No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Optimal Line Length in Reading--A Literature Review
Abstract
One of the most important, and most studied, aspects of human perception is the act of reading. Reading has received much attention from researchers, both from a human information processing (HIP) approach and as a common, practical act that needs to be optimized, especially in the realm of human-computer interaction (HCI). One of the text variables that has been studied for over 100 years is line length, at times referred as line width. Psychologists, typographers and others working in the field of reading and advertising have demonstrated the effects of line length on readability of text. Two of the questions addressed in past studies include, How long should a column of text be, to optimize readability of the text? and Which view is more preferred by readers--multiple narrow columns or one wide column with the same amount of information content? Research has led to recommendations that line length should not exceed about 70 characters per line. The reason behind this finding is that both very short and very long lines slow down reading by interrupting the normal pattern of eye movements and movements throughout the text. In a world of personal digital devices (PDAs), one-inch cell phone displays and of wide-screen TVs and full-wall computer displays, the question of line length has renewed timeliness. Studies reviewed here show that different aspects of reading performance such as comprehension, reading speed, method of movement (e.g., paging and scrolling) and eye movements are affected by changes in line length. In addition to that, various typographic factors such as font type and size, line and character spacing as well as different screen structures such as varying number of columns and screen sizes also affect readability. These factors have an effect on optimal line length for the text read from printed or on-screen material.
... In addition, eye movement, reading speed and average of errors are common methods used to identify optimal line length which may explain the difference in the findings. Nanavati and Bias (2005) Looking at the related research did not provide a clear answer on this issue, upon which mix findings were reported (Nanavati and Bias 2005). For example, according to Creed et al. (1987), one column was read faster among younger readers (18-24 year olds), while there was no influence of column format on older readers (over 25 years old) and the reading rate was affected by the column format. ...
... In addition, eye movement, reading speed and average of errors are common methods used to identify optimal line length which may explain the difference in the findings. Nanavati and Bias (2005) Looking at the related research did not provide a clear answer on this issue, upon which mix findings were reported (Nanavati and Bias 2005). For example, according to Creed et al. (1987), one column was read faster among younger readers (18-24 year olds), while there was no influence of column format on older readers (over 25 years old) and the reading rate was affected by the column format. ...
... three column) (Dyson and Haselgrove 2001) Long line was preferred for reading from printed material. (Landoni and Gibb 2000) Nanavati (Nanavati and Bias 2005) provided a guideline according to the distilled studies. ...
Although experimental studies have shown a strong impact of text layout on the legibility of e-text, many digital texts appearing in eBook or the internet use different designs, so that there is no straightforward answer in the literature over which one to follow when designing e-material. Therefore, in this paper we shall focus on the text layout, particularly the influence of line length on reading performance of e-school book. An intensive experiment has been conducted which targeted school students between the age of 9 and 13. Performance of students was assessed through two dependent variables: (1) time to complete each tasks; and (2) accuracy of the answers. Accuracy data was based on the number of correct answers the students provided and the total score was 12 points. Several of findings were reported by this experiment such as; the time needed to complete all the question models becomes significantly low when students are older, errors for all the question models are expected to be significantly lower for older students. Comparing reading text on a single column with double columns shows that the reading process is affected by the students' age, as older students were faster when reading through double columns, while students aged 9 prefer the single column in both reading processes. The study has recommended double line for a faster reading among students with satisfactory reading performance, while long line was suggested for students who have difficulty with their reading.
... With respect to the typographic feature line length there is consensus that reading is disrupted if lines are either too long or too short. On the one hand, return sweeps are difficult if lines are too long because long lines increase the probability that readers will not arrive at the beginning of the next line, or end up on the wrong line (Dyson & Haselgrove, 2001;Nanavati & Bias, 2005;Rayner & Pollatsek, 1989). As a result, readers are forced to make a corrective eye movement to avoid re-reading the same line or omitting lines of text. ...
... When reading short lines of text, readers are unable to establish regular rhythmic eye movements as they cannot exploit in full their peripheral vison and tend to decrease their saccade length, make more fixations, and increase the duration of these fixations (Dyson & Haselgrove, 2001;Rayner & Pollatsek, 1989). Based on these hypotheses on the advantages and drawbacks of long and short lines, moderate line lengths generally are recommended for optimal reading (Dyson & Haselgrove, 2001;Nanavati & Bias, 2005). ...
... In two reading experiments with primary school pupils, we examined the claims of the developers of BeeLine Reader that smooth colour transitions in texts increase reading speed, improve comprehension, and make reading more enjoyable. To obtain a comprehensive picture we tested these hypotheses for second-and third-grade pupils, assessing the influence of BeeLine Reader in several layouts in which we varied features that are known to impact the reading processes of beginning readers (line spacing, line length, text segmentation) (see e.g., Evers-Vermeul, 2020; Koornneef et al., 2019;Nanavati & Bias, 2005;Vanderschantz, 2008;Walker et al., 2018). The experiments revealed that BeeLine Reader can increase the reading speed of beginning readers. ...
In two reading experiments, we examined the efficacy of the commercial reading assistance application BeeLine Reader which colours the letters of digital texts in gradients. According to its developers, BeeLine Reader increases reading speed, improves comprehension, and makes reading more enjoyable. We tested these hypotheses for second- and third-grade pupils (6–9 years old), assessing the influence of BeeLine Reader in several layouts in which we varied other features that are known to impact the reading processes of beginning readers (line spacing, line length, text segmentation). In comparison to control texts with a standard black font, reading time advantages for BeeLine texts emerged for pupils in second grade (not in third grade) when they read texts with long lines and little inter-line spacing. However, when second-grade readers processed texts that were optimized for their reading level (texts with short lines and sufficient inter-line spacing) they displayed a slower reading pace in texts with a BeeLine font than in texts with a black font. Furthermore, BeeLine texts may hamper comprehension for third-grade readers and were rated as more difficult and less convenient to process than texts with a black font. In conclusion, the visual anchors offered by BeeLine Reader may be useful for some beginning readers in some situations but the application can also impede the readability of texts. These findings emphasize that claims made for digital reading applications should be formally tested if they are going to be introduced into educational settings.
... In addition, eye movement, reading speed and average of errors are common methods used to identify optimal line length which may explain the difference in the findings. Nanavati and Bias (2005) Looking at the related research did not provide a clear answer on this issue, upon which mix findings were reported (Nanavati and Bias 2005). For example, according to Creed et al. (1987), one column was read faster among younger readers (18-24 year olds), while there was no influence of column format on older readers (over 25 years old) and the reading rate was affected by the column format. ...
... In addition, eye movement, reading speed and average of errors are common methods used to identify optimal line length which may explain the difference in the findings. Nanavati and Bias (2005) Looking at the related research did not provide a clear answer on this issue, upon which mix findings were reported (Nanavati and Bias 2005). For example, according to Creed et al. (1987), one column was read faster among younger readers (18-24 year olds), while there was no influence of column format on older readers (over 25 years old) and the reading rate was affected by the column format. ...
... three column) (Dyson and Haselgrove 2001) Long line was preferred for reading from printed material. (Landoni and Gibb 2000) Nanavati (Nanavati and Bias 2005) provided a guideline according to the distilled studies. ...
Although experimental studies have shown a strong impact of text layout on the legibility of e- text, many digital texts appearing in eBook or the internet use different designs, so that there is no straightforward answer in the literature over which one to follow when designing e- material. Therefore, in this paper we shall focus on the text layout, particularly the influence of line lengthen reading performance of e-school book.48 native Arabic students (24 male and 24 female) volunteered for this experiment. The participants’ age ranged from 9 to 13. Performance of students was assessed through two dependent variables: (1) time to complete each tasks; and (2) accuracy of the answers. Accuracy data was based on the number of correct answers the students provided and the total score was 12 points. Several findings were reported by this experiment such as; the time needed to complete all the question models becomes significantly low when students are older, errors for all the question models are expected to be significantly lower for older students. Reading text on a single column with double columns shows that the reading process is affected by the students’ age, as older students were faster when reading through double columns, while students aged 9 prefer the single column in both reading processes. The study has recommended double line for fast reading for students their reading performance is satisfactory. While, long line has suggested for students with difficulty in reading.
... Although the origin of Bringhurst's criteria is unclear, Nanavati and Bias (2005) report on a study conducted by Dyson and Kipping (1998) in which lines of 55 characters were perceived by the participants as easier to read on screen than lines of 25 and 100 characters. In ...
... Rather than considering the properties of the font such as size of ascenders and descenders, x-height, color and stroke weight, the design of the serif and other distinctive features, which have been encompassed within the concept of legibility (Gaultney, 2001), the line length might be one of the most -if not the most-relevant factor of readability in a text. Nanavati and Bias (2005) reported the existence of at least 100 years of research on line length and gave an overview of the results of such research from the studies conducted by Tinker and Paterson since the late 1920s to the impact thereof in digital media applications (Miles A. Tinker, 1928;Paterson and Tinker, 1929;M. A. Tinker and Paterson, 1931;Paterson and Tinker, 1940;Paterson and Tinker, 1943;Paterson and Tinker, 1946;Miles A. Tinker, 1963a;Miles A. Tinker, 1963b;Miles A. Tinker, 1966). ...
This paper introduces an arithmetic formula for the calculation of text line length (also referred to as line width) for roman alphabet from 1) the length of the alphabet in lowercase, 2) a value for the desired character density and 3) a mathematical constant. A short-range study with this formula has shown a margin of error of less than 5% in common serifed text typefaces.
The potential application of this formula in both print and digital editorial products could be diverse, from the approximate calculation of pages in a book to the establishment of control parameters in responsive web pages. Moreover, this formula would allow designers to make decisions about formal aspects on reading devices based on principles of readability and reading experience.
... The portrait format for text also has a good reason. Early book makers realised this even without the assistance of scientific research, which only really began in-depth studies in the twentieth century (Nanavati & Bias, 2005;Rayner 1998). It seems that for on-screen reading text should not exceed a medium of about 55 character per line for ease of reading, comprehension and reading rates (Nanavati & Bias, 2005). ...
... Early book makers realised this even without the assistance of scientific research, which only really began in-depth studies in the twentieth century (Nanavati & Bias, 2005;Rayner 1998). It seems that for on-screen reading text should not exceed a medium of about 55 character per line for ease of reading, comprehension and reading rates (Nanavati & Bias, 2005). This implies that the portrait orientation is better suitable for reading text. ...
A brief overview of how computers, more specifically ICT, have changed over the past half a century is presented. Decades ago, when Gunilla Bradley began investigating the use of computer systems from a psychosocial perspective, ICT was used predominantly in the work environment, particularly for data capturing. Systems were designed for the workplace. Since then computer technology has changed significantly expanding to private and social use as well as for entertainment and communication. This chapter is about the history and development of ICT of which Bradley was a part. Now, at the end of her career, ICT will move beyond social aspects. The question is: what is next? - especially as workplace metaphors are still used for interface design. I propose that the human aspect should be the next dominant focus of attention, which implies a redesign of systems in order to reduce task load, effort and stress. This proposal is founded on a techno-utilitarian philosophy.
... The readability of text can be affected by various factors, including text size (Paterson and Tinker, 1929), contrast (Ginsburg, 1978;Legge et al., 1987), line spacing (Paterson and Tinker, 1932;Chung, 2004), line length (Luckiesh and Moss, 1939;Nanavati and Bias, 2005), text complexity (Just and Carpenter, 1980), and even the emotional valence of the text (Arfé et al., 2022). Legibility, which is defined as the ease with which a character can be recognized (Sheedy et al., 2005), is an especially important determinant of readability, and is experimentally measured by determining the recognition threshold for a letter. ...
Reading is a crucial aspect of the extended reality (XR) experience across various professional and recreational contexts. Legibility, which is defined as the ease with which a character can be recognized, is an essential determinant of readability. As legibility on a specific device cannot be deduced from technical specifications alone, an efficient perceptual method for measuring legibility is needed to measure the legibility of text presented in XR. In this study, we present a method for comparing the legibility limits of XR devices, where single letter legibility is measured with fast and precise psychophysical methods. We applied the method to compare the legibility in three commercial XR headsets (Varjo VR-2, HTC Vive Pro Eye, Oculus Quest 2) in experiments with human observers. Our results show that the single letter legibility methods presented here provide an effect size approximately ten times higher compared to the widely used method of reading speed. This allows for the use of fewer observers and the detection of smaller differences, making it a more efficient and effective approach for comparing the legibility limits of XR devices.
... Istraživanja digitalnog čitanja često su poredila čitanje sa ekrana i čitanje sa papira, uglavnom u pogledu vizuelnog opažanja i ostalih saznajnih procesa. Tako je ispitivana čitljivost i razumevanje tekstova koji su prikazani na stacionarnim ekranima kompjutera (Dyson, 2004;Nanavati and Bias, 2005;Lonsdale, et al., 2006), na ekranima koji se mogu držati u rukama (Darroch, et al., 2005), i uređajima koji su specijalizovani za čitanje-"elektronskom papiru" (Lee, et al., 2007;Clark, et al., 2008). Ispitivane su i preferencije korisnika i pogledu čitanja sa papira i ekrana (Noyes and Garland, 2008), kao i ponašanje korisnika u internet okruženju (Liu, 2005;Nicholas, et al., 2008a;2008b). ...
Children of today grow up in the time of digital media domination, with a multitude of devices that influence their experience and practice of reading and writing. There is a noticeable increase in the use of smartphones and tablets, as well as devices specialized for reading. Media sometimes describe these devices as fundamentally bad, harmful to health, and the negative impact on learning, reading, and writing is also mentioned. Reading from the screen differs from reading the printed book insofar as we do not read in depth and quickly shuffle around the screen, there is less 'mental mapping' and due to the appearance of specific fatigue, more demanding literature is avoided. In particular, the use of Internet reinforces ongoing activity instead of persistence and thinking which has negative effects and leads to attention shattering and weakening. However, the Internet has made it possible to link texts, images, sounds and films, and along with it, textual content is available at no higher cost. Mobile platforms allow everyone to have a 'pocket library' that exceeds the book funds of many 'real' libraries. However, the 'pocket library' makes sense only for the ones who love reading and can use the book. Therefore, we must seek for successful ways of using the Internet and materials available on it by developing students' moderation, alertness, restraint, criticality - instead of credulity, curiosity - rather than inquisitiveness and exploratory spirit- in place of dogmatism.
... Istraživanja digitalnog čitanja često su poredila čitanje sa ekrana i čitanje sa papira, uglavnom u pogledu vizuelnog opažanja i ostalih saznajnih procesa. Tako je ispitivana čitljivost i razumevanje tekstova koji su prikazani na stacionarnim ekranima kompjutera (Dyson, 2004;Nanavati and Bias, 2005;Lonsdale, et al., 2006), na ekranima koji se mogu držati u rukama (Darroch, et al., 2005), i uređajima koji su specijalizovani za čitanje-"elektronskom papiru" (Lee, et al., 2007;Clark, et al., 2008). Ispitivane su i preferencije korisnika i pogledu čitanja sa papira i ekrana (Noyes and Garland, 2008), kao i ponašanje korisnika u internet okruženju ( Liu, 2005;Nicholas, et al., 2008a;2008b). ...
... Впрочем, некоторые работы, связанные с изучением зрения при чтении, не обходят стороной пространственные характеристики текстов. Согласно [75], когда читатель закончил читать одну строку, его глаза перескакивают (sweep) в начало следующей строки, что называется обратный перескок (return sweep). Интерлиньяж (а точнее, видимое межстрочное расстояние) -один из факторов, который имеет большое влияние на наличие легкого обратного перескока. ...
В монографии приведен обзор основных исследований, касающихся процесса чтения, зрения
человека применительно к процессу чтения, вопросов разборчивости и читабельности текстов, а так-
же некоторых санитарно-гигиенических норм чтения с бумажных и цифровых носителей. Проведен
анализ данных, полученных в ходе различных исследований. Обнаружено наличие противоречий в
результатах некоторых исследований и предложены пути разрешения данной проблемы.
Книга рассчитана на широкий круг читателей, интересующихся вопросами восприятия инфор-
мации на естественных языках. Монография может быть использована при изучении учебных курсов
«Психология ощущения и восприятия», «Психология обработки сенсорной информации», «Методы и
средства научных исследований», «Типографика и макетирование».
Автор выражает глубокую признательность научному редактору А. Г. Тягунову и научным
консультантам А. П. Сергееву и Ж. Е. Ибраевой, оказавшим значительную помощь при подготовке
материалов к изданию.
... The perception of information takes place in saccades. When readers finish one line, their eyes have a sweep to the beginning of the other line which is called return sweep (Nanavati & Bias, 2005). Leading (line spacing) is one factor that has a great effect on having an easy return sweep. ...
The purpose of the study was to analyse findings in the field of the textbooks’ legibility, readability and visual word recognition. The paper focuses on the most significant findings for comprehending the texts’ spatial characteristics during reading, word and letter recognition. The aim of the study was to analyse the factors which have induced inconsistencies between the findings acquired by scientists, as well as to compare findings which continually lead to progression in this field.
... The perception of information takes place in saccades. When readers finish one line, their eyes have a sweep to the beginning of the other line which is called return sweep (Nanavati& Bias, 2005). Leading is one factor that has a great effect on having an easy return sweep. ...
This experimental study investigated the relationship between font type, font size, and line spacing and legibility, as measured by speed of reading, comprehension, and recalling. Instruments for testing legibility and reading comprehension were presented in eight typographical styles in print. The study tested 90 students for legibility and 76 students for comprehension. The subjects were chosen from Urmia Language Center in Urmia, Iran, and they were both girls and boys. Two weeks after the reading comprehension test, the subjects took part in recalling test. In all tests, the subjects were randomly assigned to one of the eight different typographical styles with Arial or Bookman Old Style (font selection) and 10pt or 12pt (font size). But the subjects had both set solid and double spaced leading in their instruments. Results indicated that the 12pt was read faster than 10pt. But font selection and line spacing did not have any significant effect on reading speed. Also, there were no significant results with regard to comprehension and recalling.
In an increasingly digital world, effective communication is paramount, yet poor typographical choices can lead to miscommunication and reduced engagement. This study addresses the critical issue of legibility and readability in typography, aiming to analyze the key typographical factors that influence these aspects across various media. The research employs a comprehensive methodology that includes a literature review, observational studies, and experimental designs to assess the impact of typographical elements such as typeface, spacing, and layout characteristics on legibility. Participants from diverse demographics were engaged to evaluate different typographical settings in both print and digital formats, allowing for a thorough analysis of user experiences and preferences. The findings reveal that factors like font choice, font size, letter spacing, and contrast significantly impact legibility. Additionally, the study highlights the importance of accommodating reader characteristics, such as age and visual impairments, which further influence readability. The implications of this research are profound, as it underscores the necessity for universally accessible design standards that enhance communication effectiveness and user experience. By providing insights into optimizing typographical elements, this study contributes to the development of inclusive design principles that cater to a diverse audience. Ultimately, the research advocates for the integration of legibility studies into design practices, ensuring that content remains accessible, engaging, and effective for users of all ages and abilities. This work not only enriches the field of typography and design but also emphasizes the social responsibility of designers to create materials that facilitate clear communication in an interconnected world.
Objectives:
Supplementary signs are essential to improve riders' understanding of road signs. In order to attract the rider's attention and ensure the information on the supplementary sign is effectively delivered, a study on the effective ways to display the information in the supplementary sign is needed. The current study examined the effects of capitalization and information length in supplementary signs on road sign comprehension among riders.
Method:
A randomized 2 (capitalization: all letters capitalized vs the first letter capitalized) × 2 (information length: long vs. short) factorial design experiment was conducted on 131 young motorcyclists in the Jakarta area. Road sign comprehension was measured using sign comprehension time and sign comprehension level.
Result:
A 2 × 2 factorial ANOVA analysis showed a significant effect of information length on sign comprehension time: less information in supplementary signs can increase sign comprehension time. Additionally, a significant interaction was found between capitalization and information length on sign comprehension level: sign comprehension levels would be improved if supplementary signs were presented with capitalization at the beginning of each word and had a long information length.
Conclusion:
This study suggests that there is a need to consider the capitalization and length of information in designing supplementary traffic signs. The effective design of supplementary signs could help riders to comprehend the road sign quickly and accurately, thus improving traffic safety.
The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of Chinese character size, number of characters per line, and number of menu items on visual search task performance on a tablet computer for different age group users. Forty-two participants participated the visual search experiment. Gender, age group (younger, middle-aged, and older), Chinese character size (15, 17, 19, 21, 23, and 25 point), number of characters per line (2–5 characters, 9–14 characters, and 15–18 characters), and number of menu items (5, 7, 9, 11, and 13 items) were the independent variables. The dependent variables included search time and error rate. Gender had a large effect size on search time. Female participants had a faster search time than male participants. Significant differences and large effect sizes were found in search performance for different character sizes, number of characters per line, and number of menu items. Nine to fourteen characters per line achieved the fastest search time and lowest error rate. The fastest search time was for a 19-point character size in the younger group; 21-point character size in the middle-aged group; and 23-point character size in the older group. Besides, the fastest search time was found when showing 9 items in the younger group; 7 items in the middle-aged group; and 5 items in the older group. The optimum visual search performance was achieved with 19-point character size showing 9 items and 9–14 characters per line for the younger group; 21-point character size showing 7 items and 9–14 characters per line for the middle-aged group; and 23-point character size showing 5 items and 9–14 characters per line for the older group. The results provide useful information for tablet computer interface-presentations for different age group users.
This research aims to deliver the fundamental, theoretical and empirical background surrounding electronic reading. It is structured into five sections starting with a reading definition, reading process, and a comparison between reading from paper and from an electronic format. The fourth section discusses the variables that influence reading electronic texts. These variables are classified into three categories: the individual or user variables (age, gender, experience and educational level); the text layout variables (font type and size, line length, spaces between lines of text, colour); and the applied technology (hardware and software). In the fifth section, a summary of previous studies is given and a framework for these variables is suggested based on the previous surveys.
Despite the fact that screen sizes and average screen resolutions have dramatically increased over the past few years, little attention has been paid to the design of web sites for large, high-resolution displays that are now becoming increasingly used both in enterprise and consumer spaces. We present a study of how the visual area of the browser window is currently utilised by news web sites at different widescreen resolutions. The analysis includes measurements of space taken up by the article content, embedded ads and the remaining components as they appear in the viewport of the web browser. The results show that the spatial distribution of page elements does not scale well with larger viewing sizes, which leads to an increasing amount of unused screen real estate and unnecessary scrolling. We derive a number of device-sensitive metrics to measure the quality of web page layout in different viewing contexts, which can guide the design of flexible layout templates that scale effectively on large screens.
Despite the fact that average screen size and resolution have dramatically increased, many of today's web sites still do not scale well in larger viewing contexts. The upcoming HTML5 and CSS3 standards propose features that can be used to build more flexible web page layouts, but their potential to accommodate a wider range of display environments is currently relatively unexplored. We examine the proposed standards to identify the most promising features and report on experiments with a number of adaptive layout mechanisms that support the required forms of adaptation to take advantage of greater screen real estates, such as automated scaling of text and media. Special attention is given to the effective use of multi-column layout, a brand new feature for web design that contributes to optimising the space occupied by text, but at the same time still poses problems in predominantly continuous vertical-scrolling browsing behaviours. The proposed solutions were integrated in a flexible layout template that was then applied to an existing news web site and tested on users to identify the adaptive features that best support reading comfort and efficiency.
This paper focuses on changing reading characteristics and presents a study among a group of expert readers. Considering technological bases of reading and applying corporeal and material perspectives, this study examines manners in which proficient readers handle printed and digital texts, attempting to explain differences in digital and paper-based reading. Based on findings, this paper reflects on how long-form text can be productively transferred into the digital reading space.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.