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SYNOPSIS OF CLASS SIZE LITERATURE
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Small Class Size and Its Effects
Educational Leadership (February 2002)
Bruce J. Biddle and David C. Berliner
With so many studies on the effects of small class size, why are there so many
disagreements about these studies’ results? In this condensation of a research synthesis
sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation as part of its series, In Pursuit of Better
Schools: What Research Says, the authors carefully examine and evaluate the findings
and limitations of early research studies and subsequent studies in Indiana, Tennessee,
Wisconsin, and California. They suggest that although the results of individual studies
are always limited, the evidence overwhelmingly suggests several conclusions in favor of
small classes, including that small classes in the early grades generate substantial gains
for students in a variety of academic disciplines, that students retain these gains in later
years, and that gains are greater for students who have traditionally been disadvantaged in
education. The authors explore two theories for why small classes have positive effects
and suggest several conditions that have held back reform efforts despite the available
evidence. They conclude that the issue is not whether small classes work but whether
citizens value funding smaller class sizes.
Class Size and School Size
Research Brief
The Principals’ Partnership
This research brief examines the research on class size and school size and the impact on
student achievement. Several major studies (Indiana’s Project Prime Time, the
Tennessee STAR Project, and Wisconsin’s SAGE Program) indicate that smaller class
sizes produce an increase in student achievement as well as greater student, teacher, and
parent satisfaction. Although there have been flaws and issues resulting from these
studies and others conducted across the country, most examiners see a relationship
between class size and student achievement. Long term exposure to smaller class sizes in
the early grades creates greater advantage for students, especially academic achievement
in reading and math. Gains from small classes in the early grades are retained when
students return to larger classes and the gains remain present in later grades. Suggestions
for creating successful class size reduction programs are identified.
In addition, this brief examines the relationship between school size and aspects of
schooling. Cost-effectiveness benefits, academic achievement, student attitudes, social
behavior, extracurricular participation, attendance and dropout rates are among the
findings reviewed.
SYNOPSIS OF CLASS SIZE LITERATURE
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Class Size Commentary
Class-Size Policy: The STAR Experiment and Other Class-Size Studies (2007)
C.M. Achilles and J.D. Finn
Since 1900 class-size studies in the U.S. have shown positive benefits for students and
teachers. This paper summarizes over 20 years of work on one large-scale experiment,
supported by many other class-size studies. The Tennessee Student Teacher
Achievement Ratio (STAR) large-scale, randomized, longitudinal experiment and its
derivative studies (1985 – 2007) are the basis for this summary. Class size studies have
been done in Australia, Netherlands, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the Far East and
elsewhere. A remarkable consistency is apparent: class-size analyses show considerable
positive effects on short and long-term student outcomes. Refer to Appendices A and B
to guide effective small-class implementations.
Research on the Academic Effects of Small Class Size
Archived Information
April 1998
The issue of class size persists because of the tension between research findings and the
cost of implementation. Glass and Smith (1978) collected and summarized nearly 80
studies of the relationships of class size with academic performance that yielded over 700
class-size comparisons on data from nearly 900,000 students. The two primary
conclusions drawn from this material are:
reduced class size can be expected to produce increased academic achievement;
and
the major benefits from reduced class size are obtained as the size is reduced
below 20 students
A compilation of studies examined by Educational Research Service looked at more than
100 separate studies. The effects of class size on student learning varies by grade level,
student characteristics, subject areas, teaching methods and other learning interventions.
Slavin (1989) reviewed those studies that lasted a minimum of 1 year and had 20 students
or fewer. He concluded that substantial reductions in class size have a small positive
effect on students.
After the positive STAR findings, Tennessee authorized a study to see how long the
initial benefits of small classes would persist. Although all children were returned to
regular-size classes in grade 4, the Lasting Benefits Study (LBS) continued to follow a
significant portion of these students. In the 1995-96 school year, the majority of STAR
students were in grade 10 and their performance was still being tracked. Students who
had been in smaller classes had higher achievement in all academic areas compared to
students in regular or teacher-aide classes. Both Project STAR and LBS provide
compelling evidence that small classes in the primary grades are academically superior to
regular-class sizes.
SYNOPSIS OF CLASS SIZE LITERATURE
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Class Size Effects: New Insights Into Classroom, School and Policy Processes
American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting (2008)
Blatchford, Bassett and Brown
This paper compares effects of smaller class sizes on student engagement and teacher to
student interaction for both elementary and secondary students. This paper examined the
effects of class size on classroom processes across the primary and secondary school
years; it studied effects across the full range of class sizes found in United Kingdom
schools; and it examined systematic observation data to capture effects of class size on
moment by moment behavior.
Results showed that as class sizes became smaller there were more times when students
were the focus of a teacher’s attention, and more times when they were engaged in active
interaction with teachers. This effect was found for all groups at both primary and
secondary levels. Classroom engagement effects were most marked for low attaining
secondary students. The effect of smaller class sizes on individualized attention in
particular, appears to be a robust finding that extends right through the school years and
can be used to accelerate more differentiation of the curriculum.
Capitalizing on Small Class Size
ERIC Digest (April 2000)
Jessica O’Connell and Stuart C. Smith
Research has consistently found that teachers do not significantly change their teaching
practices when they move from larger to smaller classes. Tennessee teachers reported
that smaller classes increased their ability to monitor student behavior and learning, give
more immediate and individualized re-teaching, offer more enrichment, achieve a better
match between their instruction and each child’s ability, gain more detailed knowledge of
each child’s needs as a learner, and use a variety of instructional approaches to meet
learners’ needs. Professional development is essential for teachers if learning is to be
maximized in smaller classes.
District class size policies should establish concrete goals (such as a maximum of 18
students in K-3 classes). Better teaching and learning ought to be the cornerstone of
class size reduction.
Does Smaller Class Size Improve Student Performance? A Brief Review of the
Empirical Literature
Paper submitted to the Council of Economic Advisors (2002)
Russell P. Chuderewicz
R. P. Chuderewicz served as an Economic Advisor to Florida Governor Jebb Bush from
2001-2003. He prepared a brief to weigh the benefits of smaller classes in relationship to
the costs associated with providing smaller classes. He concluded that given the
substantial cost of mandating smaller classes Florida would not likely pass a cost-benefit
SYNOPSIS OF CLASS SIZE LITERATURE
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test. He primarily relied on the controversial work of Hanushek (1999), an opponent of
smaller class sizes, yet identified the key ingredients of the STAR Project which led to
positive results. He felt that Florida would not be able to replicate the STAR Project
results due to the problems California faced in implementing a class size reduction
initiative.
Do Small Classes Influence Academic Achievement?
A Report of the Heritage Center for Data Analysis (2000)
Kirk A. Johnson Ph.D.
Class size reduction initiatives are popular with politicians and the public, but hiring the
additional teachers necessary to reduce class sizes is very expensive. Some researchers
have questioned studies that found significant differences in achievement between
students in classes of 15 students per teacher and those in large classes. A study of the
1998 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reading assessment indicated
that the differences in reading achievement between students in smaller classes and their
peers in large classes were statistically insignificant. The author concludes that in terms
of raising achievement, reducing class size does not guarantee success. Given the
inconclusiveness of evidence on the impact of class size reduction on student
achievement, the author suggests that policymakers and educators avoid committing
themselves in haste to costly, unproven initiatives. Dr. Johnson concludes that class size
has little or no effect on academic achievement, according to this analysis of 1998 NAEP
data. It is quite likely that class size as a variable pales in comparison with the effects of
teacher quality and teaching methods.
Class Size: Counting Students Can Count
American Education Research Association (2003)
Research has revealed nuances about how and when small classes work best, where an
investment will result in maximum return, and exactly how many students a “small” class
should have.
Both STAR and SAGE findings indicate the most dramatic impact seems to be achieved
by reaching students early. Ideally, students should experience small classes of 15 to 17
students when entering school, in either kindergarten or first grade. Changes in student
and teacher behavior are believed to be a major reason why small classes work. Teachers
in small classes pay greater attention to each student. Students in these classes
experience continuing pressure to participate in learning activities and become better,
more involved students. Attention to learning goes up, and disruptive and off-task
behavior goes down.
It seems that class size must be reduced substantially to achieve the benefits. There is no
experimental research suggesting that any benefits are realized by subtracting only a few
children from a large class – for example, transitioning from 28 to 25 students. Even a
class of 20 students may be too large.
SYNOPSIS OF CLASS SIZE LITERATURE
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Benefits of Small Class Size
American Federation of Teachers (2003)
The AFT is a strong advocate for reducing class size to help raise student achievement,
especially in high-poverty, at risk schools. Class size is most effective when classes are
between 15 and 19 students; particular schools are targeted; there is an adequate supply
of qualified teachers; and adequate classroom space. In addition to increasing student
achievement, smaller classes: improve classroom atmosphere, students receive more
attention, teachers know their students better, teachers spend more time on instruction
and less time on discipline.
The Benefits of Smaller Classes
Class Size Matters.org
Studies from Tennessee, Wisconsin, and elsewhere demonstrate that students who are
assigned to smaller classes in grades K-3 do better in every way that can be measured:
score higher on tests, receive better grades, and exhibit improved attendance. Alan
Krueger, Princeton economist, has estimated that reducing class size in the early grades
shrinks the achievement gap (black-white) by about 38%. Some researchers believe that
smaller class size is likely to have large public health benefits with greater medical
savings. When secondary students are placed in smaller classes, much greater time is
spent “on task” and focused on learning, with special benefits for low achievers and far
lower rates of negative behavior.
Health and Economic Benefits of Reducing the Number of Students per Classroom
in US Primary Schools
American Journal of Public Health (November 2007)
Peter Muennig, MD, MPH, and Steven H. Woolf, , MD, MPH
Using a regression ANALYSES, Muennig and Woolf concluded that students enrolled in
small classes would achieve improved health status. Both researchers found that
reducing class sizes would in all likelihood be cost saving from a societal perspective.
According to their research model, a student graduating from high school after attending
smaller-sized classes gains an average of 1.7 quality adjusted life years and generates
$168,431 in lifetime net revenue for a high school graduate produced by small classes.
Reducing class sizes may be more cost effective than most public health and medical
interventions and could markedly improve the human capital of the United States.
SYNOPSIS OF CLASS SIZE LITERATURE
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Every Classroom Teacher’s Dream
Education Leadership February 2002
Patricia Handley
A teacher recounts how her year with a class of fifteen 2nd graders resulted in academic
and social growth unparalleled in any of her larger classes. According to the author, a
smaller class leads to a connected classroom community, where children are recognized
for their contributions and are invested in daily learning activities. Children respect their
peers and help maintain order. They have more time for collaborative, hands-on-work
and can make their own predictions, formulate their own findings, and draw their own
conclusions. Teachers have more opportunity for personalized assessment with students,
such as individual conferencing. With a small class, teachers can maximize best teaching
practices, heightening students’ academic achievement.
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