A 12,000-year-old Shaman Burial from the Southern Levant (Israel)

Abstract

The Natufians of the southern Levant (15,000–11,500 cal BP) underwent pronounced socioeconomic changes associated with the onset of sedentism and the shift from a foraging to farming lifestyle. Excavations at the 12,000-year-old Natufian cave site, Hilazon Tachtit (Israel), have revealed a grave that provides a rare opportunity to investigate the ideological shifts that must have accompanied these socioeconomic changes. The grave was constructed and specifically arranged for a petite, elderly, and disabled woman, who was accompanied by exceptional grave offerings. The grave goods comprised 50 complete tortoise shells and select body-parts of a wild boar, an eagle, a cow, a leopard, and two martens, as well as a complete human foot. The interment rituals and the method used to construct and seal the grave suggest that this is the burial of a shaman, one of the earliest known from the archaeological record. Several attributes of this burial later become central in the spiritual arena of human cultures worldwide.

• Hilazon Tachtit Cave
• Natufian
• mortuary practices
• origins of agriculture

Full text

A 12,000-year-old Shaman burial from the southern
Levant (Israel)
Leore Grosman
a,b,1
, Natalie D. Munro
c
, and Anna Belfer-Cohen
a
aInstitute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mount Scopus, Jerusalem 91905, Israel; bDepartment of Physics of Complex Systems, The
Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel; and cDepartment of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269
Edited by Ofer Bar-Yosef, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, and approved September 29, 2008 (received for review June 23, 2008)
The Natufians of the southern Levant (15,000–11,500 cal BP)
underwent pronounced socioeconomic changes associated with
the onset of sedentism and the shift from a foraging to farming
lifestyle. Excavations at the 12,000-year-old Natufian cave site,
Hilazon Tachtit (Israel), have revealed a grave that provides a rare
opportunity to investigate the ideological shifts that must have
accompanied these socioeconomic changes. The grave was con-
structed and specifically arranged for a petite, elderly, and disabled
woman, who was accompanied by exceptional grave offerings.
The grave goods comprised 50 complete tortoise shells and select
body-parts of a wild boar, an eagle, a cow, a leopard, and two
martens, as well as a complete human foot. The interment rituals
and the method used to construct and seal the grave suggest that
this is the burial of a shaman, one of the earliest known from the
archaeological record. Several attributes of this burial later become
central in the spiritual arena of human cultures worldwide.
Hilazon Tachtit Cave 兩Natufian 兩mortuary practices 兩
origins of agriculture
The Natufian culture in the southern Levant (ca. 15,000–
11,600 cal BP) is marked by significant changes in human
burial practices (1, 2). More than 400 individuals have been
recovered from organized Natufian cemeteries signifying a
dramatic increase in the number of dead recovered in compar-
ison to any preceding cultural period. This new burial practice is
related to a dramatic socioeconomic change associated with the
central role of the Natufian culture in the transition from
foraging to farming. The Natufians were the first society to adopt
a sedentary lifestyle (3–5) and thus, experienced substantial
socioeconomic reorganization and innovation necessitated by
the demand of aggregation for long periods of time. First and
foremost amongst these changes is the beginning of the shift
from a foraging to a farming economy (6). Sedentism undoubt-
edly created new demands regarding social behavior as well.
Intensified social activity may, in part, explain the unprece-
dented fluorescence of symbolic activity observed in the Natu-
fian (7). Nevertheless, to date there are nearly no indications of
institutionalized social stratification (5, 8) and most researchers
have assumed that the Natufians maintained an egalitarian social
system, typical of most past and present hunting-gathering
societies [but see (9) and discussion in (10)]. Still, to enable
people to share their living space and daily life with nonk in group
members for prolonged periods, there was a need to incorporate
new social regulatory mechanisms into the belief system (11).
Tracing the development of past human belief systems is a
demanding task as the archaeological record preserves only
material aspects of the social and spiritual domains. Although
burial practices do provide unequivocal data pertaining to
prehistoric beliefs, they are rarely observed in Paleolithic
periods. Recent excavations at the Natufian site of Hilazon
Tachtit in the western Galilee region have revealed a unique
burial of an elderly woman. The grave portrays several at-
tributes that later become central in the spiritual arena of
human cultures worldwide.
Results
The Archaeological Background. Hilazon Tachtit is a small cave site
in the Galilee region of Israel (Fig. 1) that functioned first and
foremost as a Natufian burial ground for at least 28 individuals.
Facing east, the cave is located on an escarpment ⬇150 m above
Nahal (river) Hilazon, 14 km from the Mediterranean shoreline.
The site provides a wide view of the Mediterranean shore to the
west and the upper Nahal Hilazon to the east. The single
prehistoric Natufian occupation inside the cave is dated to
12,400–12,000 cal BP (RTT 3760, RTT4592, RTT 4593), within
the later stage of the Natufian period (12).
The prehistoric activity inside the cave was spatially confined
to a shallow depression formed by the natural contours of the
bedrock in the middle of the cave (⫽30 m
2
). The excavations
unearthed 2 small structures (ca. 1 m in diameter) built of
undressed, limestone cobbles (Fig. 2). Both structures are cir-
cular and are delineated by large stones transported from outside
the cave and positioned along the natural outline of the bedrock.
Next to the structures are 3 small burial pits (Pit I, Pit II, and Pit
III, ⬇0.5 m
2
each) that occupy an area of 5 m
2
to a depth of 80
cm (Fig. 2). The pits contained the remains of at least 25
individuals representing an array of ages. In Pit III, some bodies
had to be pushed aside to squeeze a number of individuals (n⫽
5) into the small space. Apart from the hands and feet, the
skeletons were not articulated, although size and age estimates
suggest that elements of single individuals were clustered to-
gether. Because many skeletal parts are missing from the pits,
specifically long bones and skull elements, these collective graves
likely served as primary burial areas that were later re-opened
to remove skulls and long bones for secondary burial—a practice
common to the Natufian and the following Neolithic cultures
(13). Only 3 partially complete primary burials were recovered
at Hilazon Tachtit. The first was located at the top of the
Natufian sequence in the cave. This skeleton is of a young adult
(sex unknown) reposed in a flexed position on its right side with
both hands under its face. Unfortunately, many of the bones were
missing, probably because of historical disturbance. The scat-
tered bones of a newborn were found in the area of the missing
pelvis and it appears that the newborn and the young adult,
possibly the mother, were buried together. The 2 other complete
burials belong to an earlier phase and are interred in graves
within structures A and B (Fig. 2). The burial in structure B
postdates the use of the structure, while the burial of the
individual interred in Structure A, the topic of the present
discussion, predates the use of Structure A. Thus, it appears that
this particular burial is the earliest Natufian manifestation on
site.
Author contributions: L.G., N.D.M., and A.B.-C. designed research, performed research,
analyzed data, and wrote the paper.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
This article is a PNAS Direct Submission.
1To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: lgrosman@mscc.huji.ac.il.
© 2008 by The National Academy of Sciences of the USA
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The Burial in Structure A. The grave in structure A is located in an
oval basin that was intentionally cut into sterile breccia situated
beneath the Natufian levels. A large triangular limestone slab (40
cm ⫻75 cm) sealed the top of the grave. The walls of the oval
basin show clear evidence of special treatment before burial.
Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) mineral analysis of sedi-
ment sampled from the grave walls indicates that the grave was
intentionally plastered with mud collected immediately outside
of the cave (the FTIR analysis was carried out by R. Shahack-
Gross and L.G.). Small limestone slabs were pressed into the
mud walls to create a strong foundation, and several large
limestone slabs lined the floor.
At the time of burial, ⬎10 large stones were placed directly on
the head, pelvis, and arms of the buried individual (Fig. 3).
Following decomposition of the body, the weight of the stones
caused the disarticulation of some parts of the skeleton, includ-
ing the separation of the pelvis from the vertebral column. The
body was buried in an unusual position; it was laid on its side with
its spinal column, pelvis, and right femur resting against the
curved southern wall of the oval-shaped grave. The legs were
spread apart and folded inward at the knee.
The human remains were analyzed by L.G. and A.B.-C., and
indicate that the burial is of a gracile female, ⬇45-years-old and
estimated to be 1.5-m tall [based on long bone and skull
measurements (14)]. Sex was determined primarily on the basis
of the pelvis and femur [sciatic notch score 1 (15); cur vature
index 40, after (16); femur vertical diameter 39 mm; length ⬍390
mm]. Several skeletal pathologies including vertebral lipping,
osteophytes, and heavy erosion of the teeth are consistent with
pathologies accrued during life, indicating that the woman was
relatively old. In addition, congenital pathologies were observed
including the fusion of the coccyx and the sacrum, and defor-
mations of the pelvis and the lumbar and sacral vertebrae (Fig.
4). Pathologies of this nature would have affected the woman’s
gait (i.e., limping or foot dragging) and would have given her an
unnatural, asymmetrical appearance. The woman was interred
with a number of highly unusual grave goods. A fragment of a
worn, basalt bowl (14-cm long) was recovered above her left leg,
as was a complete articulated human foot (Fig. 3). The foot
belonged to an adult individual who was substantially larger than
the interred woman. A pointed bone tool was placed perpen-
dicularly to the left tibia and a round pebble with two knapping
scars (10-cm in diameter) was placed on the left side of the pelvis.
Most remarkably, the female was buried with ⬎50 complete
tortoise shells (Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise; Testudo
graeca). The carapaces from ⬎15 of these individuals were
articulated when exposed during excavation (Fig. 5), but most of
the shells had separated along their natural sutures as a result of
decomposition. Although the carapaces were buried intact (dis-
Fig. 1. The location of the site of Hilazon Tachtit Cave and other sites with
cemeteries in the Natufian core area.
Fig. 2. Planand features of Hilazon Tachtit Cave. (A) Plan of the cave indicating the excavation area. (B) The Natufian features at Hilazon Tachtit Cave including
the burial pits (pit I, II, and III), Structure A, and Structure B. The burial was located in structure A (Photograph by N. Hilger, Tel Aviv, Israel).
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articulated segments were rarely broken and segments from
different parts of the shell were equally represented), the
anterior plastron was repeatedly broken in the same location.
The resulting spiral fracture crossed multiple segments and is
consistent with human breakage by using a hammerstone while
the shell was still fresh. Repeated breaks also occur along the
lateral margins of the plastron where it meets the carapace,
indicating that the plastron was removed from the carapace
leaving the carapace intact. The plastron (Fig. 5) was likely
broken to remove the tortoise from its shell, potentially for
consumption as part of a feast surrounding the interment of the
deceased. High representation of limb bones (from ⱕ30 indi-
viduals) indicates that most tortoise remains were thrown into
the grave along with the shells after consumption or that the
tortoises were placed in the grave inside their shells despite
removal of the anterior plastron. The recovery of the limb bones
also indicates that entire tortoises, not only their shells, were
transported to the cave for the burial. The collection of at least
50 tortoises at the time of burial would have required a signif-
icant investment, as these are solitary animals. Alternatively,
these animals could have been collected and confined by humans
for a period preceding the burial event.
The grave also contained body-parts of several animals that
are unusual either because the taxa or body-parts rarely occur in
Natufian assemblages, or because they were largely complete.
Unbroken bones are extremely uncommon in Natufian sites, as
the Natufians intensively processed bones to acquire essential fat
sources (17). Two stone marten (Martes foina) skulls (Fig. 5), one
complete and one anterior half, were interred in the grave. The
complete skull was located directly above the third human foot.
The absence of skinning marks typically found on the premaxilla
of these fur-bearing animals, suggests that the crania were buried
with their skins attached. A carpometacarpus and first phalanx
of digit II constitute the wing tip of a golden eagle (Aquila
chrysaetos) (Fig. 5). The wing tip supports the eagle’s large and
colorful primar y feathers. Several articulated caudal vertebrae
from the tail of an aurochs (Bos primigenius) represent the only
aurochs body-part found in this grave. The near complete pelvis
Fig. 3. X-ray of the fragmented right and left pubis, body, and spine of a lumbar vertebra showing lipping and osteophytes (Photographs by M. Lavi, Institute
of Archaeology, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel).
Fig. 4. An artistic reconstruction of the Shaman grave. (Illustration by P.
Groszman, Jerusalem, Israel, drawn to scale.)
Fig. 5. The animal body-parts present in the Shaman grave. The location of
the body-part represented is indicated on the animal illustration with a red
dot. (A) Caudal vertebrae from an auroch’s tail (Bos primigenius); (B) complete
marten (Martes foina) skull; (C) carapace of a spur-thighed Mediterranean
tortoise (Testudo graeca) and examples of the anterior plastron which was
repeatedly broken in the same location; (D) carpometacarpus and first pha-
lanx of digit II from the wing tip of a golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos); and (E)
articulated forearm (radius and ulna) of a wild boar (Sus scrofa). (Photographs
by G. Hartman, Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Cambridge,
MA; Illustrations by P. Groszman.)
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of a leopard (Panthera pardus), an extremely rare animal in
Natufian contexts, was found between 2 articulated tortoise
shells. The articulated forearm (radius and ulna) of a wild boar
(Sus scrofa) was directly aligned with the woman’s left humerus.
Unlike all other ungulate long bones recovered from the site, the
wild boar bones are complete, except for a long thin segment
removed from the anterior shaft of the radius when the bone was
still fresh. This break would have enabled the extraction of bone
marrow although leaving the fused radio-ulna largely intact.
Finally a complete, male gazelle horn core was found in direct
association with the fragment of a basalt bowl and 3 Cerasto-
derma shells, directly under the human pelvis. Male gazelle horn
cores have both functional and spiritual uses in Natufian con-
texts, and have appeared in other Natufian graves (18).
Discussion
The burial of the woman in Structure A at Hilazon Tachtit is
unlike any burial found in the Natufian or the preceding
Paleolithic periods. As the Natufian is a revolutionary cultural
entity marked by new economic and social practices, it is not
surprising that it is associated with new burial traditions. For
example, the Natufians were the first people to routinely bury
their dead close to or within their living sites. The burials occur
both alone and in groups, and in many instances, human
body-parts were removed either at the time of burial or after
decomposition had set in (19). Some of the burials were accom-
panied by a variety of grave inclusions comprising ornaments,
bone and stone tools and occasionally complete animals or their
body-parts. Although these traditions are reflected in many
Natufian graves, the combined characteristics of the grave in
Structure A place it well outside of the norm of Natufian burials.
Clearly, a great amount of time and energy was invested in the
preparation, arrangement, and sealing of the grave. This was
coupled with the special treatment of the buried body—the
placement of stones directly on the woman to protect/keep the
body in a desired position or to hold it in the grave. The unique
grave goods accompanying the burial, in particular the many
tortoises carefully arranged in relation to the body (under the
skull, the pelvis, and at the perimeter of the grave) are substan-
tially more numerous and diverse than those that have been
recovered from other Natufian graves. Finally, the stratigraphy
and construction sequence at the site suggest that the grave in
Structure A represents the first use of the cave by the Natufians.
The site is located 150-m up a steep escarpment, and at this point,
the closest known Natufian domestic site, Hayonim Terrace, is
10-km away. Significant investment was required for the trans-
portation of the body to Hilazon Tachtit for burial. All of these
efforts were invested in the burial of an elderly disabled woman.
Together the evidence suggests that this woman held a unique
position in the community.
We argue that this burial is consistent with expectations for a
shaman’s grave. Although the term shaman derives specifically
from the Tungus people of Siberia (20), shamanistic figures are
well-known from hunter-gatherer and small-scale agricultural
societies world-wide. The shaman’s primary role is to mediate
between the human and the spirit worlds (21, 22, 23). Shamans
act as messengers, healers, and magicians, and serve both the
community and its members. Although shaman graves are highly
variable, and thus, there are no standard criteria to identify a
shaman in the archaeological record, a number of generaliza-
tions about shamans can be surmised from cross-cultural re-
search: (a) shamans are associated with spiritual, magical, and
healing powers; (b) shamans engage the help of spirits in animal
form; (c) shamans are keepers of specialized knowledge; (d)
shamans are ascribed high status within their communities; and
(e) the status of shamans is reflected in their special treatment
at death—their burials often contain artifacts reflecting their
role in life (i.e., remains of particular animals and contents of
healing kits) (20, 24, 25).
Ethnographic records describe a variety of ways to bur y a shaman
(21), but because shamans are always considered privileged per-
sons, who therefore enjoy a different kind of afterlife from other
members of their group, unusual features of their graves mark their
special status. This is clearly the case with the burial discussed here.
The elaborate and invested grave at Hilazon Tachtit confirms the
special status of the buried individual and her high standing within
the community. Moreover, although pathologies are not universally
characteristic of shamans, there are numerous cross-cultural ac-
counts of physically disabled individuals being ascribed healing and
spiritual powers (26, 27). The goods accompanying the burial are
also typical of shaman burials. Tortoises, cow tails, eagle wings, and
fur-bearing animals continue to play important symbolic and sha-
manistic roles in the spiritual arena of human cultures worldwide
today [e.g., (28)]. It seems that the woman in the Natufian burial was
perceived as being in a close relationship with these animal spirits.
Shamans are universally recorded cross-culturally, in hunter-
gatherer groups and small-scale agricultural societies (25). Nev-
ertheless, they have rarely been documented in the archaeolog-
ical record [but see (29)], and none have been reported from the
Paleolithic of Southwest Asia. Perhaps, it is not surprising if clear
evidence for a shaman comes from the Natufian, as the profound
social and economic changes associated with the transition to
agriculture [the Neolithization process (6)] surfaced during the
Natufian and undoubtedly entailed equally substantial ideolog-
ical changes (30, 31, 32). Whether the changes in the spiritual
outlook preceded and triggered the economic changes (33) or
vice versa, an inseparable interplay is clearly observed between
ideological and socioeconomic change across the forager-to-
farmer transition. The unique grave at Hilazon Tachtit Cave
provides us with rare concrete evidence for those processes in
their initial stages at the termination of the Paleolithic on the eve
of the Neolithic transformation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The authors are grateful to Baruch Arensburg, Uzy
Smilansky, and Ofer Bar-Yosef for their help. Special thanks are due to R.
Shahack-Gross for the FTIR analysis. We thank Naama Goren-Inbar and Erella
Hovers for critically reading the manuscript, and Peter Groszman for the
illustrations. We also thank Talia Goldman for her assistance with the graphics
and Brian Hayden and two anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful re-
marks. Excavation was financed by the Irene Levi-Sala Care Foundation and
the National Geographic Foundation (to L.G.). Research was supported by the
Israel Science Foundation (202/05 to A.B.-C.) and National Science Foundation
(BCS-0618937 to N.D.M.).
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