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Contrasts in Teachers' Language Use in a Chinese-English Bilingual Classroom
Abstract
A study examined the language use of two teachers, one a native, bilingual Cantonese-English speaker and the other a monolingual English-speaker, as they alternated teaching assignments between two first grade classes in a Chinese-English bilingual education program. Teacher-student interaction and the variation in teacher and student language use were observed and recorded. These data were coded using a modified system of conversational-acts (C-acts). The language was analyzed according to the utterances' grammatical structure, illocutionary properties, general semantic or propositional content, and for frequency and proportional usage. Results showed great consistency in the bilingual teacher's language use across groups, while the monolingual teacher's patterns of C-act use across language proficiency groups were quite different. Instructional organization and the use of the students' native language also varied between teachers relating to the different groups. The findings show that a monolingual teacher cannot act as effectively as the bilingual, for the monolingual is not familiar with language patterns that may cause confusion for second language learners. (MSE)
... They report that numerous empirical studies have investigated how much and in what contexts teachers use L1 and L2. Some of the research even suggests revising the negative perspective on L1 because L1 can benefit L2 learning (Guthrie, 1984;Skinner 1985;Dickson 1992;Macaro 2005;Liu 2003;Liu et al., 2004;Greggio & Gil 2007, Scott & de la Fuente 2008. Lin (2013) in a more recent review presents various stages in the development of CS. ...
... That L1 is used for clarification was found in many empirical studies. It is invoked to clarify the meaning of words, phrases or text by translating (Copland & Neokleous, 2010;de la Campa & Nassaji, 2009;Edstrom, 2006;Forman, 2012;Greggio & Gil, 2007;Guthrie, 1984;Liu, 2003;Liu et al., 2004;Rezvani & Rasekh, 2011;Rolin--Ianziti & Brownlie, 2002, Rui & Chew, 2013Sali, 2014), to explain the grammar structure (Crawford, 2004;Edstrom, 2006;Greggio & Gil, 2007;Kim & Elder, 2008;Liu et al., 2004;Polio & Duff, 1994) or to give (cultural) background information on a text (Crawford, 2004;Kim & Elder, 2008;Forman, 2012;Liu et al., 2004, Sali, 2014. Most of the teachers in the study of Liu et al. (2004) expressed a preference for giving background information in a switch to L1 in order to help students understand the whole lesson better. ...
... L1 is also used for facilitating classroom communication (Guthrie, 1984;Liu et al., 2004;Moore, 2002;Rezvani & Rasekh, 2011;Rui & Chew, 2013;Saito, 2014;Sali, 2014;Samar & Moradkhani, 2014) and repairing communication breakdowns (Macaro, 2001;Saito, 2014). In a Californian elementary school containing Chinese learners of English, Guthrie (1984) compared a bilingual and a monolingual teacher's classes. ...
... Various functions of code-switching and code-mixing have been acknowledged by researchers, such as to mark emphasis, elaboration, clarification, retention, topic shift, and addressee shift (McClure 1977), and for translation, building and maintaining group membership, giving instructions/explanations, and checking understanding (Guthrie, 1983). In addition, Li (2008, p. 84) points out that the use of Cantonese in EMI lessons can help clarify difficult concepts, introduce or consolidate students' bilingual lexicon, and help build rapport by reducing social distance. ...
... In class observation she code-switched from English to Cantonese once to ensure if her students understood the requirement of the task in class and she translated her question "anyone wants me to explain it in Cantonese?" from English to Cantonese for clarification (McClure, 1977;Guthrie, 1983;Li, 2008) in Science, but only for certain topics in related subjects. In the Mathematics lesson we observed, the teacher code-switched between English, Cantonese and a little bit Putonghua even though English is the MOI of the topic taught. ...
... In the Mathematics lesson we observed, the teacher code-switched between English, Cantonese and a little bit Putonghua even though English is the MOI of the topic taught. The dialogue below shows how she began her lesson by using mixed code to check students' understanding (Guthrie, 1983;Ferguson, 2003) and draw the students' attention (McClure, 1977). understanding (Guthrie, 1983;Ferguson, 2003). ...
Classroom instructions in Hong Kong secondary school context often involve code-switching/code-mixing, with textbooks in English yet the lessons being taught in Cantonese (A variety of spoken Chinese) or a Cantonese/English mix. The code-switching/code-mixing instruction has been a common practice in Hong Kong classroom teaching. However, the Education Commission of Hong Kong considered code-switching/code-mixing instruction as the primary reason for students’ inadequate levels of English and Chinese. Therefore, the Government adopted the policy of ‘mother-tongue teaching’ to promote Chinese-medium instruction so as to reduce code-switching/code-mixing instruction. In this paper, firstly, a summary of the historical background of the Hong Kong language polices will be introduced. Secondly, the role of code-switching/code-mixing instruction in classroom teaching will be discussed by illustrating examples from a case study in a Hong Kong secondary school. Finally, the reasons behind using mixed code and its impact on student learning will be analyzed and discussed. A number of research methods were employed: questionnaire survey, student focus group interviews and classroom discourse analysis. The research findings show that students in the case study school found the use of mixed code beneficial even though the school language policy does not encourage code-switching/code-mixing instruction. We anticipate that this study will shed some light on the study of code-switching/code-mixing.
... The questionnaires have been designed to collect data for the quantitative research following the patterns of Guthrie (1984), Auer (1993), Blom and Gumpers (1970) and Grosjean (1982) with some modifications as per requirement. There were two kinds of questionnaires. ...
... Overall, the analysis testifies that the functions of code switching mentioned by early researchers likes Guthrie (1984), Auer (1993), Blom and Gumpers (1970) and Grosjean (1982) in their researches are also present in the GCSE classes conducted in the city of Bahawalpur. These kinds of switching serve the same functions too as it has been serving in those countries where English is taken as a Second or Foreign language. ...
... The findings have clearly shown that overall results are as per the outcome of the studies conducted Guthrie (1984), Auer (1993), Blom and Gumpers (1970) and Grosjean (1982). The present study has investigated the attitudes, patterns and functions of code switching in English as a Second Language classroom. ...
As Pakistan is a multilingual country where educational institutions are inevitably bilingual and cannot sustain freeing themselves from the influence of bilinguality, both the teachers and the students have to switch from English to Urdu or Urdu to English during the learning process as both belong to bilingual or multilingual backgrounds.
Keeping in view these issues, the present research has aimed to investigate those factors which aid to create bilingual or multilingual English as a Second Language classroom. These factors along with other issues have been analyzed on the hypotheses of students’ and teachers’ attitudes towards code switching, functions and patterns of switching and finally, and the effect of code switching in the classroom.
The research is a mixed kind of research based on both quantitative and qualitative analyses in which relation between the use of code switching with learning success has been explored. The results of the study show that code switching does play an important role in English as a Second Language classroom. Both the participants, teachers and students, do not want to eliminate this strategy and favour it as a supportive tool in learning English.
... It was found that the biggest difference of the language use of the two teachers is that the teacher who was able to speak Chinese often did Chinese-English code-mixing in the class to communicate more efficiently with the students or to check for understanding. This kind of Chinese-English code-mixing was proved to be beneficial in the classroom because it helps reduce students' confusion and misunderstanding and is especially friendly to Chinese students who were not very proficient in English [17]. In another research, Marlan A and Xiting W studied the Chinese-English code-mixing of teachers and students in Chinese university English classes. ...
... And the students also reported that code-mixing benefited their language development. In most of the cases, the involved students are language learners of intermediate level of their second language (L2) who are not very comfortable with being taught in their L2 only [17]. So code-mixing of their L1 and L2 in class not only improves their understanding but also reduces their anxiety and inadaptation during the learning of L2. ...
During the process of second language acquisition, language learners tend to use code-mixing as a learning strategy or a form of language transition. Among Chinese language learners, Chinese-English code-mixing is very common among language learners in classrooms and daily communication and many studies have been focused on this topic. By reviewing previous researches on Chinese peoples code-mixing in different situations, this paper attempts to find out the influence of code-mixing on Chinese language learners second language acquisition. It is found that code-mixing in the classroom is beneficial to both teachers and students, as code-mixing helps improve teaching efficiency and makes it comfortable for beginners to express themselves in class. In addition, code-mixing, not only in class, but also in other situations, facilitates second languages acquisition. Moreover, code-mixing does not have negative influence on Chinese peoples cultural identity and L1 ability. In conclusion, code-mixing is generally beneficial for Chinese language learners second language acquisition.
... It is interesting to note that there were instances later in the same lesson in which the teacher stopped the students' use of their L1 in an authoritative manner, even though the students were in fact discussing the teacher-set task, a situation quite similar to what has been reported in Guthrie (1984). 6 I can say that the teacher in Excerpt 2 has temporarily shed her institutional role as the "language police;" she not only does not quiet the students when they use Cantonese to her or to their classmates, but even amuses herself by picking up the Cantonese from the students, and glossing the word "naughty" with Cantonese of her own accord (line 35). ...
... 5 These native English teachers state that they were assured by the Education Department that Cantonese proficiency is not expected and that they were advised not to use Cantonese in teaching. 6 In his paper, Guthrie (1984) contrasts the language use of a monolingual English teacher and a Chinese-English bilingual teacher teaching a class of Chinese students in America. There were instances when the monolingual teacher quieted the students when they spoke Cantonese to each other even though they were actually on task. ...
... Jingxia (2010), who investigated code-switching in Chinese classrooms maintained that it was mostly used to (1) translate unfamiliar words, (2) explain grammar, (3) manage a class, (4) display sympathy and friendship to students, (5) shift topics, (6) get students' concentration, and (7) assess their understanding. Guthrie (1984) conducted a comparative study on bilingual and monolingual English teachers in the U.S.A. He identified five common functions of codeswitching as (a) translation, (b) identity marking, (c) giving procedures and direction, (d) explanation, especially with the presentation of new lexical items, and finally (e) as a check for understanding. ...
... This, in addition to socialization which can be viewed as equivalent or similar to the affective function in this research where the teacher sympathizes with students and establishes solidarity and rapport with them. The results of this study are in partial agreement with the results reported by Guthrie (1984). Both studies affirmed that code-switching is used for translation and giving procedures and directions. ...
Abstract.
Code-switching has been primarily investigated in a variety of sociocultural contexts, especially in foreign and second language settings. The majority of code-switching instances, whether in teacher-initiated activities or teacher-student interaction, seem to suggest that these interactions reflect a sophisticated language use and serve a variety of pedagogical purposes. This study aims to find out the main functions and roles of code-switching among EFL high school teachers and students in Jordan. For this purpose, classroom observation and a questionnaire were used as instruments. Two EFL teachers were regularly observed, and notes of their code-switching behaviour over four weeks were taken, examined, classified, and finally analysed. A questionnaire was used for 330 students from two secondary schools in Jordan. The students were asked to fill in a Likert-type questionnaire. From the classroom observation, the results showed that teachers code-switch for several reasons including affective function, giving instructions and directions, and linguistic incompetence. The questionnaire administered to students showed that students code-switch for non-linguistuc purposes such as maintaining rapport and interpersonal relationships as well as keeping the line of communication without interruption to avoid any sort of conflict or misunderstanding. This study concludes by recommending that teachers should improve students’ English language skills in non-linguistic domains such as the affective and interpersonal ones.
... In the pedagogic-functional level analysis, the researcher considered the five conceptualized categories which emerged as dominant and were expanded from Merrit, Cleghorn, Abagi and Bunyi's four types of classroom-based code-switching and Guthrie's (1982) coding, which was an adaptation of Dore's (1977) conversational acts. The five types of pedagogic code-switching functions considered in this study include: 1) Instructional for content acquisition which is coded when the switch takes place during the content instructional learning events and occurs without repetition or disruption of the content material; 2) Reformulation is an instructional strategy whereby the teacher either checks for comprehension by concurrently translating a text or speech, or initiates student translation; 3) Instructional for language acquisition takes place when content instruction is supplemented or suspended for linguistic reasons; 4) Coding for facilitation occurs when the switch takes place during the teacher's discourse where the teacher's role switches from content or language instructor to a facilitator; and 5) Coding for habitual switching includes idiosyncratic lexicon, discourse markers, and international participles prevalent in each of the teachers' speech patterns. ...
... After the transcriptions of the recorded classroom discourses were made, the researcher took some excerpts which contained code-switching patterns and then made use of content analysis as a method in analyzing and classifying the codeswitching patterns as to intra-sentential, inter-sentential, intra-word, and extrasentential. Meanwhile, to ascertain the pedagogic functions of the teacher's codeswitching patterns, the coding used by the researcher was based on Guthrie's (1982) coding on conversational acts as well as Merrit, Cleghorn, Abagi and Bunyi's (1992) types of classroom based code-switching. However, the actual decision-making process that was used by the researcher to determine each instance of the categories was derived from Gumperz (1982) and Levinson's (2003) description of conversational inference. ...
This study was conducted to primarily investigate the language practices of two bilingual Filipino teachers in English language classrooms. It made use of the qualitative case study guided by Hymes’ methodological approach of the ethnography of communication. The findings of this study revealed that teachers made use of code-switching in teaching and they code-switched for several pedagogic purposes. In sentential-level analysis, the results showed that several code-switching acts were made by teachers in classroom discourse. Intra-sentential, inter-sentential, and intra-word code-switch types were most commonly used by teachers while extra-sentential code-switch was not used in their classroom discourses. In pedagogic-functional level analysis, the results revealed that the teachers frequently used code-switching mostly for instructional or content acquisition. The findings also showed that teachers sometimes code-switched for reformulation and facilitation but they rarely code-switched for language acquisition and habitual purposes. This study recommended that a similar study be conducted to gather sufficient data on class interactions through utilizing intensive classroom observations to deepen investigation on teachers’ language practices. Furthermore, it also recommended that other methods like interviews could also be done to gather teachers’ viewpoints about when and why they code-switch and their attitudes toward their use of code-switching in second language classrooms.
... Categories for analysis under the functional level of pedagogic use were adapted from a framework provided by Merrit, Cleghorn, Abagi, and Bunyi's (1992) four types of classroom-based codeswitching and Guthrie's (1982) five communicative functions of switching. In Merrit et al. (1992) types of classroom based codeswitching included four categories: 1) reformulation across codes with no new instruction, 2) code-switching as the content of the activity, 3) translation or word substitution within a sentence, and 4) international particles. ...
... In Merrit et al. (1992) types of classroom based codeswitching included four categories: 1) reformulation across codes with no new instruction, 2) code-switching as the content of the activity, 3) translation or word substitution within a sentence, and 4) international particles. Guthrie (1982) categorized code-switching functions as 1) translation, 2) inclusion (we-code), 3) procedures and directions, 4) clarifications; and 5) checks for comprehension. Of the 3,184 instances of code-switching found in this study across all three teachers, 696 of these switches were habitual with no pedagogic intent. ...
This article addresses the value of code-switching during bilingual content instruction. The linguistic data were collected during a larger ethnography of communication case study of the language practices of three bilingual Mandarin/English speaking science-content teachers working as they negotiate meaning and instruction for recently arrived non-traditional Chinese immigrant high school students. Through a pedagogic analysis of naturally occurring code-switching practices, the author argues that code-switching is indeed a pedagogic tool used by bilingual teachers in the act of making content comprehensible and as such, it is similar to scaffolding devices regularly used in monolingual education.
... In addition, Milk described the skillful manner in which the bilingual teacher employed extensive switching between Spanish and English to create humor, both as a means of social control (via the creation of a sense of solidarity) and as a way to arouse students' interest. Guthrie (1984) used similar research methods in a study of an ESL lesson attended by 11 first-grade Cantonese-American students. Two types of lessons were analyzed: reading in English with a Cantonese-English bilingual teacher and oral language with an English monolingual teacher. ...
... The functions of L1 use reported by Guthrie can be summarized as: (1) to act as a "we-code" for solidarity, (2) to clarify or check for understanding, and (3) to contrast variable meanings in L1 and L2 and to anticipate likely sources of confusion for students. While the functional coding approach dominated early work, in some studies (e.g., Milk 1981;Guthrie 1984) preliminary use of ethnographic interviews and interactional sociolinguistic methods were incorporated, a trend which continued in later work. ...
Classroom code-switching refers to the alternating use of more than one linguistic code in the classroom by any of the classroom participants. This chapter provides a review of the historical development of the different research paradigms and approaches adopted in various studies. The difficulties and problems faced by this field of studies and critical reflections on how this field might move forward in the future are discussed.
... In addition, Milk described the skillful manner in which the bilingual teacher employed extensive switching between Spanish and English to create humour, both as a means of social control (via the creation of a sense of solidarity) and as a way to arouse students' interest. Guthrie (1984) used similar research methods in a study of an ESL lesson attended by 11 first-grade Cantonese-American students (ranging from limited-English proficiency to fluent). Two types of lessons were analysed: reading in English with a Cantonese-English bilingual teacher, and oral language with an English monolingual teacher. ...
... So, while the functional coding approach dominated early work in some studies (e.g. Milk 1981;Guthrie 1984), there was also some preliminary use of ethnographic interviews and interactional sociolinguistic methods, a trend which continued in later works. ...
... Another area that ethnographic studies of classroom language have addressed is multiple languages in classrooms. Studies in education have examined how shifts of language are employed in teacher-student interaction (e.g., Ernst, 199 ;Guthrie & Guthrie, 1987;Guthrie, 1985;Heras, 1993;Oreallana, in press;Tuyay, Jennings & Dixon, 1995), studentstudent interactions (Duran & Szymanski, 1995;Gumperz & Field, 1995;Floriani, 1993) and in establishing or erasing borders between the classroom community and the home and neighborhood community (e.g., Willett & Bloome, 1992). In these studies, and in ethnographic studies of classroom language in general, issues of language are not separated from social and cultural issues. ...
... In these studies, and in ethnographic studies of classroom language in general, issues of language are not separated from social and cultural issues. For example, in Larry Guthrie and Grace Pung Guthrie's (1987) study of two bilingual classrooms, they found that the teachers' orchestration of the language used was both influenced by and created social dynamics in the classroom; and these social dynamics either facilitated or hindered the students engagement in academic learning. (See also Gutierrez, 1995). ...
In this chapter, we explore sites of ethnography, not physical sites of people studied, but intellectual sites that frame how ethnography is being undertaken in particular ways. The approach we have taken complements recent discussions of ethnography and ethnographic
research in the social sciences and education emphasizing the scope of topics, research designs, methods, and theoretical traditions as well as differences from other qualitative and quantitative approaches to research (e.g., Duranti & Goodwin, 1992; Egan-Robertson &
Willett, in press; Guthrie & Hall, 1984; Hammersly, 1990; Spindler & Spindler, 1987a; Zaharlick & Green, 1991). Yet, at the same time, our approach is intended to provide another way of looking at ethnography and ethnographic research. As Brian Street’s (1993b) review
of Martyn Hammersly's (1992) book, What’s Wrong With Ethnography? makes clear, ethnographic research has evolved and changed over the past three decades. Not only has the use of ethnography and ethnographic research become more sophisticated and researchers
more aware of the complexities and issues involved, there have been important changes in what counts as ethnography and ethnographic research, who conducts such research, where and how, the research agendas being pursued, and how such research contributes to evolving knowledge bases in education and the social sciences. These changes have led to enhanced understandings about how such research can be used to contribute to changes in various social
institutions.
... In additional, Milk described the skillful manner in which the bilingual teacher employed extensive switching between Spanish and English to create humour, both as a means of social control (via the creation of a sense of solidarity) and as a way to arouse students' interest. Guthrie (1984) used similar research methods in a study of an ESL lesson attended by 11 first-grade Cantonese-American students (ranging from limited-English proficiency to fluent). Two types of lessons were analysed: reading in English with a Cantonese-English bilingual teacher, and oral language with an English monolingual teacher. ...
... While the functional coding approach dominated early work, in some studies (e.g., Milk, 1981;Guthrie, 1984) preliminary use of ethnographic interviews and interactional sociolinguistic methods were incorporated, a trend which continued in later work. ...
In this paper I provide a review of the historical development of different research paradigms and approaches adopted in studies on classroom code-switching. I also discuss the difficulties and problems faced by this field of studies and share some of my own critical reflections on how this field might move forward in the future, speaking from the position of a researcher who has been engaged in this area of studies for close to three decades.
... Socializing functions, v. Repetitive functions. According to Martin-Jones (1995), Guthrie's (1984) comparative study's result proved that the monolingual teacher was less able to teach those students who were at an early stage of development and at this point he placed the bilingual teacher at advantage. Guthrie (1984) identified five communicative functions of code-switching. ...
... According to Martin-Jones (1995), Guthrie's (1984) comparative study's result proved that the monolingual teacher was less able to teach those students who were at an early stage of development and at this point he placed the bilingual teacher at advantage. Guthrie (1984) identified five communicative functions of code-switching. According to his study, Chinese switching was used: i. for translation, ii. for we code iii. ...
It is not uncommon to hear bilinguals mixing two languages when speaking in different situations. In multilingual classrooms such as Pakistani ones where most of the individuals have the knowledge of two or more languages, the linguistic phenomenon of combining languages is quite common. Teachers do code-switch while teaching English in the classroom and reason for this language alternation may be that English is taught as a main/compulsory subject in Pakistan and is used as a medium of instruction at school and college levels. Despite the significance of the phenomenon, the reasons for teachers' code-switching (henceforth CS) in bilingual classroom discourse have not been investigated in Pakistan although the research on the same issue has been carried out in the developed countries in the context quite different from the one existing in Pakistani classrooms. The main purpose of the study was to identify the significance of each function of code-switching by asking teachers why they code-switch and what specific pedagogical functions code-switching serves in the classrooms. Quantitative study based on survey data was conducted to ascertain the teachers' awareness about the functions of code-switching at the macro level. Moreover, the questionnaire used in this study was designed in accordance with the objectives of the study. This article, although preliminary in nature, attempts to highlight and explain some of the functions of code-switching in the foreign language classroom. In short, this paper has made an attempt to better understand the trends of code-switching in Pakistani EFL classrooms.
... In contrast, a monolingual English-speaking teacher underestimated the students' competence and provided them with instruction at a much lower level in English than the instruction they were receiving in Spanish. Guthrie and Pung Guthrie (1989) examined a Chinese teacher in a Chinese-English bilingual program who responded to the learning needs of beginning and low-achieving Chinese students by promoting interactions bilingually and encouraging group work with more advanced peers. In contrast, a monolingual English-speaking teacher foreclosed learning opportunities for struggling students by insisting that all communication occur individually and only in English (Guthrie & Pung Guthrie, 1989). ...
... Guthrie and Pung Guthrie (1989) examined a Chinese teacher in a Chinese-English bilingual program who responded to the learning needs of beginning and low-achieving Chinese students by promoting interactions bilingually and encouraging group work with more advanced peers. In contrast, a monolingual English-speaking teacher foreclosed learning opportunities for struggling students by insisting that all communication occur individually and only in English (Guthrie & Pung Guthrie, 1989). ...
... The third, the writer made a note based on the information what she had seen, heard and read during the research and then after that the writer developed information of categories and relationship with this research. Guthrie, L. F. (1983) A study examined the language use of two teachers, one a native, bilingual Cantonese-English speaker and the other a monolingual English-speaker. ...
Speaking is one of important skill that really hard to be mastered. It is because English speaking has very unique style and role to play. It needs really hard work for the teachers to teach speaking skill so that the students can improve this skill very well. In fact, the teachers and the students face difficulties in mastering this skill effectively. They have many reasons why this phenomenon could be happen. It is very important to find what the reasons are and why they still have difficulties in mastering the skill and why they still make many errors in facing speaking class. Its really helpful to analyze the solution of this problem. Considering that speaking English is really important in this global era, so the solution must be found soon.
... However, it can be noted that these studies were limited to a particular scope and type. Meanwhile, Milk (1981) and Guthrie (1984) departed from a quantitative study to the use of audio recordings and descriptive analysis. This has changed the approach used in the conduct of various explorations over the years. ...
The use of code-switching is considered to be a common language phenomenon in bilingual and multilingual settings. Evidently, it has become a subject of controversies and contradicting views among scholars in the field of research, particularly in the Philippine context. However, most of the studies conducted have been directed to the Tagalog-English code-switching practices of language teachers. Seemingly, explorations on the teachers' perspectives toward this practice remain largely under-researched. Hence, this study employed a qualitative research design and conducted in-depth interviews to investigate the perceptions of ESL teachers on the utilization of code-switching in classroom discussions. Moreover, the present research sought to explore their reasons on why they code-switch to the student's native tongue. Based on the findings, the respondents believe that code-switching facilitates better comprehension, its use depends on the students' level of comprehension and learning objectives, encourages student participation, a teaching strategy, hinders students' language development, and becomes ineffective when the teacher has limited background on the students' MT. Also, it was found that the reasons for code-switching include translation, comprehension, identification, contextualization, student engagement, and communication.
... In contrast, Guthrie reported that there was no correlation between the student's different levels of comprehension and their use of code switching [16]. In fact, advanced learners and competent bilinguals have been reported to employ codeswitching similarly according to a study of Auerbach [3]. ...
... Canagarajah (2001) pronounced that code-switching was used by both teachers and students to construct 'hybrid identities,' in lieu of communicating exclusively in one language. Guthrie (1984) observed that teachers engaged in code-switching to create solidarity with students; this phenomenon, which was termed 'we-code,' resulted in rapport building, which is a pre-requisite to a positive classroom environment. ...
This action research project aims to examine the process and
effectiveness of the cascade model of teacher training used by the
Regional English Language Centres (RESCs) in Sri Lanka. This paper focuses on one level of cascading from a workshop held at the National Institute of Education (NIE) to the Gampaha RESC in the Western Province. The NIE workshop was observed by one of the Gampaha RESC trainers and was later adapted for local use and needs. The Gampaha RESC conducted workshops for regional teachers. These workshops were observed by the researchers. Data collection tools also included handouts from both workshops, reflective journal notes, and an interview with the Gampaha RESC trainer who conducted the workshops. The two workshops were compared. It was revealed that the RESC trainer from Gampaha used the activities of the original workshop in different formats to suit the Gampaha audience. A limitation
of this study lies in the fact that the next level of the cascade model (school level) could not be observed due to time constraints. However, the study shows how the cascade model of training can be a success.
... Some findings revealed in this study seem to challenge the theory that teaching English through English makes the whole FLL process authentic and beneficial (Chambers, 1991;Halliwell & Johns, 1991). Similar to Guthrie (1983), this study suggests in-depth research on whether a class conducted entirely in the target language can result in greater intake or a mixed-code would help learners to become familiarized with the whole TL environment. ...
... Therefore, their self-identity as ambilinguals and their backgrounds were not considered sufficient, and native speakers of both English and Cantonese were consulted to see if they agreed. Guthrie's (1983) study involved a participant that he referred to as a native Cantonese-English bilingual, and I adopt his practical description of a native bilingual, or what I call an ambilingual, which is that "both [his or] her Cantonese and English were native-like" (p. 40). ...
This book discusses the morphological properties of intonation, building on past research to support the long-recognized relationship between the functions and meanings of discourse particles and the functions and meanings of intonation. The morphological status of intonation has been debated for decades, and this book provides evidence from the literature combined with new and compelling empirical evidence to show that specific intonational forms correspond to specific segmental discourse particles. Based on the conclusion that intonation is in the lexicon, it proposes syntactic positions for intonational meanings using a cartographic approach. It also describes how intonation is represented in speakers' minds, which has important implications for first and second language acquisition as well as for theories and approaches to artificial speech recognition and production. This book is of interest to theoretical and applied linguists, as well as to anyone whose research and interests relate in any way to intonation.
... Using interviews to determine their status as native bilinguals is admittedly impressionistic, but I am not aware of any more reliable method for determining whether or not someone is a native speaker. Guthrie's (1983) research study involved a participant that he referred to as a native Cantonese-English bilingual, and I will adopt his simple -definition‖ of native bilingual by saying that -both [their] Cantonese and English were native-like.‖ By the term -native-like,‖ I do not mean what is frequently meant in the L2 literature, i.e., -similar to‖ or -nearly‖ native. ...
Cantonese has a lexical tone system that severely restricts its ability to manipulate pitch. As a result, many of the speaker-oriented discourse meanings that are expressed through intonation in languages such as English are expressed in the form of sentence-final particles (SFPs) in Cantonese. Although this is widely known and accepted by linguists, apparently no study to date has made a systematic attempt to discover whether any of the more than 30 Cantonese SFPs have English intonational equivalents, and if so, what those equivalents are. To work towards filling this research gap, this study examines the English intonational equivalents of four Cantonese SFPs that divide into the following two pairs: particles of obviousness: lo1 and aa1maa3; question particles: me1 and aa4.
The English equivalent form of each of the four SFPs of this study is identified by examining the pitch contours of Cantonese-to-English audio translations, provided by Cantonese/English native-bilingual participants. A definition using Wierzbicka’s (1996) natural semantic metalanguage (NSM) is proposed for each SFP, which is hypothesized to apply equally to its English intonational counterpart. Following proposals of Hirst’s (1983a) regarding “emphatic intonation,” these pitch contours are proposed to be floating tones that exist as lexical entries in the minds of native-English speakers. Syntactic positions are proposed for the SFPs and their English equivalents adopting Rizzi’s (1997) split-CP hypothesis.
The findings of this study have far reaching implications regarding the descriptions and classifications of intonation, as well as regarding the classifications of the various forms of suprasegmentals. This study used segmental discourse markers to discover their suprasegmental counterparts in English, exploiting a unique window through which to examine the forms and meanings of English discourse intonation, which is one of the least understood and most difficult to study aspects of English. This research has arguably provided the strongest and clearest evidence to date regarding the forms and meanings of the particular forms of English intonation with which it deals.
... Teachers tend to use it for different but mostly overlapping functions that are closely related to the teaching of vocabulary and grammar, translation, classroom management and affective aspects of classroom interaction (e.g. Guthrie, 1984;Hall & Cook, 2013;Iyitoglu, 2016;Kim & Elder, 2005;Lin, 1990;Milk, 1982Milk, , 1984. As for the quantity of L1 use across classrooms, the findings point at highly variable extent of instructors' L1 use in classroom discourse, ranging from no use (e.g. ...
Current understanding of second language acquisition processes is based on the position that second language learners rely and depend on their L1 as well as on all of their language-related experience. This paper presents results of a questionnaire study aimed to explore Croatian EFL instructors’ beliefs about the role of L1 in English language development and formal instruction. Data was further analysed in order to explore variables most likely to impact instructors’ belief systems (participants’ age and academic degree, students’ language level, learning setting). The findings point to a lack of professional consensus with regard to L1 use which is discussed and followed by practical implications.
... Research on classroom codeswitching as occurring in EFL classroom abounds (Guthrie, 1984;Duff & Polio, 1990;Simon, 2001;Levine, 2011;Li, 1998Li, , 2005Jingxia, 2010;Then & Ting, 2011;Lin, 2013) and usually evolves around dissenting opinions that often stand on whether alternating the use of students' foreign and target language (TL) and their L1 may be conducive to TL learning or may actually hinder it. ...
The present study focuses on analyzing the pedagogical functions of codeswitching (Milroy & Muysken, 1995; Canagarajah, 1995, 2011; Auer, 1998; Bista, 2010; García & Wei, 2014) as one of the most pervasive compensatory strategies used by lecturers in English-medium instruction at university. The corpus examined includes 8 lectures taught in English by two different lecturers and belonging to two subjects within a Business Administration degree in Spain. Findings suggest that there seems to be four pedagogical purposes as the main motivators behind codeswitching practices. In addition, results indicate that the personal teaching style of lecturers and the nature of the academic disciplines are likely to largely determine the use of this compensatory strategy.
... Nella maggior parte dei casi, la lingua usata in classe è stata codificata tramite sistemi di analisi dell'interazione, presentando spesso caratteri di differenti categorie funzionali. È interessante scoprire a che tipi di funzioni assolvono rispettivamente la LM e la LS. Guthrie (1984) ha condotto un insolito studio sulla scelta linguistica durante le lezioni di inglese frequentate da studenti americano--cantonesi di 11 anni con diversi livelli di padronanza dell'inglese (dal basico al fluente). Sono stati analizzati due tipi di lezione: quelle di lettura svolte da un insegnante bilingue inglese-cantonese, e quelle orali con un insegnante monolingue. ...
Sommario : Il seguente articolo tratta della commutazione di codice ovvero, del passaggio dalla lingua straniera (LS) alla lingua materna (LM o L1), da parte dell’insegnante durante le lezioni di lingua. Nella prima parte si illustrano i vari studi effettuati in questo ambito, nella seconda si presentera una ricerca condotta dalla sottoscritta presso l’Universita di San Paolo del Brasile (USP). Lo studio, svolto nell’ambito dei corsi di italiano, mette in luce le funzioni e il ruolo rivestito dalla L1. Scopo di questo contributo e di mostrare che i passaggi dall’una all’altra lingua potenziano la capacita acquisitiva; come sostiene infatti Long (1996), e attraverso la negoziazione dei significati che l’input diviene comprensibile, pertanto l’utilizzo della lingua materna da parte dell’insegnante e da considerarsi non un limite ma un ausilio.
... In sum, a number of researchers have argued that pragmatics, or discourse, is a better indicator of language abilities in bilingual children than use of formal measures (i.e., standardized, norm-referenced tests; Brice, 1992;Brice, Mastin, & Perkins, 1997a, 1997bBrice & Montgomery, 1996;Damico & Oller, 1980;Damico, Oller, & Storey, 1983). Guthrie and Guthrie (1987) found, "How teachers and students use language [i.e., pragmatics], rather than particular linguistic aspects of speech, may have more to do with the way children learn, and the miscommunication, misunderstanding, and educational difficulty students encounter" (p. 206). ...
The Latino/a population of the United States continues to increase dramatically; consequently, educators face the challenge of how best to provide educational services for those whose primary language is Spanish. The purpose of this study was to examine student discourse between bilingual students in gifted programs and bilingual students in the general education programs in an urban middle school. This study suggests a minor language advantage for the bilingual students in the gifted program. The overall conclusion seems to indicate that bilingualism, language abilities, and giftedness involve many variables and that the relationships are not necessarily direct.
... Please provide publisher name and location for Guthrie (1984). ...
Classroom code-switching refers to the alternating use of more than one linguistic code in the classroom by any of the classroom participants. This chapter provides a review of the historical development of the different research paradigms and approaches adopted in various studies. The difficulties and problems faced by this field of studies and critical reflections on how this field might move forward in the future are discussed.
... The results suggested the students' preference for using L1 in less formal, more intimate participant structures. In the US, observers with a functional coding system to explain the functional distribution of L1 and L2 conducted some studies in bilingual classrooms (e.g., Flanders, 1970;Guthrie, 1984;Legarreta, 1977;Milk, 1981). To this end, Halliday (1994) stated that codeswitching in communications serves for different functional purposes: 1) ideational function which refers to L1 use for the purpose of explaining, defining or exemplifying the academic content for L2 proficient students; 2) textual function that focuses on L1 used for highlighting shifts in the topics or different activity types; and 3) interpersonal function which considers L1 use for negotiating different frames and foots, role-relationships, cultural values and identities. ...
A surge of interest in using First Language (L1) in English as Second/Foreign Language (L2/EFL) learning has recently been developed. Despite this upsurge, the concern about using L1 by teachers and students in L2/EFL classrooms is still important for researchers to consider in the field. The focus of this study is to investigate the amount and purposes of L1 use in EFL classrooms by teachers and students in two English language institutes in Iran. Responding to the research questions on the amount and purpose of L1 use, the researchers collected the data for 12 sessions (a 90-minute class) from six male and female EFL teachers aged from 25 to 30 and 155 students 19 to 25 years of age whose pre-intermediate classes were video recorded for two sessions. The findings revealed that the EFL teachers used a limited amount of L1 in the EFL classrooms though they still used it as an aid for a variety of purposes in order to improve their teaching purposes and the students' learning. The findings also indicated that using L1 facilitates students' learning in EFL classrooms, and it should not be excluded from the classroom syllabi or considered an evil in EFL classrooms.
... Using interviews to determine their status as native bilinguals is admittedly impressionistic, but I am not aware of any more reliable method for determining whether or not someone is a native speaker. Guthrie's (1983) research study involved a participant that he referred to as a native Cantonese-English bilingual, and I will adopt his simple -definition‖ of native bilingual by saying that -both [their] Cantonese and English were native-like.‖ By the term -native-like,‖ I do not mean what is frequently meant in the L2 literature, i.e., -similar to‖ or -nearly‖ native. ...
... The corpus of data for this study comes from the CHILDES online database (http://childes.psy.cmu.edu). Twelve transcripts originally published by Guthrie and colleagues (Guthrie, 1983(Guthrie, , 1984Guthrie & Guthrie, 1987) were considered for analysis. The participants recorded in the transcripts were an ESL teacher whose first language (L1) was English and his class of 15 grade 1 ESL learners whose L1 was Cantonese. ...
This study investigates how one English-as-a-second-language (ESL) teacher provided corrective feedback to 15 child ESL learners that the teacher had divided into two groups based on proficiency level. Classroom data in transcripts from the CHILDES database were analyzed for type of learner errors, type of teacher feedback, and rate of learner uptake (attempts at correction) and repair (correc-tion). Results showed differences in the types of errors produced by each proficien-cy group and in the type of feedback the teacher provided to each proficiency group, demonstrating provision of finely tuned corrective feedback based on learners' individual differences. Cette étude porte sur la rétroaction corrective d'un enseignant en ALS avec 15 élèves répartis en deux groupes en fonction de leurs compétences. Des tran-scriptions de la base de données CHILDES et portant sur des données de salles de classe ont été analysées pour déceler le type d'erreurs chez les apprenants, le type de rétroaction de la part de l'enseignant, et taux d'application (tentatives de se corriger) et de correction par les apprenants. Les résultats révèlent des différences dans le type d'erreurs produites par chaque groupe et dans le type de rétroaction fournie par l'enseignant à chaque groupe, démontrant l'adaptation de la rétroac-tion corrective aux différences individuelles chez les apprenants.
... ; For instance, she refers to Guthrie's comparative study of two teachers, one ^ bilingual and one monolingual, working with Chinese learners of English in | the U.S. The bilingual teacher made use of five communicative functions for switching into Chinese: translation, 'we code', procedures and directions, clarification and check for understanding. The monolingual '> English-speaking teacher, however, did not tolerate any code-switching into [ Chinese (Guthrie 1984). j ...
... In Hong Kong (Johnson & Lee, 1987;Lin, 1990;Pennington, 1995, forthcoming) and elsewhere (Guthrie & Guthrie, 1987;Merritt et al., 1992;Wong-Fillmore, 1980), some consistent patterns of language alternation have been documented in bilingual (or multilingual) primary and secondary school classrooms where the teacher and students share the same language. The regularity that has been observed in these bilingual classrooms is that lesson-related information is transmitted in the "high" language or school language and then integrated in the mother tongue. ...
... In Milan, the school policy is to use the Japanese language only and both teachers and students respect this rule, creating a monolingual context in which deviations (i.e., inappropriate language choices) are not only noticed, but sometimes stigmatized. By contrast, at the Scuola Italiana Marco Polo, children often rely on CS to make communication smoother and teachers also make wide use of CS for the functions listed in Guthrie (1984): translations, clarifications, giving directions, concept checking, and identification. ...
... Another type of adjustment that some teachers may have made and which was seen as potentially beneficial was "code switching," that is, switching back and forth from English to the students' native language, usually within sentences or phrases. In three studies, a public school teacher of ESL students whose native language was Cantonese, a teacher in a family literacy program for Hispanics, and a teacher in a bilingual program with Hispanic students used code switching in reading lessons for several reasons (Battle, 1993;Guthrie & Guthrie, 1987;Huerta-Macias & Quintero, 1992). In most cases, code switching was used to sustain communication and/or to aid instructional effectiveness. ...
The purpose of this review is to characterize research and portray findings on English-as-a-second-language (ESL) reading instruction in the United States. The spectrum of research on ESL reading instruction in the United States might best be characterized as having considerable breadth, but little depth. However, some tentative themes emerged. Among the most important statements that could be made were the following. First, some broad classroom parameters were discerned: Students may work mainly in small groups, stressing word recognition and oral reading; typical instructional discourse patterns may be incompatible with common home-discourse patterns; and teachers may work with lower ESL groups in different ways and stress lower level skills even more as compared to higher ESL groups. Second, research contributed little clarification on issues surrounding the role and timing of native-language reading instruction and ESL reading instruction for ESL reading achievement. Third, instruction targeting specific student knowledge, such as vocabulary knowledge, background knowledge, and text-structure knowledge, was generally effective. Fourth, there was a paucity of information about important issues related to ESL reading in teacher materials.
... A. Brice, Mastin, and Perkins (1997a) suggested that how teachers use language in classrooms has an effect on how students interact, and consequently learn. This point was also mentioned by Guthrie and Guthrie (1987) when they stated that how teachers and students use language [i.e., classroom discourse], rather than particular linguistic aspects of speech, may have more to do with the way children learn, and the miscommunication, misunderstanding, and educational difficulty students encounter. (p. ...
As the culturally and linguistically diverse population of the United States continues to increase dramatically, speech— language pathologists (SLPs) and special education teachers in particular face the challenge of how best to assess and teach those students whose primary language is not English. The changing U.S. demographics are driving a need for a more comprehensive understanding of students learning English as a second language and the effect upon their education of learning English as a second language. A substantial number of English language learner (ELL) students, with and without disabilities, may not possess the requisite classroom discourse or pragmatic skills, may face difficulties, and may be incapable of fully benefiting in their learning. This tutorial will discuss factors related to describing classroom discourse in the context of five ethnographic studies, with particular attention paid to pragmatic language skills for ELL students with and without disabilities. This article will also discuss strategies for what these students need to know regarding pragmatic language skills and which strategies school professionals need to implement for bilingual ELL students (i.e., regarding planning and communication in delivering instruction). This knowledge should assist school professionals in making more appropriate decisions in assessment and instruction for these students.
This study examines the motivations and role of code-switching between English (both the standard and colloquial varieties) and Mandarin in a Polytechnic Communications Skills classroom. Code-switching is the use of two or more languages in alternation within a single discourse, sentence, or constituent, and it is a common phenomenon in bilingual interactions. Once seen as a sign of interference, code-switching is now recognized as an additional resource used by interlocutors to highlight the context of conversation, as well as participants' roles and relations in social interactions.
In this study, an ethnographic approach using the methods of participant-observation and interview was adopted to collect naturally-occurring data of students code-switching during collaborative activities in the classroom. The conversational analysis (CA) approach was used to evaluate the collected data in a sequential, turn-by-turn manner to capture in detail the meaning of different interactions and instances of code-switching in different contexts.
The study found that code-switching was a tool used by participants to regulate social relations while engaging in collaborative work in the classroom. Code-switching was also used by participants to achieve certain communicative goals, such as enhancing meaning-making and communication. In addition, it has been found that through code-switching, all linguistic and non-linguistic resources can be harnessed to aid knowledge construction, given the context of a constructivist classroom. Pedagogically, the study suggested the possibility of using code-switching as a resource in language teaching and learning through the use of the mother tongue as an additional language to facilitate the learning of English or other content subjects.
Chapter 10.1007/978-981-15-2265-9_3 explained that Hong Kong Cantonese has a large number of sentence-final particles (SFPs) that express meanings comparable to those expressed by discourse intonation in English. It was further argued that intonation and segmental particles are two forms of the same thing. Chapter 10.1007/978-981-15-2265-9_4 then reviewed a number of studies that compared discourse particles in one language to forms of discourse intonation in the same or another language. This chapter will now describe the methodology I used to match some Cantonese SFPs to specific forms of English intonation. Before doing so, some basic information about the Cantonese language is provided, explaining why it is ideal for conducting this kind of research.
This chapter explores the use of code-switching (CS) by a bilingual teacher in a South African school. It scrutinizes instances of switches from English to Xhosa by a teacher as she interacts with her learners. It also seeks to find out whether her communicative repertoire has any pedagogical value or is more an expression of her dual identity. One of the noted features of her discourse is that she uses CS to alleviate the effects of the differences between the learners’ home background and the unfamiliar linguistic demands of the school. This chapter concludes by pointing out that CS can be harnessed as a learning and communicative resource in classroom situations.
Classroom discourse refers to contextualized or situated language use in classrooms as a specific interactional context that reflects cultural and social practices. Interest in classroom discourse analysis has grown with an enhanced understanding of the mediating role of talk in learning as a high-level mental activity (see review by Green and Dixon). From a sociocultural point of view, a person’s speech is a marker of identity. The interweaving between identity and the contextualized use of language in the classroom has been brought to our attention by poststructuralist and social constructivist researchers, who view classrooms as a social and cultural space where power politics and ideological conflicts are in constant interplay (e.g., Kumaravadivelu 1999). An understanding of how such politics and conflicts come into being requires an understanding of teachers’ and students’ identities as a dynamic, (re)negotiable, and powerful factor in the process of interaction, which in turn affects ways of teaching and learning. In this review, I shall identify major developments and themes in classroom discourse analysis pertaining to teachers’ and students’ identity construction and how these contribute to our understanding of teaching and learning.
This essay analyzes the current situation in college English teaching by evaluating objectively the achievement made in recent years and also the problems that need to be solved. By referring to the teaching reform carried out in Jilin Agricultural University, the author discusses the theoretical foundation, the necessity and the urgency of deepening the teaching reform in terms of teaching concept, teaching management, course design and teaching techniques. This teaching reform aims to improve the students’ practicable ability of using English
Classroom discourse refers to contextualized or situated language use in classrooms as a specific interactional context that reflects cultural and social practices. Interest in classroom discourse analysis has grown with an enhanced understanding of the mediating role of talk in learning as a high-level mental activity (see review by Green and Dixon, Vol. 3). From a sociocultural point of view, a person’s speech is a marker of identity. The interweaving between identity and the contextualized use of language in the classroom has been brought to our attention by poststructuralist and social constructivist researchers, who view classrooms as a social and cultural space where power politics and ideological conflicts are in constant interplay (e.g., Kumaravadivelu 1999). An understanding of how such politics and conflicts come into being requires an understanding of teachers’ and students’ identities as a dynamic, (re)negotiable, and powerful factor in the process of interaction, which in turn affects ways of teaching and learning. In this review, I shall identify major developments and themes in classroom discourse analysis pertaining to teachers’ and students’ identity construction and how these contribute to our understanding of teaching and learning.
Martin-Jones (1995) examines two broad strands of code-switching research in classrooms:
Code-switching is the use of two languages simultaneously or interchangeably and is commonly seen with hesitation in foreign language learning classes. Hence, second or foreign language teachers and researchers have been concerned in decreasing the level of code-switching in the EFL classes. Therefore, this study aimed at investigating students’ attitude towards teachers’ code-switching. In order to conduct the study, the quantitative research method was used. The data was collected from a sample of 219 students (male and female, with different age level) who were selected randomly for the purpose of the study. Through a questionnaire, the students’ attitude was investigated. The results revealed that students held a positive attitude towards teacher’s code-switching. More than half of the students believed teachers had better code-switching to enhance students' understanding. In addition, they believed that code-switching was more useful to teach grammar and writing skills as compared with teaching speaking skill.
Classroom-based research in bilingual and multilingual settings is now entering its third decade. Its origins lie in studies carried out in bilingual education programmes in the United States in the 1970s. During the last twenty years or so, research in this area has taken a number of significant theoretical and methodological turns. These developments have been partly due to the interdisciplinarity of the work undertaken and to intersecting currents of influence. They are also due to the gradual diversification of research sites. As research began to be taken in different historical locations and in different educational contexts in Africa, Europe, North America (including Canada), South America, South and South East Asia, we began to see different concerns being addressed (also see Volume 5).
The study reported in this paper exploited the existence of a pair of semantically related Cantonese question particles (mel and aa4) to learn more about the forms and meanings of the tones that mark declarative questions in English. First each particle was defined using Wierzbicka's (1996) natural semantic metalanguage (NSM). Cantonese-to-English translations were then elicited from native-bilinguals to discover the English-equivalent forms of the particles. The NSM explications proposed for mel and aa4 are hypothesized to apply equally to their English-equivalent forms. The results of this study provide empirical evidence that suggests there are at least two forms of rising declaratives in English with distinct meanings. It is argued that high-rising (but not mid-rising) declaratives express a prior belief in the negative form of their propositional content. The conclusions of this study add some significant and meaningful details to Gunlogson's (2003) study, which, as far as the author knows, is the most thorough treatment of the meaning of rising declaratives to date.
This study examines classroom code-switching in relation to individual and group identity and to functional use of two languages. It investigates how high school Chinese immigrant students perceive the use of first language (L1) and second language (L2) in class, and how they use these languages during group activities. The interview data demonstrate that the students in this study had multiple and contradictory feelings aboutL1andL2use. The observation data show that there were differences in the functions of these students' L1 and L2 discourse. These findings indicate that bilingual classroom code-switching involved dilemmas for the students. They appeared to be torn between identifying with compatriots in L1 and gaining membership in mainstream classes in L2, between maintaining L1 and developing L2, and between using L1 for academic discourse and developing academic discourse in L2. Identity and language functions seem two side-by-side components of the dilemmas. A complex vision that includes both may address code-switching dilemmas more adequately.
This paper presents the findings that explored from the discourse practices of the mathematics teacher educators in initial teacher training colleges in Malawi. It examines how mathematics teacher educators construct a multilingual classroom and how they view code-switching. The discussion is based on pre-observation interviews with four mathematics teacher educators in teacher training colleges and the data collected from their mathematics classroom observations. The research findings indicate that the mathematics teacher educators regard multilingualism and the language practices that come with it such as code-switching more as a problem rather than a resource for teaching and learning. Contrary to the emphasis that code-switching is spontaneous and encouraged in schools, it is found that the nature of code-switching in college mathematics classroom is not spontaneous; rather it is very much controlled and restricted. Furthermore, this paper shows that the dilemmas of code-switching as discussed by Adler (19981.
Adler , J. 1998. A language of teaching dilemmas: Unlocking the complex multilingual secondary mathematics classroom. For the Learning of Mathematics, 18(1): 24–33. View all references ,20012.
Adler , J. 2001. Teaching mathematics in multilingual classrooms, Dordrecht, , The Netherlands: Kluwer. View all references) are more acute in teacher training colleges. This article argues that code-switching needs to be viewed as a resource in college mathematics classrooms and student teachers should be given the opportunity to code-switch without being restricted by the teacher educators.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.