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Learning Difficulties in Adolescent Clients of a Shelter for Runaway and Homeless Street Youths
Abstract and Figures
This study examined the prevalence of arithmetic and reading difficulties in 16- to 21-year-old clients of a shelter for runaway and homeless street youths. We compared 3 groups (N = 123): those with arithmetic/written work disability, those with reading disability, and those who were normally achieving. The youths' abilities were assessed using the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised subtests, Woodcock Word Attack subtest, and experimental reading tasks. Reading and spelling errors were also analyzed. Prevalence rates were as follows: reading disability (52%), arithmetic/written work disability (28.5%), and normally achieving (19.5%). Reading difficulty in the reading disability group was characterized by a severe deficit in phonological processing. The groups did not differ in reported history of substance abuse, maltreatment, adjudication-court involvement, unemployment, school attendance, grade repetitions, or special education services. The findings identify an important need for agencies serving this population to incorporate reeducation efforts in their service plans, thereby reducing risk and improving quality of life for this population.
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... The learning difficulties that can be attributed to ACE'S or childhood physical or sexual abuse is, when focusing on mathematics, poor short term memory, poor hand-eye coordination, difficulty learning multiplication tables and difficulty with written work (Barwick, Siegel, 1996). In general, subjects average one whole grade level lower than their peers in mathematics and tend to score significantly lower than their peers who have no history of ACE. ...
... Both groups had comparable educational hours and opportunities. Subjects were included in the study if they were found to have scored lower than 25th percentile on the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised, (Barwick, Siegel, 1996). Overall, the national average for the occurrence of learning disabilities is currently at or near 6%, so findings of learning disabilities within smaller sub-groups, such as runaway or throwaway teenagers who have been victims of abuse or other ACE'S ranging from 28.5% to 32% is alarming. ...
It is widely accepted that exposure to abuse, neglect, sexual abuse, being witness tointrapersonal violence, or being the victim of violence during childhood results in lower testscores and overall academic success throughout life. In asking the question of whether or notchild maltreatment (CM) can be linked to developmental dyscalculia (DD) it is necessary tocompare the areas of the developing child brain responsible for the acquisition of math skills toareas of the brain that are impacted by chronic exposure to stress and abuse. Researchers in thefield of neuroscience have begun mapping areas of the brain associated with various learningdisabilities. Preliminary data suggests that these areas of the brain are the same areas that areknown to be negatively impacted from child maltreatment; the corpus callosum (CC) and theintraparietal sulcus (IPS). These areas of the brain are involved with working memory, numberapproximation, number line value and general arithmetic skill acquisition, as well as the intent ofothers. Through an in-depth review of four studies, two on dyscalculia and brain abnormalitiesand two on child maltreatment and the resulting adverse brain physiology, it is believed thatthere is a clear link between child abuse and learning difficulties. It is hypothesized that childrenwho are subjected to chronic stress will exhibit increased activity in these areas of the brainwhich interfere with the ability to properly retain certain mathematical skills at pivotal stages ofcognitive development. Limited data exists that combines child maltreatment and dyscalculiaand its effects on adult life. More research needs to be conducted to pinpoint the event of physiological change and a chronic-stress-adverse-reaction threshold needs to be established inorder to further understand the mechanisms at work
... In 2017, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) reported that more than 50% of children worldwide had literacy difficulties, a problem exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic (Aurini & Davies, 2021;UNESCO, 2017UNESCO, , 2021. Inadequate literacy skills are associated with negative life outcomes, such as poor physical and mental health (Daniel et al., 2006;Kim et al., 2014;Wolf et al., 2005); reduced academic attainment (Ritchie & Bates, 2013); restricted socioeconomic mobility; and increased rates of poverty, homelessness, and incarceration (Barwick & Siegel, 1996 Tremblay et al., 2007). Early identification is key to mitigating literacy difficulties and their associated adverse effects (Lundberg, 1994;Ontario Human Rights Commission, 2022). ...
Purpose
Dynamic assessments evaluate ability to learn and may be less biased against children who historically have underperformed on static measures that evaluate acquired knowledge. This meta-analysis examined the validity of dynamic assessments of word reading skills (phonological awareness, sound–symbol knowledge, and decoding), as measured by the strength of their correlation with performance on word reading measures. The consistency of their validity across participant reading status (typically developing vs. at risk), language status (monolingual vs. bilingual), and age group (4–5 vs. 6–7 vs. 8–9 years) was also examined to determine whether this assessment approach is an equitable means of evaluating early word reading skills.
Method
Electronic databases and preprint repositories were searched to identify studies that evaluated dynamic assessments of word reading skills conducted with children between the ages of 4 and 10 years. Pearson's correlation coefficients representing the relationship between dynamic assessments and word reading measures were extracted, and an overall pooled mean effect size was calculated using a random-effects meta-analysis with robust variance estimation. Subgroup analyses for participant reading status, language status, and age group were also conducted to determine whether there were significant differences in effect sizes across groups.
Results
Thirty-five studies with 192 effect sizes were identified. Overall, dynamic assessments of word reading skills demonstrated strong correlations with word reading measures (g = 0.49). Subgroup analysis by age indicated that dynamic assessments are significantly better suited to evaluate word reading in younger children (ages 4–5 and 6–7 years) than older students (ages 8–9 years; p = .0001). Validity was consistent across typically developing and at-risk participants and across bilinguals and monolinguals. There were few studies conducted with bilinguals despite dynamic assessment's purported application for this population.
Conclusion
This meta-analysis provides preliminary evidence to support dynamic assessments as a valid and equitable means of evaluating word reading skills with diverse children aged 4–7 years.
Supplemental Material
https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.25293046
... 2 In addition, 47% of children experiencing homelessness report anxiety, depression, or withdrawal compared to 18% of children with secure housing. 2 They also have lower classroom attendance and academic outcomes. [3][4][5][6] The Chicago Department of Family and Support Services reported that the average stay in shelter programs in For more information or to become involved with CYEP, please contact John Toms (john_a_toms@rush.edu). ...
... There are implications of the current findings for care and interventions aimed at street-connected youth in LMICs. Firstly, street-connected youth, like homeless youth in high-income countries, may have relatively poor verbal ability compared to more privileged youth [17,48], which may have implications for engagement with services, recording of appointments, etc. Additionally, there may be some difficulties when it comes to social cognition, in particular reading the mental states of others (i.e., difficulties with theory of mind). ...
Family socioeconomic status (SES) is closely associated with cognitive ability in children and adolescents. However, most of the research has come from high-income countries. There is only limited research on ‘street children’, who represent an aspect of low-SES particularly associated with low- and middle-income counties. The current research in Quito, Ecuador, compared a group of street-connected youth with a not street-connected control group on two different measures of theory of mind ability and verbal comprehension. Initial analysis revealed that the street-connected sample scored significantly below the level of the control sample for verbal comprehension. For the main analysis, street-connected youth were matched to control participants for age, sex, and verbal comprehension scores. The street-connected sample was found to perform significantly below the control sample on both measures of theory of mind. Furthermore, worse performance appeared to be linked to severity of symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) within the street-connected sample. In conclusion, the association of relatively poor verbal comprehension with street-connectedness is consistent with existing research from high-income countries on SES gradients and cognitive development. In contrast, theory of mind ability, a core aspect of social cognition, may be particularly linked to the street-connectedness form of low SES that exists in many low- and middle-income countries.
... Youth homelessness and literacy. Due to their unconventional lifestyles as members of a homeless/runaway resource center, some participants struggled with reading fluency and comprehension (Noll & Watkins, 2003;Sinatra, 2007;Walker Dalhouse & Risko, 2008), resulting in literacy delays and gaps in knowledge (Barwick & Siegel, 1996;Terrile, 2016 Acknowledging the need within the SRC community to enhance critical reading skills and civic empowerment among youth, guided discussions on academic achievement, college readiness in terms of critical reading skills and practical knowledge were woven into the curriculum at the behest of participants. Participants were not only challenged to think critically about social justice issues and to think about ways they have personally been impacted, but were encouraged to read their world critically and question the dominant neoliberal "boot straps" narrative found in the media and literature around homelessness (Jacobs, 2014;Rogers & Marshall, 2011;Rogers, Winters, Perry & LaMonde, 2015;Wager, 2014). ...
... Despite a significant increase in measured homelessness over the last decade (Fitzpatrick et al., 2019), research in the field of adult literacy and homelessness remains scarce (Olisa, Patterson, & Wright, 2010). However, research in the United Kingdom and United States does suggests that many homeless people have poor literacy (Barwick & Siegel, 1996;Dumoulin & Jones, 2014;Jones, 2019;Luby & Welch, 2006;Olisa et al., 2010). The value in improving literacy skills for this group has been widely acknowledged as building confidence, improving employability, providing skills necessary to be able to interact in work and their personal life (which can have a knock-on effect in ending feelings of social exclusion), and ability to access services (Luby & Welch, 2006). ...
Literacy difficulties are often reported by adults with experience of homelessness. Yet, research on their learning experiences and clarity on how best to support this group is lacking. The present study explored the experience of homeless literacy learners (HLLs) and asked what motivated them to engage with literacy support and the teaching‐related factors perceived to be most effective. Semi‐structured interviews were conducted with 10 HLLs (aged 31–68) engaged in literacy provision at a homelessness charity in the United Kingdom. Thematic analysis of the data revealed five key themes: challenging early experiences; barriers to improving literacy; the perceived impact of poor literacy; current motivation to improve literacy; and approaches that support literacy in adulthood. A significant majority of HLLs reported early traumatic learning experiences and 7 out of 10 (70%) disclosed a diagnosis of dyslexia. Specialist dyslexia support was reported to help HLLs feel understood and positive relationships with teachers helped self‐esteem and self‐efficacy related to their literacy learning. Recommendations are made for specialist teachers to be made more readily available to support HLLs, as well as to advise service providers and professionals engaging with adult learners with experience of homelessness across the sector.
Early evaluation of word reading skills is an important step in understanding and predicting children’s future literacy abilities. Traditionally, word reading evaluations are conducted using ‘static’ assessments (SA), which measure a child’s acquired knowledge and are prone to floor effects. Additionally, many of these tools are developed exclusively for English monolinguals, and therefore cannot be used equitably to evaluate the abilities of bilingual children. Dynamic assessment (DA), which evaluates the ability to learn a skill, is a potentially more equitable alternative. To establish that use of DAs is a valid alternative to traditional SAs, their concurrent agreement with gold standard SA measures and their predictive agreement with later word reading outcomes should be considered. In line with this, the primary objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis is to examine the concurrent and predictive validity of DAs of word reading skills. Two secondary objectives are (i) to address which types of word reading DAs (phonological awareness, sound-symbol knowledge, or decoding) demonstrate the strongest relationships with equivalent concurrent static measures and later word reading outcomes, and (ii) to consider for which populations, defined by language status (monolingual vs. bilingual vs. mixed) and reading status (typically developing vs. at-risk vs. mixed) these DAs are valid. Thirty-four studies from 32 papers were identified through searching 5 databases, and the grey literature. Included studies provided a correlation between a DA and concurrent SA, or a DA and a later word reading outcome measure. Regarding concurrent validity, we observed a strong relationship between DAs and SAs in general (r=.60); however, subgroup analyses indicate that DAs of decoding (r=.54) and phonological awareness (r=.73) measures demonstrate greater strength of correlation with their static counterparts, compared to DAs of sound-symbol knowledge (r=.34). In terms of predictive validity, we observed a similarly strong relationship between DAs and word reading outcome measures (r=.57), independently of the type of measure. Subgroup analyses conducted based on participant language status suggested that there are significant differences between mean effect sizes for monolingual, bilingual and mixed language groups in terms of DAs’ concurrent validity with SAs, but no significant differences for predictive validity with word reading outcome measures. There were also no significant differences between mean effect sizes for at-risk, typically developing, or mixed groups in terms of DAs concurrent validity with SAs or predictive validity with word reading outcome measures. Results provide preliminary evidence to suggest that DAs of phonological awareness and decoding skills are a valid alternative to SAs of equivalent constructs and are valid for the future prediction of word reading outcomes across population groups regardless of their language or reading status.
This study aimed to identify predictors of single word spelling performance in children using a novel test containing regular words, irregular words and pseudowords. We assessed reading ability, letter-sound knowledge, phonological awareness (PA) and rapid automatised naming (RAN) in children aged 4–12 years (N = 641). Mixed model analyses with hierarchical nested data were conducted with Year_group (Yr R to Yr 6) included as a factor, PA and RAN as predictors, and reading and letter-sound knowledge as covariates. For irregular word spelling, PA and RAN were significant predictors, but the associations were dependent upon the year the children attended. Interestingly, for regular words and pseudowords PA was not significantly related. For pseudowords, only RAN was a significant predictor and only in Yr 2. We argue that a better understanding of spelling development can be achieved using tools that distinguish between regular and irregular words and pseudowords, as different processes seem to be associated with the different types of letter string across the variable levels of spelling experience.
This article describes a Response to Intervention (RTI) model of early identification and intervention to prevent reading failure. A simple screening system to alert teachers to children who may not have some of the prerequisite skills necessary for reading and a whole class intervention system will be described. The success of these initiatives was measured systematically, and the incidence of reading difficulties was reduced to 1.5% in the children who had English as a first language and in children who had English as an additional language. The article also examines the relative influence of students’ first language on learning to read in English and the benefits of bilingualism.
The development of a variety of grammatical-sensitivity and phonological skills was studied in 138 normally achieving, 65 reading-disabled, 63 arithmetic-disabled, and 15 attention deficit disordered (hyperactive) children 7 to 14 years old. Word recognition and phonics skills were highly related, and reading comprehension and phonics skills were less so. Grammatical sensitivity and short-term memory were significantly correlated with a variety of reading skills. Children with a reading disability showed a significant lag in the development of grammatical sensitivity and short-term memory and an even greater deficit in phonological skills. The children with a specific arithmetic disability had adequate grammatical abilities, but below-average memory skills at all ages. Children with an attention deficit but normal achievement scores did not have any major difficulties except on a reading-comprehension task that appears to have significant memory and attention components. The acquisition of reading skills is closely related to the development of grammatical and phonological skills, and deficiencies in these areas are related to difficulties with the acquisition of written language skills.
The purpose of this chapter is to explore the hypothesis that reading disabilities represent a disorder whose basis is inadequate language skills. Before presenting the arguments for this position, it is important to define what a reading disability is and what it is not. Chaos exists in the definition of reading and reading disability. There are many diverse viewpoints about what constitutes reading behavior and reading disabilities. The study of development of normal and atypical aspects of reading in children has been hampered by a lack of precise definitions. In this chapter I will attempt to develop a useful definition of reading disability and discuss the evidence for considering a reading disability as a disorder of deficient linguistic skills.
Many of the outstanding questions in the field of affective development may be put within a unified framework that can be described as an “organizational perspective” (Sroufe, in press; Sroufe & Mitchell, in press). For example, the question of age of onset of various emotions becomes subsumed under the objective of tracing the unfolding of various affect systems and their integration with cognitive and social development. The question is not whether the 3-week-old exhibits fear but rather what are the circumstances for eliciting negative reactions at this age and what is the developmental course of both the reactions and the changing conditions necessary and sufficient for eliciting them. How is earlier distress related to what might later be called wariness and later still fear (whatever terms are actually used)? What does the unfolding of the affect systems tell us about cognitive development, and how do maturational and cognitive changes impact upon the expression of affect?