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Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency, Linguistic Interdependence, the Optimum Age Question and Some Other Matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism, No. 19
Abstract
The existence of a global language proficiency factor is discussed. This factor, cognitive/academic language proficiency (CALP), is directly related to IQ and to other aspects of academic achievement. It accounts for the bulk of reliable variance in a wide variety of language learning measures. Three propositions concerning CALP are reviewed. (1) CALP can be empirically distinguished from interpersonal communicative skills such as accent and fluency in first language (L1) and second language (L2). (2) CALP proficiencies in both L1 and L2 are manifestations of the same underlying dimension. (3) Because the same dimension underlies CALP in both L1 and L2, older learners, whose proficiency is better developed, will acquire L2 CALP more rapidly than younger learners. The relevance of this analysis for the concepts of semilingualism, code-switching, and bilingual education is outlined. Semilingualism is a manifestation of low CALP in both languages. CALP will be less active and effective when the L1 and the L2 are very dissimilar. In the presence of negative affective variables such as low motivation, CALP will not be applied to learning L2. If motivational involvement and adequate exposure to an L1 or L2 exist, CALP will be promoted in both languages regardless of which is the language of instruction. (PMJ)
... Based on longitudinal data from Kenya collected under the USAID-funded PRIMR activity, they fit cross-lagged path models with auto-regressors and correlations between English and Kiswahili (Kim & Piper, 2019b). One component of this research was an investigation of the linguistic interdependence hypothesis (Cummins, 1979), which argues that children's L2 proficiency is partially a function of their L1 competence, particularly in vocabulary-concept knowledge, metalinguistic understanding of print, and processing of decontextualized language. Kim and Piper (2019b)'s analyses support and extend this idea, showing bidirectionality of relations such that increased proficiency in L2 can also have reciprocal benefits for the L1. ...
... As discussed, the current results support the relevance of home language in learning to read. It is worth remembering that Kim and Piper (2019b) expanded the linguistic interdependence hypothesis (Cummins, 1979) showing that in multilingual contexts, once children learn to read in one language, whether it is the L1 or the L2, they can experience significant (bidirectional) transfer benefits in learning to read their other language. In the current study without longitudinal data following the children to upper grades, it is difficult to know whether they experienced these kinds of transfer benefits in later grades. ...
This study investigates the applicability of the Simple View of Reading (SVR) framework for modeling the factors influencing reading success among Grade 2 children learning to read in Amharic (in an abugida script) in remote regions of Ethiopia. We used path and latent profile analyses to examine structural relationships between text decoding and language knowledge factors across distinct reading profiles. Comparing lower-performing profiles dominated by L2 speakers and higher-performing profiles predominantly comprised of L1 speakers, we found significant divergence in the pathways to reading comprehension from both print knowledge and language knowledge domains. For the text decoding component, a mediated path from familiar words to connected text to reading comprehension emerged as a crucial predictor for higher-performing profiles. For the language knowledge component, a direct path from listening comprehension to reading comprehension played a key role in the higher-performing profiles. Lower-performing profiles demonstrated a strong association between decoding and single word reading, suggesting limited capacity for alternative word identification methods, such as sight word recognition. Additionally, the connection between connected text and reading comprehension was weaker in these profiles, suggesting reduced comprehension due to limited word recognition and utilization of this information during reading. Overall, these findings provide insights into the reading development of hard-to-reach children learning Amharic as L1 and L2 in remote pastoral regions of Ethiopia and have pedagogical implications, suggesting a need for tailored interventions for multilingual learners and particularly for intensive spoken language exposure for L2 speakers alongside reading instruction.
... Todavia, no contexto acadêmico, a situação já não é a mesma. O aluno precisa desenvolver a proficiência linguística cognitiva acadêmica (CALP -Cognitive Academic language proficiency) (Cummins, 1979(Cummins, , 2008. Segundo Cummins (2000), a proficiência linguística acadêmica exige muito esforço da cognição do estudante, devido a uma aprendizagem da língua que é descontextualizada; em outras palavras, as evidências empíricas indicam que, apesar dos desenvolvimentos da didática de ensino das línguas modernas, que enfatizam o desenvolvimento e uso de materiais autênticos na sala de aula para colmatar as insuficiências e lacunas da falta do contexto natural na aprendizagem, a aprendizagem de língua no contexto acadêmico é muito exigente cognitivamente (Bialystok;Barac, 2013;Cummins, 2000). ...
... In addition, language learners may take additional time to learn the language of academics. Cummins (1979) differentiates between basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS), or language of informal communication, and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP), or language for academic purposes. Cummins (1981) found that although language learners typically learn BICS within a year or two, much longer (five to seven years) is required for learning CALP. ...
Purpose of this study was to describe and explain Japanese health and physical education teachers’ positions of teaching and assisting Japanese language learner (JLL) students during secondary physical education classes. The current study was grounded in positioning theory (Harré & Van Langenhove, 1999). This study utilized a descriptive-qualitative design using an in-depth, semi-structured interview approach (Seidman, 1998). Participants were seven health and physical education teachers (age range between 25–52) and (five male and two female) voluntarily participated in this study. The teachers had 3 to 23 years of experience teaching physical education, and 2-9 years of teaching JLL students in physical education at high schools in Japan. Five teachers
were from Kanto regions, and one female teacher from Kyushu region, and another female teacher from Chugoku region (pseudonymous) and belonged to various school districts. Three themes emerged from the data analyses: (a) teachers’ positioning in securing safety for JLL students in physical education, (b) teachers’ dilemma to assess JLL students’ learning outcomes based on evaluating performance and written exams in physical education, (c) the needs of providing social justice and diversity professional development. In this session, we will present how we will contribute to professional development providers (e.g. teachers, school administrators, teacher educators, researchers, and Prefectural Boards of Education) to develop new insights and motivation to include JLL students regarding physical education into the professional learning community of high schools.
... 4 However, that does not mean that these youngsters (around one in eight of all Malawian youngsters) know enough English to study for example at a UK university: normally, they require at least a 'foundation year' before that becomes possible. 5 It may be good at this point to recall the distinction between Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) in a language and Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency (CALP), as introduced by Cummins (1979). What this basically means is that many people may be able to hold a simple conversation in a given language (such as English), but this does not mean that those people would have the skills to use that language in a formal or academic settin. ...
This chapter examines the role of language in bridging social differences in Africa. The current diglossia in Africa, where one language has much higher status than all others, exacerbates such differences, , thus perpetuating the division between ‘citizens’ and ‘subjects’, as described by Mamdani (1996). Using Malawi as an example, the chapter illustrates concretely what could and should be done in practical terms to overcome this diglossia. The chapter argues that it is an illusion to think that African educational systems will be able to expand indefinitely using former colonial languages as medium of instruction. Driven by the evolution of educational systems, it will be necessary and possible to develop one or two Malawian languages as designed languages for use in all formal domains. This will greatly increase the efficiency of the educational system, will contribute towards increased accountability and good governance, and will, in summary, give Malawians access to effective citizenship.
This study examines the self-efficacy beliefs of English Language Preparatory Program (EFL) instructors in teaching and assessing 21st century skills and their integration into English classes. Utilizing a single and relational screening research design, data were collected via an online survey from 98 English language instructors employed at university preparatory schools providing intensive English instruction. The survey, comprising 72 items on eight dimensions of 21st century skills, employed a 5-point Likert-type scale. The results revealed discrepancies between instructors’ knowledge of these skills and their implementation of them in their classes. Instructors implemented these skills in their classes at a moderate level. Overall, instructors’ competency in integrating and assessing 21st-century skills fell below the standards the expected in higher education institutions. These findings offer important implications and provides practical suggestions for improving the implementation and assessment of 21st-century skills.
This study explores how preservice English teachers in China perceive and leverage their Chinese and English linguistic repertoires in ELT methodology training, and how a reflective understanding of their use of these repertoires can contribute to their development as teachers. To understand how their practices and conceptualizations of language and teaching are in accord with an orientation toward or away from principles of Global Englishes Language Teaching (GELT), we drew on theories of translanguaging space and stance (García, Ibarra Johnson, & Seltzer, 2017; Li, 2011) and the GELT framework (Rose & Galloway, 2019) to examine preservice teachers' experiences in teacher training. Through multimodal conversational analysis of lesson recordings, we found that preservice teachers created translanguaging spaces to utilize different languages in the critical negotiation of pedagogies. In addition, they displayed traslanguaging stance by strategically incorporating multimodal and multicultural resources in microteachings. We also carried out semistructured interviews in which the preservice teachers, influenced by factors such as language ideologies and curriculum design, displayed mixed views toward translanguaging practices in teacher training, and the ELT classroom. By investigating the feasibility of GELT in TESOL teacher training in China, this study emphasizes the need to empower preservice teachers as critical agents in terms of assessment design and curriculum delivery for sustainable Global Englishes‐oriented innovations to occur.
Cognition is a critical factor in the effectiveness of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). In classrooms where subject content drives communication, cognitive development is enhanced through the integration of language and meaningful content. This reciprocal relationship between content and language not only supports language acquisition but also deepens subject understanding. This paper explores the key elements that contribute to successful cognitive development in CLIL classrooms, with a focus on strategies and practices that enhance both content learning and language proficiency.
Teacher education serves as a crucial phase and component to address the issue and challenge of unpreparedness of mainstream teachers to work with the growing number of students from diverse backgrounds in the classrooms. This chapter presents the experience and perspective of a teacher educator who taught a teacher preparation course in the area of school psychology and was required to infuse English language learner (ELL) content in the course. The work focuses on the teacher educator's sense making of infusing the content based on her own personal and professional experiences and beliefs. Findings highlight the important role of personal experiences and beliefs and the active position of general education teacher educators in preparing teachers for culturally and linguistically diverse learners. Implications for professional development are also discussed.
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