has been one of the few to look at effects of war-toy play. They coded for pretend aggression play and real aggression in 36 preschool children (taking care to distinguish these from rough-andtumble play). ...
... Essa atribuição de sentido às experiências parece ser ponto central na construção dos padrões interpretativos da realidade que poderão influenciar suas futuras emoções e comportamentos (Beck, 1997). Watson e Peng (1992) incluíram a observação de conteúdos simbólicos apresentados em situações lúdicas e verificaram uma relação entre exposição a modelos de comportamento agressivo envolvendo armas e a subseqüente aparição de conteúdos simbólicos agressivos. ...
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School shooting phenomenon has attracted attention throughout the world, especially after the Columbine massacre in April, 1999. In that event, 12 people died and about 30 were hurt. Some years later, in April 2007, Cho Seung-Hui carried out an even more impressive deed, shooting and killing 32 people at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, USA. This article presents school shooting as a growing phenomenon that may happen anywhere and not just in the United States. A reflection based on empirical research is presented focusing the development of school shooters in their social contexts, including home environment, media influence, and inter-students interactions in High Schools and universities.
... Existe una amplia literatura que sugiere que los juguetes bélicos (Turner & Goldsmith, 1976;Watson & Peng, 1992) promueven emociones negativas, pensamientos y conductas agresivas en niños y adolescentes. De igual modo, son varios los autores que han encontrado, a partir de estudios tanto de tipo experimental como correlacional, una relación entre jugar videojuegos violentos y desarrollar una conducta agresiva a corto plazo (Anderson, 2004;Gentile et al., 2004;Adachi & Willoughby, 2011). ...
... A természetes környezetben történő megfigyelések alapján (pl. Strayer, 1989;Watson és Peng, 1992;Palermiti és mtsai, 1999) már a háromévesek körében megfigyelhetők az agresszivitás mind enyhébb (pl. lökdösődés, csipkedés), mind erőteljesebb (pl. ...
... Miller's research (1987) also suggests that play with gender-stereotyped toys may be related to the development of differential cognitive (e.g., verbal/spatial) or social (nurturance/aggression) skills in girls and boys. Research also suggests that toy gun play and parental attitudes are associated with aggressive behavior, particularly in boys (Hellendoorn & Harinck, 1997; Watson & Peng, 1992 ). Play may also provide children with opportunities to learn strategies for problem solving. ...
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This study was designed to compare how 5- to 13-year-old children's leisure activity preferences differ with age and gender. Responses from 60 boys and 60 girls about their favorite toys, television shows, computer games, and outdoor activities were compared across leisure categories. The results showed that gender was a significant factor. Overall, boys spent more time in these leisure activities than girls did. They spent the most time engaged in sports, watching television, and playing computer games, whereas girls spent the most time watching television. Results from a gender index for all activities indicated that boys' leisure preferences became slightly more masculine with age. For girls, preferences for television shows became more feminine with age, but preferences for toys, computer games, and sports became less feminine. These self-chosen preferences may provide differential opportunities for the development of visual-spatial skills, achievement, initiative, self-regulation, and social skills.
... Essa atribuição de sentido às experiências parece ser ponto central na construção dos padrões interpretativos da realidade que poderão influenciar suas futuras emoções e comportamentos (Beck, 1997). Watson e Peng (1992) incluíram a observação de conteúdos simbólicos apresentados em situações lúdicas e verificaram uma relação entre exposição a modelos de comportamento agressivo envolvendo armas e a subseqüente aparição de conteúdos simbólicos agressivos. ...
Article
Full-text available
School shooting phenomenon has attracted attention throughout the world, especially after the Columbine massacre in April, 1999. In that event, 12 people died and about 30 were hurt. Some years later, in April 2007, Cho Seung-Hui carried out an even more impressive deed, shooting and killing 32 people at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, USA. This article presents school shooting as a growing phenomenon that may happen anywhere and not just in the United States. A reflection based on empirical research is presented focusing the development of school shooters in their social contexts, including home environment, media influence, and inter-students interactions in High Schools and universities.
... Dunn and Hughes [2001] found that, compared to a control group, a group of preschool-age children who scored high on a conduct disorder scale exhibited higher rates of violent fantasy as assessed through pretend play episodes. In a related study on engagement in toy-weapon play, Watson and Peng [1992] found that pretend aggression was associated with increased real aggression rather than having a cathartic effect of reducing it. To the extent that exposure to violent video games and television programming can be viewed as forms of fantasy stimulation and engagement, there is additional support in the literature for the social information processing view of aggressive fantasy [Carnagey and Anderson, 2004;Huesmann and Taylor, 2006]. ...
Article
Over three decades of research have established a positive connection between fantasizing about aggression and enacting aggression. Such findings have provided strong evidence against the catharsis view of aggressive fantasy. However, little attention has been paid to the potentially nuanced nature of the link between fantasy aggression and actual aggression. In the present article, we examined the influence of four variables in the aggressive fantasy-aggressive behavior link: gender, exposure to violence, fantasy absorption, and level of fantasy about harm befalling loved ones and the self (dysphoric fantasy). Using data from a diverse, community-based sample of 7-14-year olds and their mothers, we replicated the general finding that aggressive fantasy is positively associated with real-world aggressive behavior. However, we also found that the interaction of aggressive fantasy and exposure to violence related significantly to aggression, as did the relation between aggressive fantasy and dysphoric fantasy. When exposure to violence was low, even high levels of aggressive fantasizing did not predict aggressive behavior, and, when aggressive fantasizing was low, even high levels of exposure to violence did not predict aggressive behavior. Similarly, when dysphoric fantasy was high, the connection between fantasy aggression and real aggression was markedly attenuated. The implications of these findings for intervention efforts and future research are considered.
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Este estudo tem como objetivo realizar uma revisão sistemática sobre brin[1]cadeiras de luta na educação pré-escolar, a fim de identificar pontos de convergência, divergência, lacunas e possibilidades pedagógicas em artigos científicos que abordam essa temática. Para tanto, desenvolve um estudo exploratório, de caráter bibliográfico, realizado por meio de um levantamento de artigos, com crianças de zero a cinco anos de idade. Utiliza quatro bases de dados internacionais como fontes: LILACS, Portal de Periódicos da CAPES, SciELO e SCOPUS. Os resultados apontam para a agressividade se constituir como um elemento ambíguo que denota tanto o controle das emoções como o protagonismo entre as crianças, fundamentais para a compreensão dessa manifestação lúdica nas culturas infantis e para o aprendizado em administrar riscos em um contexto de faz de conta. O material analisado sinaliza para a necessidade de superar visões pejorativas sobre as brincadeiras de luta na educação pré-escolar, compreendendo-as como importante meio de sociali[1]zação e desenvolvimento das crianças.
Chapter
Gender differences in children’s play behaviors are large and consistent across the psychological literature. These play behaviors include children’s toy interests, play styles, and peer preferences during play. Contemporary research has investigated the biological, social, and cognitive influences on children’s gender-typed toy play including the role of prenatal androgens, parental and peer socialization, gender cognitions, and gender stereotypes. Contemporary research also suggests that children’s gender-typed play behaviors may lead to gender differentiation throughout development. Specifically, the large differences in boys’ and girls’ play behaviors may lead to gender differences in children’s physical, social, and cognitive development. Theoretical implications are discussed as well as limitations of the current literature that necessitate future research.KeywordsGenderChildrenToysPlayGender rolesGender stereotypes
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Force, form, transformations. Kinesthetic musicality and body-worlding in boy ́s war play War play has generally been studied with violence as a central perspective, investigating its impact on children’s aggression, both in a positive and negative sense. Some research results have claimed that war play can contribute to normalising or even encouraging violent behavior amongst children, while other results have claimed that children can develop important physical, cognitive or social skills through war play. However, this study examines the aesthetic dimensions that children create and explore in war play in their early childhood, above all by placing their movement at the foreground. The phenomenon of war play is here reframed and analysed, mainly through a dance theoretical framework. This framework embraces phenomenology with a focus on the body-subject ́s movement in the world–a focus which is further displaced towards movement in the world with the help of process philosophy.The research data is mainly based on ethnographic field studies and art film, but also of interviews with the participants who are boys aged three to nine years old. The structure and organisation of the analysis is inspired by the principles of Grounded Theory. Six main categories emerged as the result of the study: rhythm, orchestrating space, fictional characters as spaces for exploring movement-quality, the movement canon of war play, phrases and aesthetic attention. Concluding, the results of the thesis are discussed with a focus on the core category, kinesthetic musicality, that connects all the categories found in the research data. Kinesthetic musicality also constitutes the core of an emerging theory that can be further tested and developed in future research. This emerging theory can be described as capturing a dimension of how children in their early childhood understand, explore and create the world. Keywords: War play, improvisation, proprioception, perception, aesthetics, kinestesia, space, body-subject, transduction, didactic musicality, transformation, force, form, time, becoming, attention, sensation, the thinking body and body-worlding.
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Cambridge Core - Educational Psychology - The Cambridge Handbook of Play - edited by Peter K. Smith
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It is a concept that some think should have no place in an early years setting, however, children always seem to include guns in some form in their imaginative play, so what role do they have in learning?
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The study sought to develop and evaluate the psychometric properties of the Parental Attitudes Toward Firearms Survey (PATFS), a self-report measure of parental attitudes about firearms and parenting behavior. The initial item pool was generated based on a literature review and discussion with experts in violence reduction, psychometrics, and public health. Data were collected online from 362 volunteers and subjected to exploratory factor analysis which revealed a 13-item, 3-factor solution accounting for 59.7% of the variance. The 3 conceptual factors (subscales) were interpreted as Firearms Exposure, Parental Control, and Violent Play. The PATFS demonstrated good internal consistency and content and construct validity. The PATFS can be used to investigate parenting attitudes and behaviors specific to firearms and violent play.
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The current study investigates the influence of situational context on perceptions of playful aggression. Using an online data collection instrument embedded with video vignettes showing young boys engaged in aggressive play behaviour, 36 situational profiles that are defined by the unique combinations of variables believed to influence attitudes about playful aggression were created and analysed using the conjunctive analysis of case configurations methods [Miethe, T. D., Hart, T. C., & Regoeczi, W. C. (2008). The conjunctive analysis of case configurations: An exploratory method for discrete multivariate analyses of crime data. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 24(2), 227–241]. Educators’ perceptions of playful aggression varied considerably, depending on the particular contextual profile that was observed. Significant contextual variability also exists within the groups of profiles perceived by educators’ as ‘most’ playful and ‘least’ playful. Policy implications are discussed and recommendations for future research are offered.
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Research Findings: Pretend play is an essential part of child development and adjustment. However, parents, teachers, and researchers debate the function of aggression in pretend play. Different models of aggression predict that the expression of aggression in play could either increase or decrease actual aggressive behavior. The current study examined pretend play and classroom behavior in preschoolers. Children (N = 59) were administered a measure of pretend play, and teacher ratings of classroom behavior were obtained. Pretend play skills were positively associated with prosocial behavior in the classroom and negatively associated with physical aggression in the classroom. In particular, expression of oral aggression in play related to less physical aggression and more prosocial behavior in the classroom. Practice or Policy: These findings suggest that pretend play should be encouraged, as these skills relate to positive behaviors in the classroom. In addition, it was found that aggression in pretend play was not an indicator of actual aggressive behavior, as it related to positive behaviors in the classroom. Implications for parents and teachers are discussed.
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Throughout history, the involvement of children in military operations has been extensively documented. The issue of child conscription is multi-faceted, with very few medical but more sociological aspects, including terrorism, politics, economics, history, culture and religion amongst other factors. Many United Nations Instruments as well as the International Criminal Court have documented that child conscription is detrimental to a child?s development, violates Child Rights, and is a war crime. Efforts by international bodies to address conscription as child abuse have failed since the process is undertaken by groups rather than individuals, and because the law has no access to the perpetrators. The background to a conflict in Sri Lanka and various ethno-religious and political factors are discussed. The role of the diaspora community, the internet and various fund-raising mechanisms for war are discussed. The history of child conscription and studies examining reasons and the tasks assigned to them as conscripts as well as abusive aspects, especially in relation to emotional abuse, neglect and physical harm, are discussed. Documentation of conscription as child abuse needing a definition including a new definition of ?suicide by proxy? is stressed. The importance of culture and history, and the manipulation of the idealistic mind are discussed in the context of ?setting the stage? for child conscription. The toy weapon industry and the real arms industry, especially small arms, are important in maintaining conflicts, especially in the developing world. The conflicts of interests of members of the UN Security Council and the ?peace-keepers? of the world is discussed.
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The aim of our research was to investigate social and emotional skills that determine pre-schoolers’ aggressive and pro-social behaviours in stressful situations. The sample of the empirical study consisted of 119 (36–48, 49–60 and 61–72 months) Hungarian children from six pre-schools. Instruments that were used: Coping strategy self-report and teacher-report questionnaires as well as hypothetical social situations interviews with puppets. The statistical analysis of pre-school teachers’ questionnaires showed that verbal and physical aggression as coping strategies were used in a significantly higher proportion (p
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The purpose of this paper is to review the literature on war play and aggression. The paper begins with an introduction to play and the theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, and Corsaro. This is followed by a definition of pretend aggression and the war play debate. Literature is reviewed on how violent television, war toys, and war play shapes children’s imaginary play and aggressive behaviors. Attention is also given to the teacher’s role in war play and the methods used to investigate war play. Suggestions are made for future approaches to the study of war play within the context of the peer culture. The paper concludes with implications for early childhood educators.
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The play behavior of 54 four to seven-year-old Dutch children in the presence of a standard set of war toys and neutral toys was related to five groups of variables, i.e., parental attitude, possession of war toys at home, the habitual aggressiveness of the child in daily life, the characteristics of the toys themselves, and the play situation. Real object- or person-oriented aggression was rare and was not related to play with the war toys. Suppression of aggression by the experimental situation seemed unlikely. During play, the levels of involvement and fantasy were generally high. Regularly, playful fighting was observed, differentiated as Make-Believe-Aggression and Rough-and-Tumble. These two Play ‘Aggression’ factors, and Real Aggression, could be predicted from other variables, principally from gender, the influence of session partners, play involvement, type of war toy used and parental attitude.
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In dit onderzoek naar de samenhang tussen het spelen met oorlogsspeelgoed en agressie bij vier– tot zevenjarige kinderen werd tevens verband gelegd met achtergrondgegevens betreffende kind, ouders en leerkracht, en de spelsituatie. De attitude van de ouders ten opzichte van oorlogsspeelgoed was positiever dan die van de leerkrachten. De kinderen zelf werden geobserveerd tijdens een spelsessie in kleine groepen, met een standaardset speelgoed, waaronder oorlogsspeelgoed. Daarbij speelde het onderscheid tussen ‘echte’ agressie en quasi–agressie (‘fantasie–agressie’ en ‘stoeien’) een belangrijke rol. Beide seksen gebruikten het oorlogsspeelgoed frequent, vooral de jongens. Tijdens het spel kwam weinig echte agressie voor, wel veel fantasie–agressie en stoeispel. Deze spelvormen hingen vooral samen met de invloed van speelgenoten, de betrokkkenheid in het spel en het gebruikte speelgoed. Een tolerante ouderattitude bleek bevorderend voor stoeispel, niet voor echte of fantasie–agressie. toys-play-aggression-kindergartners
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Japanese and U.S. preschool children's responses to hypothetical interpersonal dilemmas were examined as a function of culture, gender, and maternal child-rearing values. U.S. children showed more anger, more aggressive behavior and language, and underregulation of emotion than Japanese children, across different contexts of assessment. Children from the 2 cultures appeared more similar on prosocial and avoidant patterns, though in some contexts U.S. children also showed more prosocial themes. Girls from both cultures expressed more prosocial themes and sometimes more anger than boys. Maternal encouragement of children's emotional expressivity was correlated with anger and aggression in children. It was more characteristic of U.S. than Japanese mothers, while emphasis on psychological discipline (reasoning; guilt and anxiety induction) was more characteristic of Japanese than U.S. mothers. The relevance of a conceptual framework that focuses on differences in Eastern and Western cultures in self-construals regarding independence and interdependence is considered.
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Toy gun play has been associated with aggressive behavior, and it has been suggested that child health professionals counsel families on limiting exposure. Effective violence prevention counseling requires an understanding of norms regarding parental attitudes, practices, and influencing factors. Both theories of reasoned action and planned behavior emphasize that subjective norms and attitudes affect people's perceptions and intended behavior. Few normative data exist on this issue from a cross-section of families. By establishing behavioral norms and understanding the spectrum of parental attitudes, community-sensitive and community-specific interventions for violence prevention can be developed. The objective of this study was to assess community norms on the topic of toy gun play from the perspective of parents. An anonymous self-report assisted survey was administered to a convenience sample of parents/guardians who visited child health providers at 3 sites: an urban children's hospital clinic, an urban managed care clinic, and a suburban private practice. The parent questionnaire included questions on child rearing attitudes, practice, and sociodemographic information. A total of 1004 eligible participants were recruited for the study; 922 surveys were completed (participation rate 92%). The 830 (90%) respondents who were parents and had complete child data were the focus of additional analysis. Regarding toy guns, 67% of parents believed that it was never "OK for a child to play with toy guns," and 66% stated that they never let their children play with toy guns. Parents who thought that it was okay for children to play with toy guns and allowed them to play with toy guns were more likely to be male parents, have male children, and be white. There is variability in norms regarding toy gun play among parents, with most discouraging toy gun play. Norms varied based on gender of the child, gender of the parent, and race. Understanding norms is a first step in designing effective community-sensitive interventions.
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TESTED THE HYPOTHESIS THAT STIMULI COMMONLY ASSOCIATED WITH AGGRESSION CAN ELICIT AGGRESSIIVE RESPONSES FROM PEOPLE READY TO ACT AGGRESSIVELY. 100 MALE UNIVERSITY SS RECEIVED EITHER 1 OR 7 SHOCKS, SUPPOSEDLY FROM A PEER, AND WERE THEN GIVEN AN OPPORTUNITY TO SHOCK THIS PERSON. IN SOME CASES A RIFLE AND REVOLVER WERE NEAR THE SHOCK KEY. THESE WEAPONS WERE SAID TO BELONG, OR NOT TO BELONG, TO THE AVAILABLE TARGET PERSON. IN OTHER INSTANCES THERE WAS NOTHING NEAR THE KEY, WHILE FOR CONTROLS 2 BADMINTON RACQUETS WERE NEAR THE KEY. THE GREATEST NUMBER OF SHOCKS WAS GIVEN BY THE STRONGLY AROUSED SS (WHO HAD RECEIVED 7 SHOCKS) WHEN THEY WERE IN THE PRESENCE OF THE WEAPONS. THE GUNS HAD EVIDENTLY ELICITED STRONG AGGRESSIVE RESPONSES FROM THE AROUSED MEN. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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In a study of the development of the differentiation of fantasy from reality, it was hypothesized that preschool children would progress through a stepwise sequence of developing ever clearer boundaries between fantasy and reality. Evidence for this development was based on children's reactions to various kinds of interruptions to their fantasy play that were initiated by an experimenter as she engaged in role playing with each of 39 children. The children were 2½ to 6½ years of age. The results indicated that as age increased, children showed higher steps in the sequence, until at 5 and 6 years they could incorporate an interruption into the fantasy scenario without stepping outside the fantasy and without having the interruption upset them. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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In order to test the hypothesis that reinforcements administered to a model influence the performance but not the acquisition of matching responses, groups of children observed an aggressive film-mediated model either rewarded, punished, or left without consequences. A postexposure test revealed that response consequences to the model had produced differential amounts of imitative behavior. Children in the model-punished condition performed signifcantly fewer matching responses than children in both the model-rewarded and the no-consequences groups. Children in all 3 treatment conditions were then offered attractive reinforcers contingent on their reproducing the model's aggressive responses. The introduction of positive incentives completely wiped out the previously observed performance differences, revealing an equivalent amount of learning among children in the model-rewarded, model-punished, and the no-consequences conditions. (18 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Examines the cognitive complexity of responses of young children at thirty-seven and fifty-four months of age to the Attachment Story Completion Task (Bretherton and Ridgeway, Appendix to Bretherton, Ridgeway, and Cassidy, 1990). At 37 months children were able to represent many aspects of the parent-child relationship, but at 54 months children also elaborated other family relationships and roles (mother-father distinction, mother-father relationship, grandmother-child, and older vs. younger sibling).
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Examines some of the stimulus characteristics that enable external events or objects to elicit impulsive aggressive responses. It is proposed that stimuli connected with reinforcements can elicit components of the behavior that led to these reinforcements. To the extent that the individual has been rewarded for aggression, stimuli that are associated (either directly or through verbal mediation) with these rewards become capable of evoking impulsive aggressive reactions which can intensify his attacks upon some target. As a special case, since the angry person is reinforced when his frustrater is hurt, stimuli that have been paired with the pain he has inflicted on those who provoked him are also capable of eliciting impulsive aggressive reactions. (42 ref)
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Exposed a total of 121 5-14 yr old boys with histories of high and low exposure to TV (and the violence therein) to a moderately violent film. Measures of autonomic response (skin conductance and blood volume pulse amplitude) were taken before and during their exposure to the violent film. Over both measures and in another replicated study, the high TV exposure Ss were significantly less aroused autonomically. This suggests a limited but still definite and measurable desensitization to filmed violence. Since the Ss had had either no exposure or no recent exposure to the particular film, results suggest the possibility of a generalizing effect for the desensitization that occurred. (25 ref.)
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Contends, on the basis of evidence from research, that mass media communications can give the audience ideas that may then be translated into open behavior. Studies indicate that the depictions of anti- and prosocial behavior activate thoughts that are semantically related to the observed event. This spreading activation of the related thought elements produces exaggerated estimates of the prevalence of witnessed behavior in society (perhaps through the operation of the availability heuristic) and may lead, in the case of antisocial behavior, to an indifference toward this type of behavior. Factors that can affect the likelihood that activated thoughts will lead to related overt behavior include the ideas that observers have at the time they are exposed to the communication; their interpretations about whether the witnessed action was appropriate, profitable, or morally justified; the nature of the available targets; and whether the nature of the depicted incident is defined as real or fictional. (3½ p ref)
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In a test of the hypothesis that exposure of children to film-mediated aggressive models would increase the probability of Ss' aggression to subsequent frustration, 1 group of experimental Ss observed real-life aggressive models, a 2nd observed these same models potraying aggression on film, while a 3rd group viewed a film depicting an aggressive cartoon character. Following the exposure treatment, Ss were mildly frustrated and tested for the amount of imitative and nonimitative aggression in a different experimental setting. The overall results provide evidence for both the facilitating and the modeling influence of film-mediated aggressive stimulation. In addition, the findings reveal that the effects of such exposure are to some extent a function of the sex of the model, sex of the child, and the reality cues of the model. (24 ref.)
Thesis
A series of studies investigated the relationship between aggression and aggressive toys in 7 and 8 year old children. Relevant theories of aggression were reviewed followed by an evaluation of the previous empirical research and the 'war toy' debate. In the first of 5 studies, 20 boys rated sets of toy weapons, vehicles and characters on 'fighting', 'happy', and 'cross' dimensions. Toys from all groups were perceived as aggressive toys. Children are equally likely to play aggressive games with toy weapons, vehicles and characters. In study 2 a toy preference questionnaire was developed, and its validity and reliability determined. The relationship between trait aggression and toy preference was examined in Study 3. .30 boys and 30 girls completed the toy preference and the Sears self-report aggression questionnaires. The boys' data indicated a positive and significant correlation (r=0.63,df=28, P<.0005) between aggression and preference for aggressive toys. Boys had a stronger preference for aggressive toys than girls (t=4.05,p<.05) but there was no significant difference between the boys' and girls' trait aggression. 30 boys and 30 girls participated in Study 4 which examined the effect of arousal on toy preference. Girls in the exercise- and frustration-induced arousal conditions showed greater preference for aggressive toys (s=152, p<.01). Although boys' toy preference was not influenced by either arousal treatments, there was a positive correlation between arousal and preference for aggressive toys amongst boys and girls (r=0.86,df=58, P<.0005). Aroused children prefer aggressive toys, less aroused children prefer non-aggressive toys. Study 5 looked at the influence of an aggressive prime on the toy preference of 30 girls and 30 boys. Contrary to expectation, the aggressive prime decreased boys' preference for aggressive toys (t=2.16,p<.025), and had no effect on girls' toy preference. The findings highlight the role of subject variables in aggressive play and support the view of aggressive play as child-led rather than toy-led.
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The role of the mother was viewed from the perspective of coercion theory. Within that context, it was assumed that mothers of normal preschool children are exposed to high densities of aversive events. Existing research literature supported these hypotheses and showed that the younger the child the higher the rates. Data were also summarized which showed that mothers' satisfaction with their role may vary as a function of these inputs. Observation data showed that mothers of aggressive children encountered higher rates than mothers of normal children. In normal families the fathers function as social facilitators and resident "guest." Mothers serve as caretakers; and both parents share in child management problems. In distressed families the same roles occur; however, the mother's role is expanded to include that of crisis manager. The culture defines which attack behaviors a child may direct to his mother. Her mere presence is associated with increased likelihood for the occurrence of these responses. Mothers were shown to be more involved in extended coercive interchanges with the problem child. During extended interchanges, the problem child escalated to a maximum intensity very early in a sequence of coercive behaviors. Mothers escalated slowly to a mild aversive level and then withdrew at the earliest possible juncture. With siblings, the problem child's chains were in response to a noxious intrusion; when the problem child escalated in intensity, they quickly followed suit. However, with the mother the problem child's chains seem to constitute an attack rather than a reprisal. It was hypothesized that prolonged experience in aversive systems produces low self-esteem. In that regard, mothers of socially aggressive children would be exposed to higher rates of aversive events than would mothers of stealers. Comparisons were made on the baseline self-reports from the Minnesota Multiphasic Inventory. Mothers of socially aggressive children were significantly higher on the depression scale, with borderline elevations on hysteria and social introversion and lower scores on hypomania. Mothers of children who steal had MMPI profiles which were similar to the classic profiles for adolescent delinquents, that is, elevated scores on psychopathic deviate and hypomanic. Following training and supervision in child management skills, there was a significant decrease in the depression and social introversion scores and an increase in the hypomania scale. These changes were particularly marked for mothers of socially aggressive children.
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Aprevious statement in the book Frustration and aggression, that "the occurrence of aggression always presupposes the existence of frustration, and, contrariwise, frustration always leads to some form of aggression" is misleading in the latter half. A suggested reformulation is that "frustration produces instigations to a number of different types of response, one of which is an instigation to some form of aggression." The determination of the presence of such an instigation, when the overt behavior is prevented, can be made by observing indirect or less overt acts. 4 chief lines of investigation suggested by the hypothesis are outlined. This and 6 further articles are revisions of papers read at a symposium on effects of frustation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
6TH-GRADE CONFEDERATES EITHER DID OR DID NOT FRUSTRATE 168 8-9 YR. OLD SS OF THE SAME SEX (N = 168, 1/2 BOYS). TREATMENTS FOLLOWING EITHER FRUSTRATION OR NONFRUSTRATION INCLUDED AGGRESSIVE PLAY, SOCIAL TALK, AND REASONABLE INTERPRETATION OF THE FRUSTRATOR'S BEHAVIOR. AGGRESSION WAS MEASURED BEHAVIORALLY (RESPONSES WERE ALLOWED THAT PRESUMABLY PUNISHED THE CONFEDERATE, WHETHER OR NOT HE HAD BEEN A FRUSTRATOR) AND BY LIKE-DISLIKE RATINGS. DATA FROM THE 3 STUDIES ARE CONSONANT IN DIRECTION WHEN THE DESIGNS PERMIT DIRECT COMPARISONS, AND LEAD TO THE FOLLOWING CONCLUSIONS: (1) FRUSTRATION LEADS TO HEIGHTENED AGGRESSIVE FEELINGS, BUT SUBSEQUENT AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR DOES NOT REDUCE THE AGGRESSION, (2) AGGRESSION IN THE ABSENCE OF ANGER IS WITHOUT CATHARTIC VALUE, (3) REASONABLE INTERPRETATION OF A FRUSTRATOR'S BEHAVIOR IS STRIKINGLY EFFECTIVE IN REDUCING BOTH BEHAVIORAL AND VERBAL (RATING) AGGRESSION TOWARD HIM, (4) VERBAL AGGRESSION TOWARD THE FRUSTRATOR DOES NOT REDUCE AGGRESSION DIRECTED TOWARD HIM, BUT MAY ACTUALLY INCREASE IT, AND (5) IN A PERMISSIVE, CONFIDENTIAL SITUATION, GIRLS BEHAVE AS AGGRESSIVELY AS BOYS, ALTHOUGH THEIR LIKE-DISLIKE RATINGS OF FRUSTRATING CONFEDERATES REVEAL LESS HOSTILITY. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Examines rough-and-tumble play (RATP) and the criteria used for distinguishing RATP from fighting. Evidence is presented that children are able to use many of these criteria. RATP is considered in relation to dominance and affiliative relationships in children, and its functional significance in development is discussed. RATP may exercise social skills, but as a form of behavior it can also be used in socially manipulative ways, for example to inflict harm or achieve dominance. Implications for a social skills deficit model of aggressive behavior in childhood are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Presents data from experiments and observational studies on the nature of imaginative play and its relationship to the developmental theories of Piaget, E. H. Erikson, and H. Werner. The adaptive and psychopathological implications of make-believe games and fantasy are considered. Implications for child care, education, and psychotherapy are noted. (111/2 p. ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
discuss the effects on children of parental "demandingness" and parental "responsiveness" and of patterns of parental behavior representing the intersection of the two dimensions constructs in the demandingness realm: direct confrontation, monitors, intrusive-directiveness, and a pattern of firm, consistent discipline with high maturity demands constructs in the responsiveness realm: affective warmth, cognitive responsiveness, attachment and bonding, unconditional acceptance, or noncontingent positive reinforcement, sensitive attunement, involvement, and reciprocity my emphasis will be on middle childhood (Time 2, or age nine) provide a context by summarizing findings from my longitudinal program of research when the children were of pre-school age . . . as well as when they were nine years of age authoritarian parents / permissive parents (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Presents a unified conceptual system for understanding both individual and collective violence. The learning of aggression, the processes which trigger violence, and the rewards and punishments of aggression are discussed. Guidelines for reducing societal levels of aggression are presented. (42 p. ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The Bears' Picnic, a new test of preschoolers' representations of self and family, was given to four-year-olds who had been observed with their mothers at twenty months of age. Observed maternal sensitivity and the affective quality of both partners were related to the child's later valuing versus devaluing of self and others.
Article
The effects of toy guns and toy airplanes on children's antisocial (aggression and rule-breaking) behavior was investigated in two settings (ten children in Study I and 13 in Study II) during 30-min free play sessions. Four-and 5-year-old children were observed during 15–16 free play sessions. During some sessions the children played either with (novel, aggressive) toy guns or with (novel, nonaggressive) toy airplanes in addition to their usual toys. In both studies, the toy guns treatment produced a reliably higher rate of antisocial behavior than the average of the toy airplaines and the usual toys. The novel-nonaggressive toy airplanes also increased the rate of antisocial behavior as compared to usual toys in Study II. The results were related primarily to Berkowitz's and Bandura's analyses of aggressive behavior, but they were related also to other theoretical models which predict stimulus control of behavior.
Article
Examines the Dollard et al. (1939) frustration-aggression hypothesis. The original formulation's main proposition is limited to interference with an expected attainment of a desired goal on hostile (emotional) aggression. Although some studies have yielded negative results, others support the core proposition. Frustrations can create aggressive inclinations even when they are not arbitrary or aimed at the subject personally. Interpretations and attributions can be understood partly in terms of the original analysis but they can also influence the unpleasantness of the thwarting. A proposed revision of the 1939 model holds that frustrations generate aggressive inclinations to the degree that they arouse negative affect. Evidence regarding the aggressive consequences of aversive events is reviewed, and Berkowitz's cognitive-neoassociationistic model is summarized.
Article
An experiment is reported that examined the independent effects of television content (violence) and television formal features (action level) on children's attention to programs and their postviewing social behavior. Pairs of preschool boys participated in two experimental sessions in which they saw animated and live television programs that varied in violent content (high or low) and formal features (high or low action level). They then played with toys that contained cues for either aggressive or prosocial interaction. Rapid character action facilitated visual attention to the programs; violent tv content did not facilitate attention. On measures of social behavior, strong effects of toy cues were found independently of television treatment effects. Aggressive toys produced aggressive behavior, and prosocial toys produced prosocial behavior; these patterns included some nonspecific, generalized influences in addition to direct demands of the play materials. Violent tv content led to changes in subjects' style of interaction and was also associated with increases in some prosocial behaviors. Television action level had no systematic effects on subjects' behavior. Results are discussed within the theoretical frameworks of observational learning and general arousal. Implications for children's television programming are also discussed.
Article
A meta analysis of observational studies of peer-directed aggression by children aged 6 and younger yields a highly significant sex difference. Out of 32 studies, z values reflected higher male aggression in 24, no difference in 8, higher female aggression in none. Furthermore, boys' aggression is most often displayed in the presence of male partners. Evidence is presented that the sex difference is probably not merely an artifact of higher rates of male activity or social interaction. Existing cross-cultural evidence also shows higher rates of male aggression, as does most of the work on free-living primates. Specifically, the 3 observational studies of chimpanzees show considerably more aggression in males. Evidence for a hormonal contribution to male aggression is clear in animals and inconclusive in human beings, although the existing human findings are consistent with such a contribution. Recent evidence on the differential socialization of boys and girls supports our earlier view: that boys do not receive more reinforcement for aggression than girls, and that rates of punishment are also similar once the differential base rates in aggression are taken into account. The role of self-socialization (including choice of same-sex models) is discussed, and the view is expressed that this probably depends upon the development of certain cognitions about sex identity which normally do not develop until a later age than the age at which a consistent sex difference in aggression first appears.
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