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Numbers That Count: Exploring Special Education and Paraprofessional Service Delivery in Inclusion-Oriented Schools
Abstract
This study explores key indicators of special education service delivery based on responses from 92 special educators and 36 administrators in 19 Vermont schools. Special educators reported on their work, the work of paraprofessionals they supervised, and 103 students with disabilities who were receiving one-to-one paraprofessional supports within general education classes. Findings indicate that (a) many special educators have large caseloads, (b) there are substantially more paraprofessionals than special educators, and (c) more than half of all special education paraprofessionals are assigned to students with disabilities one-to-one. Combined, these factors indicate that schools employed models of service delivery for students with disabilities that are substantially supported by paraprofessionals, thus raising concerns about students' access to a free, appropriate public education. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)
... Instructional assistants currently play a large role in the inclusion of many students with disabilities in the United States. Often, an instructional assistant accompanies a student with disabilities into the general education classroom and facilitates their participation in that setting, rather than the special education teacher, due to large caseloads of special education teachers (Suter & Giangreco, 2009). The literature base has documented the high rates of instructional assistants used in this role, with instructional assistants often being used in inclusive contexts as a one-to-one aide for a student with a disability, an arrangement that was preferred by a majority of general education teachers (Giangreco et al., 2002;Idol, 2006;Suter & Giangreco, 2009). ...
... Often, an instructional assistant accompanies a student with disabilities into the general education classroom and facilitates their participation in that setting, rather than the special education teacher, due to large caseloads of special education teachers (Suter & Giangreco, 2009). The literature base has documented the high rates of instructional assistants used in this role, with instructional assistants often being used in inclusive contexts as a one-to-one aide for a student with a disability, an arrangement that was preferred by a majority of general education teachers (Giangreco et al., 2002;Idol, 2006;Suter & Giangreco, 2009). This means that instructional assistants are providing the primary instruction to students with disabilities, which can be problematic, as instructional assistants do not often receive much, if any, pre-service or in-service training in working with students with disabilities, with many instructional assistants receiving their primary training from the classroom teacher (Giangreco, et al. 2002). ...
... This has been identified as important for successfully supporting students with disabilities in the general education classroom, and providing this type of training to preservice teachers is critical. Teachers also report schools are not set up with structures in place that would support collaboration between professionals, such as shared planning time (Idol, 2006;Suter & Giangreco, 2009). Not naming co-teaching or working with para-professionals specifically in the standards, but instead referring more broadly to collaboration, allows space for these practices to not be taught or implemented. ...
Federal law calls for students with disabilities to be educated in the least restrictive environment possible. However, this still allows for students with disabilities to be placed in a range of educational settings, from the general education classroom to a separate school. The number of students with disabilities that are included to the maximum extent possible in the general education classroom varies by state. This study focused on the role of teacher training as defined by state drive teacher education standards. The purposeful outlier sample was selected by identifying the 12 states with the highest levels of inclusion of students with disabilities within a general education classroom across select disability categories. The level of inclusion was based on the percentages of students with disabilities in three educational settings: 80% or more of the day in general education, less than 40% of the day in general education and separate school across a ten-year period. The teacher education standards for these states were obtained and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) was used to analyze the standards for evidence both of best practices in regards to implementing inclusion, as well as how disability was described by these states. Evidence of many of the best practices were found in these states' standards, and disability was often included in standards about teaching practices, learning environments and diversity. However, it was also found that disability (and teaching practices) were often described in vague, non-specific terms, which may lead to the impression that disability is not included or important. These results are helpful in shaping the direction of the writing of standards in the future to better include and acknowledge disability in them.
... Giangreco (2010) refers to paraprofessional support as a "mechanism" for the inclusion of students with significant support needs. Research demonstrates the negative impact of the overreliance on paraprofessionals, such as limiting academic and social opportunities (Giangreco, 2010;Naraian, 2010;Suter & Giangreco, 2009;Tews & Lupart, 2008). Because paraprofessionals receive minimal training (Hughes & Valle-Riestra, 2008), due to district financial, time and implementation restraints (Riggs, 2001;Stockall, 2014), they may lack the requisite knowledge and skills to support the academic and social participation of students in inclusive settings (Kent-Walsh & Light, 2003). ...
... he support. While paraprofessionals are integral to the provision of special education services (Dillon & Ebmeier, 2009;Giangreco, Edelman, & Broer, 2001), several negative effects of paraprofessional supports for students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms have been cited (Giangreco, 2010;Giangreco, Yuan, McKenzie, Cameron, & Fialka, 2005.;Suter & Giangreco, 2009). Therefore, districts must consider potential detrimental effects of certain support options and make a plan to assess whether they occur in each unique situation and how to adjust the support if they do occur. For example, the Department of Education in New York State recently passed new requirements for the assignment of a one-to-one ...
In the United States, federal mandates require local education agencies to provide education to students with disabilities in the least restrictive environment. As a result, students with disabilities are included in the general education classroom for varying amounts of the school day depending on their educational goals and individual needs. For students with severe disabilities, placement in a general education classroom is often paralleled with the assignment of a paraprofessional. Research suggests paraprofessional support can cause unintended adverse effects. The current study describes the social acceptance of students with severe disabilities who receive paraprofessional support and explores the intersection of social acceptance and paraprofessional support. Findings suggest students with severe disabilities who receive paraprofessional support have average levels of social acceptance and initial evidence that students receiving more frequent paraprofessional support have lower levels of social acceptance. Practical implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.
... However, it is questionable whether this measure provides the most effective support for students who need it (Blatchford et al., 2007). For example, according to existing research, TAs have a rather low impact whilst requiring substantial finances (Higgins et at., 2011); moreover, the adoption of such measures is often not evidence-based (Suter & Giangreco, 2009). Another problem that has been highlighted is that TAs are expected to take responsibility for activities that do not necessarily correspond to their education and skills (Bourke & Carrington, 2007;Giangreco, Suter & Doyle, 2010;Rutherford, 2012). ...
Since the mid-2010s, Czech Republic has been implementing inclusive education measures on a wide scale. Five stages of supportive measures have been introduced, including the assignment of teaching assistants (TAs) for students with special educational needs. In the four years since the main reform, the assignment of TAs has become the most implemented supportive measure, even as their role in promoting inclusive education has been questioned in the scholarly literature. We base our findings on empirical research in primary schools and relevant policy documents. This paper focuses on the clashes between policy intentions and the practice of incorporating TAs into classrooms. We organise the findings into four categories of policy/practice conflicts: (1) ambiguous TA job descriptions; (2) insufficient TA qualifications; (3) combined TA contracts due to lack of funding; and (4) inconsistencies in TA appointments. Our findings suggest that, in practice, policy-regulated measures often do not correspond to the actual needs of schools.
... This review intended to examine behavioral intervention training provided to paraprofessionals, because behavior is often a key indicator of the need for paraprofessional support (Suter & Giangreco, 2009). The authors discovered the empirical literature base to be severely limited in its interrogation of specific behavior interventions such as checkin/check-out, or the use of token economies. ...
The professionalization of paraprofessionals through training is elemental in providing supports to students with disabilities. Through a systematic review of experimental studies (n = 18), we sought to explore the mechanisms of paraprofessional training programs, and the fidelity of implementation of those programs. For inclusion, studies were required to report paraprofessional and student outcomes related to interventions aimed at the improvement of challenging student behaviors. This review was conducted within the ProQuest database using ERIC and PsychInfo. Findings indicate that when trained, paraprofessionals successfully implement communication-based interventions as the primary means for reducing challenging student behavior. However, training program adherence is seldom reported in replicable detail. Furthermore, paraprofessional training is mostly delivered by a researcher and conducted in a one-on-one setting, using multiple training methods such as didactic instruction and coaching with feedback. Unfortunately, these training models are hardly feasible or replicable within authentic school settings. As such, researchers are called to report training treatment adherence with more clarity and detail so that we may begin the work of teaching pre-service educators these effective training methods. This study did not include training programs that provided academic interventions and thus is limited in scope.
... Such collaboration should occur at every elementary school in Shanghai to aid frontline teachers and parents (44). Hiring teacher assistants or specialized agencies, which are widely used in developed countries, is another possible solution to fill the gap of limited professional personnel (45). ...
Given an increasing number of children with ASD, the need for inclusive education has rapidly increased in China. Since 2011, children with ASD have been eligible for inclusive education. However, little is known of the implementation process by key personnel. The purpose of the current study was to qualitatively explore elementary school teachers' experiences and perspectives on an inclusive education policy and practice for students with ASD. Participants were from 5 elementary schools in 2 districts in Shanghai. This study consisted of data collection in 2 phases. First, semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted with school psychologists and vice principals responsible for students' mental health for implementation of general inclusive education at each school. Second, focus groups of frontline teachers were assembled to hear their firsthand experiences. A thematic analysis was performed. Findings indicated that although all 5 schools had some ASD-related support, training and resources varied depending on whether learning in regular classrooms (LRC) was implemented. Frontline teachers in particular faced challenges implementing LRC, including the limited extent of LRC, tedious implementation procedures, and parents' misconceptions of LRC. Regardless of these challenges, frontline teachers tried to support students with ASD as much as they could. The current findings should help to advance the inclusive education policy in Shanghai, including increasing the availability of inclusive education resources and training for teachers, issuing specific LRC guidance, and reducing ASD-related stigma. This study is among the first to explore the implementation of inclusive education in urban China.
... Over two decades of research by Giangreco and colleagues (e.g., Giangreco et al., 2001) has established that an overreliance on one-to-one TA support leads to a wide range of inadvertent and detrimental effects on student learning. Longitudinal studies have found that although students may demonstrate improvements in confidence and on-task behaviour, there is no evidence indicating the presence of TAs in classrooms has a positive effect on learning outcomes (Blatchford et al., 2007;Giangreco, 2010;Suter & Giangreco, 2009). Rather, ineffective support provided by TAs has been reported to be a barrier to inclusion, with students receiving the most support from TAs making less academic progress than similar students receiving less support (Blatchford et al., 2011). ...
With the number of teacher assistants (TAs) employed in schools steadily increasing, most teachers are likely to work with a TA at various times throughout their career. International research indicates there is scope for teachers to enhance their work with TAs. This systematic review examines teachers’ perceptions of their work with TAs. Twenty-six studies were reviewed to gain insight into teachers’ thoughts, beliefs and/or impressions of their work with TAs. Ten perceptions of teachers relating to the manner in which they work with TAs were identified and further categorised into four key themes of roles and responsibilities, planning and pedagogy, leadership, and interpersonal relationships. Implications from the review highlight a need for schools and universities to reconsider teacher preparation and ongoing training with respect to teachers’ work with TAs.
Special education teachers have one of the most challenging and stressful jobs in public education, which often leads to increased burnout. High levels of burnout have, in turn, been related to lower levels of fidelity of implementation in delivery of evidence-based behavior interventions. The purpose of this position paper is to (a) propose exploration of several potential malleable factors related to burnout of special educators serving students with and at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders, (b) link those suggestions to theoretical frameworks, (c) discuss the relation between burnout and fidelity, and (d) suggest measures that may be used to pursue this research, with the ultimate goal of helping the field discover means of intervention to remediate and prevent burnout.
Due to a variety of factors, many paraeducators receive little to no opportunities to advance their professional skills. Asynchronous online learning opportunities offer a flexible way for districts to provide paraeducators opportunities to advance their knowledge, although little is known about what online resources are available, their features, or their overall quality. A review was conducted of 19 freely available online learning opportunities to evaluate features, alignment with federal legislation and professional standards, active engagement features, and usability. Results indicated that features and quality indicators varied across resources and half of the resources required active user engagement. Limitations, suggestions for future development, and future research directions are discussed with an emphasis on factors related to online delivery.
Paraprofessionals are often assigned to work one-on-one with students with disabilities and are often assigned to support students with extensive support needs in general education classrooms. Paraprofessionals have been found to enact effective practices only when given clearly defined roles and provided with direction around enacting these roles. We describe tangible ways special education teachers can create more effective partnerships with paraprofessionals to better support students. Specifically, we discuss ways to clearly define roles and responsibilities, how to embed training and support, ideas to engage in proactive scheduling to better support students, and ways to purposefully collaborate and build capacity to maximize the role of paraprofessionals.
In this article, we describe the self-directed change made by a rural elementary school in response to a data-based examination of its service-delivery model that revealed its lowest performing students were spending most of their time with the school’s least qualified staff. This mixed-method case study describes (a) why and how the school shifted personnel deployment and utilization, (b) factors that facilitated the shifts in service delivery, and (c) perceived effects of the changes. Findings demonstrate how implementing data-based decision-making through strong collaborative leadership led to recognizing, exploring, and modifying the school’s overreliance on paraprofessionals by increasing the availability of more highly skilled personnel to facilitate more inclusive instruction and collaboration. Participants also described challenges and perceived negative aspects related to change. We conclude with implications for practice, including how this study could inform similar change efforts in small rural schools, and suggestions for future research.
Vermont's State I-Team has provided technical assistance and training to educational team members of children with disabilities for twenty-five years. The I-Team has been funded since 1977 by the Vermont Department of Education and administered through the Center on Disability and Community Inclusion, The University Affiliated Program (UAP), at the University of Vermont. The work of the I-Team has been enhanced by its relationship with other state and federally funded projects that support model program development and research in the field of disability. The authors generated questions relevant to the I-Team and others providing technical assistance, training, and support in rural settings and collected data generated through literature reviews, product review, and interviews. Data analysis resulted in the articulation of two major themes: a) the changing context of service delivery, and b) characteristics of I-Team service delivery. Themes are discussed for the years 1976–79 (The Beginnings), 1980–89 (Expansion), and 1990–99 (Inclusion). There are concluding comments about the characteristics of successful programs that are sustained over time.
This article summarizes and analyzes a set of 43 pieces of professional literature pertaining to paraprofessional supports for students with disabilities published between 1991 and early 2000. Twenty-six nondatabased sources and 17 research studies were included. The findings identify topical gaps in the literature, review the major databased findings, and present implications for the field. The review concludes with suggestions for future research that emphasize the need for more student outcome data, conceptual alignment of roles, training, and supervision, and the exploration of alternatives to paraprofessional supports.
This study presents data on the effects of the proximity of instructional assistants on stu- dents with multiple disabilities who are placed in general education classrooms. Based on extensive observations and interviews, analyses of the data highlighted eight major findings of educational significance, all related to proximity of instructional assistants. Categories of findings and discussion include (a) interference with ownership and responsibility by general educators, (b) separation from classmates, (c) dependence on adults, (d) impact on peer interactions, (e) limitations on receiving competent instruction, (f ) loss of personal control, (g) loss of gender identity, and (h) interference with instruction of other students. The article concludes with implications for practice related to policy development, training, classroom practices, and research.
The perspectives and experiences of 20 paraeducators working with inclusion students with disabilities who also present significant behavioral challenges were investigated in this research. The inclusion students were in Grades K through 8 and represented a range of disability categories (e.g., autism spectrum disorder, serious emotional disturbance [SED], learning disability, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder [AD/HD]). Findings from this study indicate that paraeducators tend to assume high levels of responsibility for managing the academic and behavioral needs for special education students in inclusive settings. This tendency appears to be due to the nature of the job, which can create conflicting roles in meeting both the needs of inclusion students as well as those of general education teachers.
The level of engagement that general education teachers have with students with disabilities in their classrooms has been identified in the literature as a key factor effecting the success of inclusive educational experiences. This study describes differences in teacher engagement identified within two approaches to providing paraprofessional supports in general education classrooms; program-based and one-on-one. Findings were based on the observed and reported experiences of 103 school personnel (e.g., teachers, special educators, paraprofessionals, administrators) from four schools (Grades K-12). The study describes characteristics of teacher engagement and disengagement, the involvement of special educators, and phenomena associated with teacher disengagement when one-on-one paraprofessional service delivery was used. The discussion presents implications of these data for school improvement.
This article describes a preliminary study investigating whether a specific awareness and training for six teach- er-paraprofessional teams would have an effect on the inclusion of six students with mild to severe disabilities in elementary general education environments. An experi- mental design employing a pretest-posttest control group with matched subjects was used to evaluate the effective- ness of training that emphasized the continuous im- provement components of teamwork, goal setting, and data collection. Data focusing on student interaction and engagement were collected using MS-CISSAR. Results indicated an increase in teacher interaction and a de- crease in paraprofessional interaction with special edu- cation students after the training component. Engaged behavior was not found to change noticeably for this group of students. Individual student strategies and ben- efits are also reported. The article includes a discussion of training format, key elements, and their relationship to long-term systems change.