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Fundamentals of Physics, Part 2 (Chapters 12-20)
Abstract
Chapter 12 Equilibrium and Elasticity.
What injury can occur to a rock climber hanging by a crimp hold?
12-1 What Is Physics?
12-2 Equilibrium.
12-3 The Requirements of Equilibrium.
12-4 The Center of Gravity.
12-5 Some Examples of Static Equilibrium.
12-6 Indeterminate Structures.
12-7 Elasticity.
Review & Summary Questions Problems.
Chapter 13 Gravitation.
What lies at the center of our Milky Way galaxy?
13-1 What Is Physics?
13-2 Newton's Law of Gravitation.
13-3 Gravitation and the Principle of Superposition.
13-4 Gravitation Near Earth's Surface.
13-5 Gravitation Inside Earth.
13-6 Gravitational Potential Energy.
13-7 Planets and Satellites: Kepler's Laws.
13-8 Satellites: Orbits and Energy.
13-9 Einstein and Gravitation.
Review & Summary Questions Problems.
Chapter 14 Fluids.
What causes ground effect in race car driving?
14-1 What Is Physics?
14-2 What Is a Fluid?
14-3 Density and Pressure.
14-4 Fluids at Rest.
14-5 Measuring Pressure.
14-6 Pascal's Principle.
14-7 Archimedes' Principle.
14-8 Ideal Fluids in Motion.
14-9 The Equation of Continuity.
14-10 Bernoulli's Equation.
Review & SummaryQuestionsProblems.
Chapter 15 Oscillations.
What is the "secret" of a skilled diver's high catapult in
springboard diving?
15-1 What Is Physics?
15-2 Simple Harmonic Motion.
15-3 The Force Law for Simple Harmonic Motion.
15-4 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion.
15-5 An Angular Simple Harmonic Oscillator.
15-6 Pendulums.
15-7 Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular Motion.
15-8 Damped Simple Harmonic Motion.
15-9 Forced Oscillations and Resonance.
Review & Summary Questions Problems.
Chapter 16 Waves--I.
How can a submarine wreck be located by distant seismic
stations?
16-1 What Is Physics?
16-2 Types of Waves.
16-3 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves.
16-4 Wavelength and Frequency.
16-5 The Speed of a Traveling Wave.
16-6 Wave Speed on a Stretched String.
16-7 Energy and Power of a Wave Traveling Along a String.
16-8 The Wave Equation.
16-9 The Principle of Superposition for Waves.
16-10 Interference of Waves.
16-11 Phasors.
16-12 Standing Waves.
16-13 Standing Waves and Resonance.
Review & Summary Questions Problems.
Chapter 17 Waves--II.
How can an emperor penguin .nd its mate among thousands of huddled
penguins?
17-1 What Is Physics?
17-2 Sound Waves.
17-3 The Speed of Sound.
17-4 Traveling Sound Waves.
17-5 Interference.
17-6 Intensity and Sound Level.
17-7 Sources of Musical Sound.
17-8 Beats.
17-9 The Doppler Effect.
17-10 Supersonic Speeds, Shock Waves.
Review & Summary Questions Problems.
Chapter 18 Temperature, Heat, and the First Law of Thermodynamics.
How can a dead rattlesnake detect and strike a reaching hand?
18-1 What Is Physics?.
18-2 Temperature.
18-3 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.
18-4 Measuring Temperature.
18-5 The Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales.
18-6 Thermal Expansion.
18-7 Temperature and Heat.
18-8 The Absorption of Heat by Solids and Liquids.
18-9 A Closer Look at Heat and Work.
18-10 The First Law of Thermodynamics.
18-11 Some Special Cases of the First Law of Thermodynamics.
18-12 Heat Transfer Mechanisms.
Review & Summary Questions Problems.
Chapter 19 The Kinetic Theory of Gases.
How can cooling steam inside a railroad tank car cause the car to be
crushed?
19-1 What Is Physics?
19-2 Avogadro's Number.
19-3 Ideal Gases.
19-4 Pressure, Temperature, and RMS Speed.
19-5 Translational Kinetic Energy.
19-6 Mean Free Path.
19-7 The Distribution of Molecular Speeds.
19-8 The Molar Speci.c Heats of an Ideal Gas.
19-9 Degrees of Freedom and Molar Speci.c Heats.
19-10 A Hint of Quantum Theory.
19-11 The Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas.
Review & Summary Questions Problems.
Chapter 20 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
Why is the popping of popcorn irreversible?
20-1 What Is Physics?
20-2 Irreversible Processes and Entropy.
20-3 Change in Entropy.
20-4 The Second Law of Thermodynamics.
20-5 Entropy in the Real World: Engines.
20-6 Entropy in the Real World: Refrigerators.
20-7 The Ef.ciencies of Real Engines.
20-8 A Statistical View of Entropy.
Review & Summary Questions Problems.
Appendices.
A The International System of Units (SI).
B Some Fundamental Constants of Physics.
C Some Astronomical Data.
D Conversion Factors.
E Mathematical Formulas.
F Properties of the Elements.
G Periodic Table of the Elements.
Answers to Checkpoints and Odd-Numbered Questions and Problems.
Index.
... Vehicles moving on the road network carry a high amount of kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of each vehicle ( Halliday et al., 2003) is related to the mass and the speed of the vehicle in the form: ...
... KE s : Kinetic energy transferred to the subject vehicle in crash; m s : mass of the subject vehicle; V s : speed change of the subject vehicle before and after the crash The estimation process of the kinetic energy of the crash is outlined in Fig. 2. A generic crash situation is shown in Fig. 3. The following characteristics are considered for the subject and bullet vehicles before and after the crash: The law of conservation of linear momentum says that "in a closed, isolated system the total linear momentum must be conserved" ( Halliday et al., 2003). Therefore the total linear momentum before the crash is equal to total linear momentum after the crash. ...
... Increasing of this value will increase the ISS of the crash. This is logical as the kinetic energy of crashes is increased by increasing the driving speed ( Halliday et al., 2003;Elvik, 2004). The ratio of mass of bullet vehicle over mass of subject vehicle has positive effect on the ISS of the crash. ...
An important part of any model of vehicle crashes is the development of a procedure to estimate crash injury severity. After reviewing existing models of crash severity, this paper outlines the development of a modelling approach aimed at measuring the injury severity of people in two-vehicle road crashes. This model can be incorporated into a discrete event traffic simulation model, using simulation model outputs as its input. The model can then serve as an integral part of a simulation model estimating the crash potential of components of the traffic system. The model is developed using Newtonian Mechanics and Generalised Linear Regression. The factors contributing to the speed change (ΔV(s)) of a subject vehicle are identified using the law of conservation of momentum. A Log-Gamma regression model is fitted to measure speed change (ΔV(s)) of the subject vehicle based on the identified crash characteristics. The kinetic energy applied to the subject vehicle is calculated by the model, which in turn uses a Log-Gamma Regression Model to estimate the Injury Severity Score of the crash from the calculated kinetic energy, crash impact type, presence of airbag and/or seat belt and occupant age.
... The variable of this test was the time taken to complete the test. In addition, the power index of the SHRT was calculated using the following formula: power = work/time [28], as follows: ...
The senior population is at increased risk of falling due to a reduction in ankle muscle strength. Evaluating the strength of the ankle muscles in older adults is of paramount importance. The purpose of this study was to formulate an equation to estimate ankle muscle strength by utilizing the basic physical characteristics of the subject and the variables related to their ability to perform the standing heel-rise test (SHRT). One hundred and thirty-two healthy elderly participants (mean age 67.30 ± 7.60) completed the SHRT and provided demographic information. Ankle plantar flexor (PF) muscle strength was evaluated using a push–pull dynamometer. Multiple regression analysis was utilized to develop a prediction equation for ankle PF muscle strength. The study revealed that the ankle PF strength equation was derived from variables including the power index of the SHRT, gender, age, calf circumference, and single-leg standing balance test. The equation exhibited a strong correlation (r = 0.816) and had a predictive power of 65.3%. The equation is represented as follows: ankle PF strength = 24.31 − 0.20(A) + 8.14(G) + 0.49(CC) + 0.07(SSEO) + 0.20(BW/t-SHRT). The equation had an estimation error of 5.51 kg. The strength of ankle PFs in elderly individuals can be estimated by considering demographic variables, including gender, age, calf circumference, single-leg standing balance test, and the power index of the SHRT. These factors were identified as significant determinants of ankle PF strength in this population.
... 79,82,83 It should be noted, however, that only fluids-liquids and gasescan circulate. 84 Therefore, only liquid water and water vapor can participate in the hydrological cycle. Ice halts the hydrological cycle by transferring water to a solid form. ...
The Antarctic continent is a crucial area for ultimate determination of permafrost extent on Earth, and its solution depends on the theoretical assumptions adopted. In fact, it ranges from 0.022 × 106 to 14 × 106 km2. This level of inaccuracy is unprecedented in the Earth sciences. The novelty of the present study consists in determining the extent of Antarctic permafrost not based exclusively on empirical studies but on universal criteria resulting from the definition of permafrost as the thermal state of the lithosphere, which was applied for the first time to this continent. The area covered by permafrost in Antarctica is ca. 13.9 million km2, that is its entire surface. This result was also made possible due to the first clear determination of the boundaries and area of the continent. The Antarctic area includes (a) rocky subsurface with (b) continental ice‐sheets and (c) shelf glaciers, which, due to their terrigenous origin and belonging to the lithosphere, belongs to the continent in the same way. Antarctica is covered by continuous permafrost, either in a frozen or in a cryotic state. This also significantly influences delimitation of the global extent of permafrost, which can therefore be defined much more accurately. The proposed ice reclassification and its transfer from the hydrosphere to the lithosphere will allow the uniform treatment of ice in the Earth sciences, both on Earth and on other celestial bodies.
... 79,82,83 It should be noted, however, that only fluids-liquids and gasescan circulate. 84 Therefore, only liquid water and water vapor can participate in the hydrological cycle. Ice halts the hydrological cycle by transferring water to a solid form. ...
... The location of H 2 O is divided into two spheres. To the hydrosphere should be assigned water as a liquid and vapor phase because both these states of matter are recognized by physicists as fluids[21], and there is no reason why Earth sciences would deal with this issue in a different way, if we want to maintain a reasonable unity of science. Ice as a mineral and rock (also in the form of sediment-snow) belongs to the lithosphere[1,22]. ...
Since Earth sciences have undertaken studies of other celestial bodies, its various fields have moved beyond the scope of study assigned to them by name. Interest in space makes it necessary to abandon research geocentrism and reverse relations when comparing the structure of the Earth with other celestial bodies. As an exceptional place in the universe, it should not be the Earth which constitutes a reference point, especially in cryospheric research, but rather the other celestial bodies of our planetary system. This approach, referred to as “Spatial Uniformitarianism,” is the basis for determining the place of ice in the environment and for assigning it to the lithosphere. Ice can be penetrated by frost just as other minerals and rocks, so the occurrence of permafrost may yet be attributed to glaciers and ice-caps. In the article, the occurrence of glacial permafrost has been worked out on the basis of a thermal classification of glaciers with a thorough understanding of the phenomenon. This allows us to specify permafrost’s presence beneath glaciers and ice-caps, a concept which had been needlessly vague. Further, by considering rock glaciers as a mixture of two types of rocks, and by understanding the importance of movement in their evolution, we are now closer to fruitfully determining their role in the environment, their geomorphological significance.
Background: A centrifuge is an essential piece of equipment for several biology and diagnostic applications such as pelleting cells and purifying nucleic acids, etc. In recent years, there has been an increasing interest for low-cost centrifuges that are alternatives to the commercially available centrifuges. In this article, we present a low-cost, open-source, 3D printed centrifuge (mobilefuge) that is portable, robust, stable, safe, easy to build and operate.
Methods: The mobilefuge was designed such that it doesn't require soldering or programming skills and can be built without any specialised equipment yet practical enough for high throughput use. More importantly, the mobilefuge can be powered from widely available 5V USB ports, including mobile phones and associated power supplies. This allows the mobilefuge to be used even in off-grid and resource limited settings.
Results: Performance of the mobilefuge is demonstrated by separating silica particles are from a suspension consisting of water and “glassmilk”. This separation process is one of the crucial steps in nucleic-acid amplification assays for reliable, low-cost diagnostic applications such as SARS-CoV2.
Conclusions: We believe that beyond the nucleic-acid assays, the mobilefuge can have several applications as a microcentrifuge in the field of biomedical research and diagnostics.
BACKGROUND: Snowboarding, along with Alpine skiing, is one of two most popular winter sports. While there are many studies on the mechanical conditions of movement in skiing, there is a lack of studies analysing the forces affecting snowboarders. The difference in body orientation between snowboarding and skiing means that applying the same biomechanical rules to both sports is unjustified and a separate analysis is needed. The most difficult aspect of snowboarding is maintaining the correct body balance which is dependent on the directions and magnitudes of external forces and their torques. Therefore, the aim of this study is to analyse the forces that affect a snowboarder on the slope and the effects of these forces on the maintenance of a stable body posture.
METHODS: The research method used in the work is based on the theoretical analysis of physical phenomena that occur during riding on the snowboard.
RESULTS: The study describes the biomechanical conditions that allow the snowboarder to maintain an upright posture when standing and moving, as well as the forces that initiate movement and decelerate the snowboarder. The physical forces that appear when moving forward and along an arc are analysed, as are the mechanical interdependences that enable effective snowboarding.
CONCLUSIONS: Knowing the rules of forces action is the best method for understanding how a snowboarder move and keep the balance on a slope. The application of theoretical knowledge should improve not only the self-confidence and effectiveness of the snowboarders but also the safety of their riding.
Since its introduction, the definition of permafrost has rarely been discussed or reviewed. Recent decades have brought a series of significant, often interdisciplinary works on a periglacial zone and permafrost as well as their relation with other components of the environment, especially with glaciers. They show that, despite its unequivocal definition, the term has lost its sharpness and explicitness with regard to some aspects of research. The article presents a current state of understanding of permafrost phenomenon, regarding the use of the term permafrost, which means a physical state, not a material thing. Processes which it undergoes, that is exclusively aggradation and degradation, and also the possibility of its occurrence in glacial and periglacial environments of geographical space, where it covers over a quarter of land area on the Earth.
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