Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): A European Overview

Abstract

This study is designed to provide an insight into current developments in content and language integrated learning in Europe. Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) has become an umbrella term covering a wide variety of approaches to cross-curricular language/content teaching currently taking place in diverse educational contexts. European CLIL incentives are driven by socio-political factors based on the European Union's vision of a multilingual Europe and the consequent need for improvements in language teaching approaches and methods. National projects exist in most European countries, while a number of research organisations operate on a transnational level. While the theory behind CLIL is sound, development of teacher training programmes and content-based materials is required to make CLIL practicable on a larger scale.

Full text

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
A European Overview
Steve Darn
Teacher Development Unit, School of Foreign Languages,
Izmir University of Economics, Izmir, Turkey
Introduction
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) has become a focus of attention in recent
years, particularly in the state sector in various countries and on the interface with the private
school and university sector. CLIL is the subject of ongoing debate in the UK national press,
and was one of the main centres of attention at last year’s IATEFL conference.
Along with the processes of joint political, economic and cultural activity and increased
mobility across borders has come the realisation that a united Europe contains a huge
diversity of languages and that if successful and continued expansion is to take place,
communication pays a central role. There are a number of key considerations:
• Even if English remains the lingua franca, individual countries cannot be expected to
relegate their own languages to second place in internal matters, and it has always
been the case that some nations have strong views regarding the use of other tongues
within their own borders.
• Given the above, together with increased linguistic contact, there will be an increase
the need for communicative skills in a second or third language.
• Languages, therefore, will play a key role in curricula across Europe, and attention
needs to be given to the training of teachers and the development of frameworks and
methods which will improve the quality of language education.
European Policy
The logic of these conclusions is backed up by clear policy statements. Proficiency in three
Community languages is stated as one of the objectives of education in Europe in the
European Commission’s White Paper on ‘Teaching and Learning. Towards the Learning
Society’. The vision of a bilingual and multilingual Europe is clear.
The European Commission, through funded research projects in universities across Europe,
has been investigating the state of language teacher training and bilingual education since the
early-90s, pulling together the threads of existing approaches such as ‘content based
instruction’, ‘language supported subject learning’, ‘immersion’, ‘teaching subjects through a
foreign language’, and ‘bilingual/plurilingual education’. All the aformentioned terms suggest
a strong relationship between language learning and the learning of other ‘content’ subjects,
with CLIL, the term having originally been defined in 1994 and launched by UNICOM in
1996, emerging as the most promising and beneficial approach.

Definition
The term Content and Language Integrated Learning (ClLIL) was originally defined in 1994,
and launched in 1996 by UNICOM, University of Jyväskylä and the European Platform for
Dutch Education, to describe educational methods where ‘subjects are taught through a
foreign language with dual-focussed aims, namely the learning of content, and the
simultaneous learning of a foreign language’.
The essence of CLIL is that content subjects are taught and learnt in a language which is not
the mother tongue of the learners. Knowledge of the language becomes the means of learning
content, language is integrated into the broad curriculum, learning is improved through
increased motivation and the study of natural contextualised language, and the principle of
language acquisition becomes central. Broadly speaking, CLIL provides a practical and
sensible approach to both content and language learning whilst also improving intercultural
understanding, and has now been adopted as a generic term covering a number of similar
approaches to bilingual education in diverse educational contexts. The evolution of CLIL
involves precedents such as immersion programmes (North America), education through a
minority or a national language (Spain, Wales, France), and many variations on education
through a “foreign” language.
Theory
Earlier notions such as ‘language across the curriculum’ and ‘language supported subject
learning’ have been assimilated into CLIL, and judging by the variety and number of CLIL-
based projects ongoing in Europe and elsewhere, it may no longer be relevant to queston
which is the dominant partner in the language-content relationship (content in English or
English through content). What is fundamental to CLIL is that language and content are
taught and learned together in a dual-focused classroom context, and there are a number of
related reasons why this might be the way forward if a bilingual or multilingual society is the
goal.
Benefits of Interdisciplinary/Cross-Curricular Teaching
The theory behind CLIL has foundations in interdisciplinary/cross-curricular teaching which
provides a meaningful way in which students can use knowledge learned in one context as a
knowledge base in other contexts. Many of the important concepts, strategies, and skills
taught in the language arts are "portable", i.e. they transfer readily to other content areas.
Strategies for monitoring comprehension, for example, can be directed to reading material in
any content area while cause-and-effect relationships exist in literature, science, and social
studies. Thus, interdisciplinary teaching helps learners to apply, integrate and transfer
knowledge, and fosters critical thinking.
Interdisciplinary/cross-curricular teaching can increase students' motivation for learning. In
contrast to learning skills in isolation, when students participate in interdisciplinary
experiences they see the value of what they are learning and become more actively engaged.
Interdisciplinary/cross-curricular teaching provides the conditions under which effective
learning occurs. Students learn more when they use language skills to explore, write and
speak about what they are learning.

Cross-curricular teaching is characterised by thematic units, offering the teacher flexibility
over a period of time in terms of adopting a strict content-based or more global timetable of
lessons.
CLIL, Translation and Translanguaging
One of the criticisms of standard parallel content and language programmes and some
bilingual programmes is that there is little evidence to show that the comprehension of content
is not impeded by lack of language competence. CLIL identifies a ‘transition’ stage at which
learners become fully functional in both languages, and is open to a wide range of approaches
which enable learners to arrive at this stage. Translation is an acceptable tool, particularly
where the concurrent use of two languages enables concepts to be understood and depth of
comprehension to be achieved. Many learners respond well to exploring and comparing
versions of a text in different languages.
In truly bilingual situations (Wales, Canada), ‘translanguaging’ is a teaching strategy designed
to promote the understanding of a subject in order to use the information successfully. In
translanguaging, the input (reading or listening) tends to be in one language, and the output
(speaking or writing) in the other. Input and output languages are systematically varied.
Global Advantages of CLIL
Because CLIL is seen not only as an approach to subject and language learning but also in
broader educational and even political contexts as a means of and understanding, proponents
and exponents of CLIL see its advantages in terms of both achieving bilingualism and and
improving intercultural undertanding.
In the cultural context, CLIL is seen to build intercultural knowledge & understanding by
developing intercultural communication skills whilst learning about other countries/regions
and/or minority groups.
Institutions using a CLIL approach are likely to enhance their profile by accessing
international certification and preparing students for internationalisation, specifically EU
integration.
Linguistically, CLIL not only improves overall target language competence, but also raises
awareness of both mother tongue and target language while encouraging learners to develop
plurilingual interests and attitudes.
Content-wise, CLIL provide opportunities to study content through different perspectives,
access subject-specific target language terminology and hence prepare for future studies
and/or working life.
Educationally, CLIL adds to a complements individual learners’ range of learning strategies
while adding diversity and flexibility to existing methods and forms of classroom practice.
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• CLIL and Situational Learning. Language is presented in real-life contexts in which
language acquisition can take place even in a monolingual/non-immersion environment.
• CLIL and Language Acquisition. CLIL encourages acquisition over conscious learning.
Since language acquisition is a cyclical rather than linear process, the thematic nature of
CLIL facilitates the creation of a functional-notional syllabus, adding new language whilst
recycling pr-existing knowledge.
• CLIL and the Natural Approach. Exploring language in a meaningful context is an
element of both natural and communicative language learning. Learners develop fluency
iby using the language to communicate for a variety of purposes. Fluency precedes
grammatical accuracy and errors are a natural part of language learning, thus the concept
of ‘interlanguage’ is encompassed.
• CLIL and Motivation. Natural use of language can boost a learner’s motivation towards
learning languages. In CLIL, language is a means not an end, and when learners are
interested in a topic they will be motivated to acquire language to communicate.
Language is learnt more successfully when the learner has the opportunity to gain subject
knowledge at the same time.
• CLIL and Current ELT Practice. CLIL adheres closely to current trends in language
teaching. Grammar is secondary to lexis, fluency is the focus rather than accuracy, and
language is seen in chunks, as in the lexical approach. Learners are required to
communicate content to each other, and skills are integrated with each other and with
language input. Learner needs are of primary concern, and learning styles catered for in
the variety of task types available.
In many ways, then, the CLIL approach is similar to a modern ELT concept of integrated
skills lessons, except that it includes exploration of language, is delivered by a teacher versed
in CLIL methodology and is based on material directly related to a content-based subject.
Both content and language are explored in a CLIL lesson. A CLIL ‘approach’ is not far
removed from humanistic, communicative and lexical approaches in ELT, and aims to guide
language processing and supports language production in the same way that an EFL/ESL
course would by teaching techniques for exploiting reading or listening texts and structures
for supporting spoken or written language.
CLIL Classroom Practice
Given the relative lack of teacher training programmes and obvious sources of materials, there
is an understandable concern over what actually happens in a CLIL classroom.
In fact, the underlying principles of cross-curricular teaching can be found in the 4Cs
curriculum (Coyle 1999) which stated that a
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• Content. Progression in knowledge, skills and understanding related to specific elements
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• Communication. Using language to learn whilst learning to use language.
• Cognition. Developing thinking skills which link concept formation (abstract and
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• Culture. Exposure to alternative perspectives and shared understandings which deepen
awareness of otherness and self.

A CLIL lesson looks at content and language in equal measure, and often follows a four-stage
framework.
• Processing the Text.
The best texts are those accompanied by illustrations so that learners can visualise what they
are reading. When working in a foreign language, learners need structural markers in texts to
help them find their way through the content. These markers may be linguistic (headings, sub-
headings) and/or diagrammatical. Once’core knowledge’ has been identified, the organisation
of the text can be analysed.
• Identification and Organisation of Knowledge.
Texts are often represented diagrammatically. These structures are known as ‘ideational
frameworks’ or ‘diagrams of thinking’, and are used to help learners categorise the ideas and
information in a text. Diagram types include tree diagrams for classification, groups,
hierarchies, flow diagrams and timelines for sequenced thinking such as instructions and
historical information, tabular diagrams describing people and places, and combinations of
these. The structure of the text is used to facilitate learning and the creation of activities which
focus on both language development and core content knowledge.
• Language Identification.
Learners are expected to be able to reproduce the core of the text in their own words. Since
learners will need to use both simple and more complex language, there is no grading of
language involved, but it is a good idea for the teacher to highlight useful language in the text
and to categorise it according to function. Learners may need the language of comparison and
contrast, location or describing a process, but may also need certain discourse markers, adverb
phrases or prepositional phrases. Collocations, semi-fixed expressions and set phrases may
also be given attention as well as subject specific and academic vocabulary.
• Tasks for Students.
There is little difference in task-type between a CLIL lesson and a skills-based EFL lesson. A
variety of tasks should be provided, taking into account the learning purpose and learner
styles and preferences. Receptive skill activities are of the ‘read/listen and do’ genre.
CLIL Organisations
As little as two years ago, project results concluded that CLIL or similar systems were being
applied in some countries, but were not part of teacher training programmes. Subsequently,
there has been an increase in the number of schools offering ‘alternative’ bilingual curricula,
and a response in terms of research into training and methodology at three distinct levels –
individual Institutions of Higher Education, Ministries of Education, and international
organisations. On the transnational level the following are key organisations:
• UNICOM, based within the University of Jyvaskyla, Finland, and incorporating the
European Platform for Dutch Education, remains a key centre of expertise in research,
teacher development, consultancy and materials production. UNICOM also coordinates
the CLIL Consortium, a growing collection of experts in the field of bilingual and content-
based education. UNICOM have extended CLIL-related activity beyond Europe, with
projects in Namibia, Mozambique and Etheopia where CLIL has also been used to reduce
inequality in societies where some teachers and learners may be excluded on the grounds
of linguistic inadequacy in the predominant language of instruction.
• EuroCLIC (The European Network for Content and Language Integrated Classrooms)
focuses on programmes which entail the use of a modern foreign language as the language

of instruction or content and language integrated learning for non-language subjects and,
like the CLIL Consortium, includes practitioners, researchers, teacher trainers and
policymakers.
• The TIE-CLIL project (Translanguage in Europe, funded through Socrates) promotes
plurilingualism through the introduction of CLIL in five different EU languages (English,
French, German, Italian and Spanish). The aim of TIE-CLIL is to provide pre- and in-
service development programmes in CLIL for language teachers and subject teachers and
to develop both theory and practice.
• Probably the most comprehensive source of information is the CLIL Compendium, which
identifies the foundations, benefits, dimensions, progress and potential of CLIL across
Europe and is the result of a multinational research project. Like the Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages, support for CLIL research and development is
offered by EUROPA (the European Union), the European Commission and the Council of
Europe.
Within the UK, the major incentive has come from the Content and Language Integration
Project (CLIP) hosted by CILT, (the National Centre for Languages) which is the UK
government’s recognised centre of expertise on languages and whose mission, in line
with European policy, is to promote a greater capability in languages amongst all sectors
of the UK population. CILT monitors a number of projects connecting the National
Literacy Strategy with language learning in schools across England. These projects cover
the 7-16 age range and involve a variety of approaches ranging from innovative
techniques in language teaching to the integration of French into the primary curriculum.
Key players in the field of CLIL in the UK are based at the University of Nottingham,
while teacher training and development courses in CLIL are available at Nottingham and
NILE (the Norwich Institute for Language Education).
CLIL and the Future of the Language Classroom
Politically and socially, there is an obvious need for a rethink of language education
policy in Europe. CLIL represents the best framework in terms of a content-based
bilingual approach. At the extreme, it could be argued that CLIL materials are the subject
matter of other disciplines, that CLIL teachers are well versed in both language
instruction and a content subject, that learning a language and learning through a
language are concurrent processes, and that the traditional concepts of the language
classroom and the language teacher are without a future since they do not fit the CLIL
model. While CLIL undoubtedly has potential, there are factors which hinder its
development, and caution regarding the implementation of content-based bilingual
programmes may be advisable on some or all of the following grounds:
• Experimentation and ad-hoc implementation of CLIL is currently outpacing research-
driven studies and empirical evidence of success. Many private sector schools and
tertiary institutions see variations on bilingual education and particularly English-
medium content study as marketable.
• CLIL is based on belief in natural language acquisition, and may well be appropriate
in an immersion situation. However, when cognitive effort is involved, when
exposure to the language is restricted to specific times, and when exposure to the
language rarely happens outside the classroom, conscious learning of the target
language is involved. When English is learned in Turkey or Israel, this is usually what
happens, even though it is an unnatural way to learn a language.

• CLIL involves a constant effort from both teacher and learner to master both content
and language. In this situation, it is questionable whether students are assessed on
language or content, and unclear what the attitude is to errors and possible restrictions
on content caused by linguistic inadequacy.
• The lack of CLIL teacher-training programmes suggest that the majority of teachers
working on bilingual programmes may be ill-equipped to do the job adequately.
• While learners’ breadth of knowledge, confidence and cultural understanding may
benefit from CLIL, there is little evidence to suggest that, for the majority,
understanding of content is not impeded by lack of language competence. Current
opinion seems to be that language ability can only be enhanced once sufficient
content has been absorbed to make the general context understandable, and that there
is a ‘transition’ stage, after which the learner is able to function effectively in both
languages.
• Various aspects of CLIL appear entirely unnatural; such as the appreciation of the
literature and culture of the learner’s own country through a second language. For a
Turkish student to learn about the tenets of Ataturk through English, for example,
would seemingly be inappropriate.
Until issues such as teacher training and the development of content materials which lend
themselves to language development are addressed, the immediate future of parallel
language learning to support and complement the understanding of content is fairly
secure. In the long term, however, there are political, economic and cultural
considerations cloaked in the context of Europeanisation, which are likely to make CLIL a
common feature of many European education systems.
CLIL Information
Centre for Information on Language, Teaching and Research(CILT) www.cilt.org.uk
CLIL Compendium www.clilcompendium.com
Comenius Project TL2L - http://www.tl2l.nl/
Content and Language Integrated Project (CLIP) - www.cilt.org.uk/clip/
EuroCLIC – www.euroclic.org
European Centre for Modern Languages www.ecml.at
European Commission – Languages www.europa.eu.int/comm/education/languages/
Forum for Across the Curriculum Teaching www.factworld.info
National Centre for Languages (CILT) - www.cilt.org.uk
Norwich Institute for Language Education - www.nile-elt.com
Quality Action in English - http://go.to/action-english
Science Across the Curriculum – www.scienceacross.org
Foreign Language Teaching to Children - www.Hocus-Lotus.edu
Tips and Materials - www.onestopenglish.com/business/bank/clil/index.htm
Translanguage in Europe www.tieclil.org
University of Jyvaskyla www.jyu.fi
University of Nottingham www.nottingham.ac.uk
There is also an ongoing debate in the UK press:
www.guardian.co.uk/guardianweekly/clildebate/
steve.darn@ieu.edu.tr