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The Effects of Resistance Training on Endurance Distance Running Performance Among Highly Trained Runners: A Systematic Review

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The current perception among highly competitive endurance runners is that concurrent resistance and endurance training (CT) will improve running performance despite the limited research in this area. The purpose of this review was to search the body of scientific literature for original research addressing the effects of CT on distance running performance in highly competitive endurance runners. Specific key words (including running, strength training, performance, and endurance) were used to search relevant databases through April 2007 for literature related to CT. Original research was reviewed using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale. Five studies met inclusion criteria: highly trained runners (>or= 30 mile x wk(-1) or >or= 5 d x wk(-1)), CT intervention for a period >or= 6 weeks, performance distance between 3K and 42.2K, and a PEDro scale score >or= 5 (out of 10). Exclusion criteria were prepubertal children and elderly populations. Four of the five studies employed sport-specific, explosive resistance training, whereas one study used traditional heavy weight resistance training. Two of the five studies measured 2.9% improved performance (3K and 5K), and all five studies measured 4.6% improved running economy (RE; range = 3-8.1%). After critically reviewing the literature for the impact of CT on high-level runners, we conclude that resistance training likely has a positive effect on endurance running performance or RE. The short duration and wide range of exercises implemented are of concern, but coaches should not hesitate to implement a well-planned, periodized CT program for their endurance runners.
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THE EFFECTS OF RESISTANCE TRAINING ON
ENDURANCE DISTANCE RUNNING PERFORMANCE
AMONG HIGHLY TRAINED RUNNERS:ASYSTEMATIC
REVIEW
LINDA M. YAMAMOTO,REBECCA M. LOPEZ,JENNIFER F. KLAU,DOUGLAS J. CASA,
WILLIAM J. KRAEMER,AND CARL M. MARESH
Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Neag School of Education, University of Connecticut, Storrs,
Connecticut
ABSTRACT
Yamamoto, LM, Lopez, RM, Klau, JF, Casa, DJ, Kraemer, WJ,
and Maresh, CM. The effects of resistance training on
endurance distance running performance among highly trained
runners: a systematic review. J Strength Cond Res 22(6):
2036–2044, 2008—The current perception among highly
competitive endurance runners is that concurrent resistance
and endurance training (CT) will improve running performance
despite the limited research in this area. The purpose of this
review was to search the body of scientific literature for original
research addressing the effects of CT on distance running
performance in highly competitive endurance runners. Specific
key words (including running, strength training, performance,
and endurance) were used to search relevant databases
through April 2007 for literature related to CT. Original research
was reviewed using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database
(PEDro) scale. Five studies met inclusion criteria: highly trained
runners ($30 milewk
21
or $5dwk
21
), CT intervention for
a period $6 weeks, performance distance between 3K and
42.2K, and a PEDro scale score $5 (out of 10). Exclusion
criteria were prepubertal children and elderly populations. Four
of the five studies employed sport-specific, explosive resistance
training, whereas one study used traditional heavy weight
resistance training. Two of the five studies measured 2.9%
improved performance (3K and 5K), and all five studies
measured 4.6% improved running economy (RE; range = 3–
8.1%). After critically reviewing the literature for the impact of
CT on high-level runners, we conclude that resistance training
likely has a positive effect on endurance running performance or
RE. The short duration and wide range of exercises imple-
mented are of concern, but coaches should not hesitate to
implement a well-planned, periodized CT program for their
endurance runners.
KEY WORDS resistance training, endurance training, endurance
athlete, performance
INTRODUCTION
‘‘We knew we could run in the mud because
of our strength training,’’ reported
Coach Keith Andrew after his Coates-
ville, Pennsylvania high school boys
cross-country team won the 2006 Nike Team Nationals on
a waterlogged Portland Meadows 5K course (29).
Concurrent resistance and endurance training (CT)
challenges the perception that improvements in endurance
running performance are achieved only through aerobic
training. However, current research indicates that muscular
strength and anaerobic power may also be important for
increased running performance through neurological and
muscular changes (1,21,34). Positive muscular adaptations
may include increased anaerobic enzyme activity, increased
force production, increased intramuscular glycogen, or shifts
within major fiber type groups (1,21,34). Neural adaptations
may include improved motor unit recruitment and syn-
chronization, improved force development rate, and im-
provements in the stretch-shortening cycle (1,21,30,34).
In combination, these positive adaptations may enable
runners to sustain attacks, climb hills, or sprint in the final
minutes, which should enhance running performance (38).
Historically, runners were hesitant to resistance train
because of concerns of possible negative side effects of
hypertrophy on capillary density and mitochondrial function
(23). However, others have found no negative change in
maximal oxygen uptake (
_
Vo
2
max) from resistance training
(RT) (22), and RT can increase running efficiency by
BRIEF REVIEW
Address correspondence to Linda M. Yamamoto, linda.yamamoto@
uconn.edu.
22(6)/2036–2044
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Ó2008 National Strength and Conditioning Association
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attenuating the reduction of Type I muscle fibers and
connective tissue (22) and potentially stave off injury.
Instead of running performance, many CT researchers
focus on running economy (RE), which involves the
relationship between
_
Vo
2
and a given running velocity.
Running economy has been shown to influence performance
for well-trained distance runners (28). Improved RE would
increase speed over a given distance or increase distance
traveled at a given speed because of decreased oxygen
consumption (16,35,37,39), and, thus, it would increase
performance. The benefit of RT may improve RE through
several mechanisms: 1) increased strength may improve
mechanical efficiency, muscle coordination, and motor
recruitment patterns (34), 2) greater total body strength
may lead to advantageous mechanical changes in running
style (16), or 3) increased muscular strength and coordination
may reduce relative intensity (14). Improved RE may be
a result of both improved running mechanics and neuro-
muscular efficiency to reduce oxygen consumption at a given
speed (14,16). Simultaneous RTand endurance training (ET)
has been associated with limited strength development and
no change in
_
Vo
2
max (6,13,15). However, this line of
research focused predominantly on the impact of ET on
strength performance and not on the effects of RT on
endurance performance (2,6,10,12,15). Additionally, most
subjects were previously untrained runners, which accounted
for the large improvements in running performance or
RE (3,9,20).
Several review articles focus on CT and summarize the
available data; however, these reviews do not synthesize the
best available research to address a specifically defined
question (17,18,38). This systematic review focuses specifi-
cally on valid research of highly trained endurance runners
on the effects of CT on performance and/or RE. The use of
CT in endurance athletes continues to grow with increased
desire for improved performance. However, there is a lack of
evidence supporting potential beneficial effects of RT on
endurance performance in highly trained athletes. Does RT
increase long-distance running performance? If so, what type
of RT is best suited for increased performance? What
manipulation of the acute program variables (choice of
exercise, order of exercise, volume, rest, and intensity [19]) is
best? The purpose of this systematic review was to search the
body of scientific literature for original research addressing
the effects of CT on distance running performance in highly
competitive endurance runners.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
A search was performed using MEDLINE, Sport Discus,
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research archives, and
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses databases through
September 2007 for literature related to CT. Key words used
were (marathons OR marathoning OR running[mesh])
AND (‘‘strength training’’ OR ‘‘resistance training’’ OR
‘‘weight lifting’’ OR ‘‘weightlifting’’) AND (performance OR
speed OR time trials OR endurance) AND English[language]
NOT (obese OR obesity OR sprint OR sprinters OR stroke
OR soccer OR ‘‘Running/injuries’’ NOT amphetamine).
Research specific to measures of performance with CT in
elite athletes were identified. All randomized controlled trials
(RCTs) assessing the effects of RTon endurance exercise were
initially examined (Figure 1). All articles were read, and the
outcomes of each article were recorded. The references of
identified articles were examined to identify additional
articles that were eligible for this review. The majority of
FIGURE 1. Criteria for selection of articles for review.
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the articles that examined CT were review articles or training
studies for untrained or recreationally trained individuals,
that were retained for review and discussion; however, these
articles were not included for analysis because they did not
meet inclusion criteria. Resistance training was defined as
nonrunning, weight-bearing or weight-loaded activity in-
cluding free-weight and machine exercises. The subcatego-
ries for RT included circuit training (a series of free-weight
and/or machine exercises performed one after the other with
minimal rest between exercises), heavy weight training
(dynamic constant external RT with exercises such as back
squat, and bench press), and explosive strength training
(plyometric or stretch-shortening cycle exercises) (7).
Inclusion and exclusion criteria for this analysis were
established to narrow the focus of the analysis. Inclusion
criteria were highly trained runners ($30 milewk
21
or $5
dwk
21
), CT intervention for a period $6 weeks,
performance distance 3K–42.2K, and a quality score $5.
Exclusion criteria were untrained subjects, prepubertal
children, and elderly populations.
Once the five articles were identified, the Physiotherapy
Evidence Database (PEDro) scale (32) was used to rate the
articles. The PEDro scale examines the internal validity and
interpretability of experimental trials. The scale scores
internal validity through aspects of study design, such as
randomization, allocation, similarity of key measures at
baseline, and blinding of subjects, therapists, and assessors.
Additionally, the scale measures interpretability of research
by examining between-group statistics, descriptions of point
measures, and measures of variability. The 11-item scale
(Table 1) yields a maximum score of 10 points if all criteria
are satisfied.
We chose the PEDro scale because it has tested reliability
data and was developed to evaluate RCT evaluating physical
therapist interventions. Although we are not looking at
physiotherapy, the similarity of the type of trials warrants the
use of the PEDro scale. Maher et al. (24), examined the
reliability of the 11 items and the total score of the PEDro
scale, and found interclass correlations of 0.56 for total score
for individual ratings and 0.68 for panel ratings.
TABLE 1. PEDro scale (32).
Paavolainen
et al. (30)
Spurrs
et al. (37)
Mikkola
et al. (26)
Saunders
et al. (36)
Millet
et al. (27)
Eligibility criteria were specified
(no points awarded). Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Subjects were randomly
allocated to groups. 0 1 0 1 1
Allocation was concealed. 0 0 0 0 0
The groups were similar at
baseline regarding the
most important prognostic indicators. 1 1 1 1 1
There was blinding of all subjects. 0 0 0 0 0
There was blinding of all therapists who
administered the therapy. 0 0 0 0 0
There was blinding of all assessors who
measured at least one key outcome. 0 0 0 0 0
Measures of at least one key outcome were
obtained from more than 85%
of the subjects initially allocated to groups.
1 1111
All subjects for whom outcome measures were
available received the treatment
or control condition as allocated, or, where this
was not the case, data for at least
one key outcome were analyzed by
‘‘intention to treat.’’ 1 1 1 1 1
The result of between-group statistical
comparisons is reported for at least
one key outcome. 1 1 1 1 1
The study provided both point
measures and measures of variability
for at least one key outcome.
1 1111
Total points awarded 5 6 5 6 6
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TABLE 2. Reviewed articles.
Authors Subject description Age (y)
Resistance training
type and duration
Description of treatment
and control groups Results
Improvement
(%)
PEDro Scale
(32) score (max = 10)
Paavolainen
et al. (30)
18 elite male distance
runners;
_
Vo
2
max =
68 mlkg
21
min
21
20–30 Plyometric
training, 9 wk
CT = 68% ET, 32%
sport-specific plyometric
training; ET = 97% ET,
3% sport-specific
plyometric training
Decreased 5K run
time in CT;
improved RE
in CT
3.1 (5K);
8.1 (RE)
5
Spurrs
et al. (37)
17 male distance
runners;
_
Vo
2
max =
57 mlkg
21
min
21
Plyometric
training, 6 wk
CT = concurrent plyometric
training (two sessions
per week for 3 weeks,
then three sessions per
week for 3 weeks) and normal
ET; ET = continued normal
training
Decreased 3K run
time in CT;
improved RE
in CT
2.7 (3K);
4–7 (RE)
6
Mikkola
et al. (26)
18 male, 7 female
distance runners;
_
Vo
2
max=62
mlkg
21
min
21
16–18 Plyometric
training, 8 wk
CT = 81% endurance and
supplemental training, 19%
sport-specific explosive strength
training; ET = 96% endurance
and supplemental training, 4%
sport-specific explosive
strength training
No DRE or
_
Vo
2
max;
increased anaerobic
and selective
neuromuscular
performance in CT
35
Saunders
et al. (35)
15 elite male
distance runners;
_
Vo
2
max = 68–70
mlkg
21
min
21
20–30 Plyometric
training, 9 wk
CT = concurrent plyometric
training (three sessions per
week) and normal ET
Improved RE in CT 4.1 6
Millet
et al. (27)
15 elite male
triathletes;
_
Vo
2
max
= 67–69
mlkg
21
min
21
18–30 Heavy weight
training, 14 wk
CT = concurrent HWT
(lower limb, two sessions per
week) and consistent, supervised
aerobic training; ET = consistent,
supervised aerobic training
Improved RE in CT 5.3 6
Average 9.2 wk 4.5 5.6
CT = concurrent resistance and endurance training; ET = endurance training; HWT = heavy weight training; RE = running economy.
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TABLE 3. Description of treatment and control group training.
Author Paavolainen et al. (30) Spurrs et al. (37) Mikkola et al. (26) Saunders et al. (36) Millet et al. (27)
CT
group
Endurance 84% below, 16%
above anaerobic
threshold
Running: 60–80 kmwk
21
71% endurance,
.95% below
anaerobic threshold,
mainly running
Running: 100.2 6
48.1 kmwk
21
Run: 48 6
7kmwk
21
swim:
18.3 65.0 kmwk
21
cycle: 221 6
49 kmwk
21
Sport-specific
explosive/
heavy weight
training
32%: Sprinting
(5–10 320–100 m),
jumping (alternating,
bilateral
countermovement,
drop, hurdle, one-
legged), weighted
explosive leg press,
knee extension/flexion
(30–200 contractions)
2310 squat jump,
2310–12 scissor jump,
2–3 310–12 double-leg
bound, 2–3 310–15
alternate-leg bound, 2–3
310–15 single-leg
forward hop, 2–3
36–10 depth jump,
2–3 310 double-leg
hurdle jump, 2–3
310 single-leg
hurdle hop
19% sport-specific
explosive: Sprinting
(5–10 330–150 m),
jumping (alternating,
calf, squat, hurdle),
strength (2–3
sets 36–10 reps,
half squat, knee
extension/flexion,
calf raises)
1–2 315 back
extension, 2–5 3
6–8 leg press,
1–3 36
countermovement
jump, 1–3 320 knee
lift, 1–3 310 ankle
jump and hamstring
curl, 1–6 310
alternate-leg bound,
1–5 330–20 m skip
for height and single-
leg ankle jump, 5 35
hurdle jumps, 5 38
scissor jump for
height
Heavy weight training:
Hamstring curl,
leg press, seated
press, parallel
squat, leg extension,
heel raise
Frequency 1 time per week
(weeks 1–3), 2 times
per week (weeks 4–6),
3 times per week
(weeks 7–9)
3 times per week 3 times per week 2 times per week
Duration 15–90 minutes 30–60 min 30 minutes 2–3 warm-up sets,
3–5 sets
33–5 reps
to failure
Supplemental/
circuit
training
Circuit training: Unweighted,
slow-velocity abdominal
and leg exercises
10% supplemental:
Coordination
training, circuit
training, ball
games
Control
group
Endurance 84% below, 16% above
anaerobic threshold
Running: 60–80
kmwk
21
82% endurance,
.95% below
anaerobic
threshold, mainly
running
Running: 114.1
639.8 kmwk
21
Run: 44 6
5kmwk
21
swim: 19.8 6
4.0 kmwk
21
cycle: 210 6
40 kmwk
21
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Five RCTs that met the inclusionary criteria were inde-
pendently evaluated by two reviewers using the PEDro scale.
Scores were recorded, and full consensus was achieved over
the scores given to the five articles. A third reviewer was not
needed as a tiebreaker to resolve differences in article scores.
The kappa value (measure of observed agreement) for all five
RCTs was 1.0 (perfect agreement).
As currently reported, CT studies do not score high with
the PEDro scale because of the difficulty of researchers to
blind allocation, treatment, and assessment. Future research-
ers could increase their PEDro score by concealing allocation,
stating random allocation, and blinding assessors as to the
groups to which subjects were allocated.
Data Synthesis
Scores on the PEDro scale for the five selected articles ranged
from 5 to 6 of a maximum 10 points (Table 1). All authors
reported increased running performance or RE with CT
compared with ET alone. Two of the five authors (30,37)
reported increased running performance and RE, although at
different distances (5K vs. 3K, respectively), whereas the
other three authors (26,27,36) reported improved RE only.
Additionally, four of the five authors (26,30,36,37) imple-
mented plyometric training in their studies, whereas only one
author (27) employed heavy weight training. All five studies
are summarized in Tables 2 and 3.
The Paavolainen et al. (30) and the Mikkola et al. (26)
articles both scored 5/10 on the PEDro scale. Random
allocation of subjects into training groups was not specified.
The Mikkola et al. (26) study attempted to randomly allocate
subjects, but some subjects initially assigned to the CT group
were moved to the ET group for personal reasons (personal
communication). Please see Table 1 for specific scores on
the PEDro scale.
The PEDro scale scores for the three additional articles
(27,36,37) were 6/10. Concealment of allocation is not
entirely relevant for these training studies, because one
subject is no more likely to improve with training than
another subject if training is monitored for volume and
intensity. Additionally, blinding of subjects and therapists is
not possible; blinding of assessors was not specified. Please
see Table 1 for specific scores on the PEDro scale.
Paavolainen et al. (30) compared the combined effects of
sport-specific explosive strength and ET for 9 weeks on
running performance and RE. The sport-specific plyometric
training consisted of sprints and jumps (unloaded, or with
low loads) to optimize high or maximal movement velocities.
This study had no true control group because both training
groups performed plyometric training; however, the CT
group had a significantly greater proportion of plyometric
training as their total training volume, compared with the
control group (32 vs. 3%, respectively). Concurrent resistance
and endurance training resulted in significantly decreased
5K time trials and increased RE.
Sport-specific
explosive/heavy
weight training
3%: Sprinting (5–10 3
20–100 m), jumping
(alternating, bilateral
countermovement, drop,
hurdle, one-legged),
weighted explosive leg
press, knee extension/
flexion (30–200
contractions)
Frequency 3 times per week
Duration 15–90 minutes 30–60 min
Supplemental/
circuit training
Circuit: Unweighted,
slow-velocity abdominal
and leg exercises
14% supplemental:
Coordination training,
circuit training,
ball games
CT = concurrent resistance and endurance training.
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Spurrs et al. (37) examined 6 weeks of concurrent
plyometric and ET in 17 male distance runners. All subjects
ran 60–80 kmwk
21
; intensity and volume were maintained
and monitored over the course of the study. Plyometric
training (two sessions per week for 3 weeks, followed by
three sessions per week for 3 weeks) consisted of various
unloaded jumps, bounds, and hops in both the horizontal and
vertical planes. Both groups were tested pre- and posttraining
for RE,
_
Vo
2
max, lactate threshold, relative stiffness of the
musculotendinous system, maximal isometric force, rate of
force development, countermovement jump, a five-bound
test, and a 3K time trial. The ET group trended toward
superior pretraining 3K time trial performance, but no
significant baseline differences existed between groups. The
CTgroup significantly improved in all posttraining measures,
but the ET group remained unchanged.
Mikkola et al. (26) compared concurrent explosive strength
training and ET in postpubertal teenage distance runners
(male and female). No true control group existed because
both groups performed supplemental (coordination, and
circuit training, ball games, etc.) and explosive strength
training; however, strength training for CT was 19% of total
training hours, with only 4% for ET. Strength training
sessions lasted 30–60 minutes and occurred three times per
week. Exercises included running sprints, jumping exercises
without external load, and half squats, knee extensions, knee
flexions, calf raises, abdominal curls, and back extensions
with low load. For both groups, .95% of ET occurred below
their anaerobic threshold. Several outcomes significantly
increased in the CT group: maximal speed of anaerobic and
30-m speed running tests, concentric and isometric leg
extension forces, and force-time characteristics accompanied
by increased rapid neural activation of the muscles. For both
groups, thickness of the quadriceps femoris increased,
whereas maximal speed of aerobic running test and
_
Vo
2
max
remained unchanged. Running economy only slightly (3 64%,
p= 0.07) increased in the CT group.
Saunders et al. (36) examined the effects of short-term
(9 weeks) plyometric training on RE in highly trained distance
runners. Plyometric training (three sessions per week, loaded
and unloaded exercises) were added to subjects’ normal
training for the CT group. The subjects were tested for RE
at 14, 16, and 18 kmh
-1
at weeks 5 and 9. Significant
improvement for CT was only found at week 9 for the
18 kmh
-1
test. All other measures (
_
Vo
2
max, respiratory
exchange ratio, heart rate, stride rate, blood lactate
concentration, strength, and power) were not significantly
different at baseline or after the intervention.
Millet et al. (27) compared the combined effects of CT
during 14 weeks. The ET was predominantly aerobic, with
the majority of the training under 70% of
_
Vo
2
max. The
strength training consisted of three to five sets of three to five
repetitions of lower-body exercises (hamstring curl, leg curl,
leg press, seated press, parallel squat, leg extension, and heel
raises) twice per week. Periodization of the training program
was composed of several 3-week periods, during which
weight was incrementally increased to approximately 90%
of one-repetition maximum; one-repetition maximum was
reassessed every 3 weeks to ensure maintenance of maximal
loads for the duration of the study. The CT group
significantly increased RE as measured by increased velocity
associated with
_
Vo
2
.
DISCUSSION
This systematic review of five CT studies suggests that
strength training (explosive and/or heavy weight) improves
long-distance running performance and/or RE (an indicator
of running performance). The moderate PEDro scale scores
(5 or 6) should not diminish the quality of the reviewed
studies, considering the constraints that training studies
have in blinding subjects, therapists, and assessors to the
treatment received. Despite the numerous CT studies
(3,9,11,14,16,20,26,27,30,31,36,37,39), relatively few of these
studies have looked at highly trained endurance runners. This
review is unique because of its narrow focus on highly trained
endurance runners. One limitation of this review was the
small number of articles that met the inclusion criteria, but
this further emphasizes that CT is used by distance running
coaches with little empirical evidence. Although all studies
included provide evidence that concurrent training may
improve distance running performance, further research is
needed to elucidate the most effective training programs.
Despite the strong relationship between RE (4,5,33) and
explosive strength training, only two of the five articles
reviewed examined running performance (30,37). The
importance of
_
Vo
2
max, lactate threshold, RE, and neuro-
muscular measures should not be ignored, but for athletes the
most important variable is race time, or time trial
performance. Additionally, many of the studies in this
systematic review consisted of relatively short training
duration (average = 9.2 weeks) and used athletes who were
not strength trained. It is unknown how chronic adaptations
to CT will affect endurance running performance. Early
improvements on running with RT are associated with
neuromuscular adaptations (34), but the effects of chronic RT
on muscle mass, muscle metabolic activity, or the risk:benefit
are still unknown. Because the studies in this review assessed
high-level athletes, it was likely difficult to control training
for a longer period of time because of the competitive
season cycle.
Each researcher attempted to tightly control RT and
reported workout regimens; however, aerobic training pro-
gram descriptions were noticeably absent. The RT programs
were all well-planned protocols that tested strength gains to
adequately increase workout intensity for the duration of the
study. Most competitive athletes engage in a myriad of
aerobic workouts (steady state, tempo, interval, etc.), which
also vary with different phases of training. Interpretation of
CT results with ET would be more insightful if aerobic
training programs had been defined.
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Many authors report that CT is well studied (17,18,27) and
recommend highly specific RT programs (17). However, the
majority of the studies cited studied nonelite runners
(16,20,39), elite cross-country skiers (14,31), or untrained
subjects (3,9,20). Untrained or recreationally active subjects
had improved running performance regardless of whether
CT or ET alone was used (9,20,39). However, these results
may not necessarily translate to highly trained, elite distance
runners because of their high degree of fitness and adaptation
that has already occurred.
To disseminate the results of CT, researchers must consider
the different types of RT. Circuit training, which involves
a variety of resistance exercises with minimal rest, has only
been shown to improve endurance performance in untrained
individuals (8,25). Traditional RT (e.g., squat, bench press)
improved RE in trained cross-country runners, but it has not
been researched in conjunction with performance per se (27).
Explosive, or plyometric, training (loaded and unloaded) is
the most frequently studied type of RT in endurance runners.
The addition of plyometric exercises to ET consistently
improved both distance running performance (30,37)
and RE (26,36).
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Current research supports increased RE with CT. The
importance placed on RE in performance warrants the
incorporation of sport-specific explosive strength or heavy
weight training programs to current ET in highly trained
runners. Additionally, the research presented showed
improved 3K and 5K run times in trained distance runners
who incorporated loaded and unloaded explosive strength
training to their normal ET programs. The authors
recommend the inclusion of well-structured, periodized
RT programs in their athletes’ training regimens based on
the health and ability of individual athletes during each
training phase. We believe that the positive benefits of CT
cannot be overlooked despite the limited body of evidence.
However, it is evident that there is a need for further research
with trained distance runners on the potential benefits of
various forms and on periodization of RT on distance
running performance.
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Resistance and Endurance Training on Performance
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... In addition to running-specific training, strength training (ST) has been identified by sports and exercise scientists as an effective strategy for enhancing running economy and performance in middle-and long-distance runners [7,8] while also reducing injury risk [9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. ST can be defined as the systematic and organized use of exercises in which the body, through muscular actions, works against a certain resistance with the goal of maintaining or optimizing muscular strength. ...
... Although previous research has mentioned the benefits of ST for endurance athletes [14,35], there is a limited understanding of the barriers and misconceptions recreational runners face. Factors such as "lack of time", "lack of gym access", and insufficient knowledge about exercise types and techniques are common obstacles [36]. ...
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Despite strength training (ST) being well characterized by professional runners, little is known about the inclusion of ST models for recreational runners. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the presence of ST in the training practices of recreational runners, with a focus on understanding its characteristics and the motivations of recreational athletes for including ST in their routines. To this end, 801 recreational runners (493 male and 308 female) completed a structured questionnaire regarding their training habits, the inclusion of ST, and its characteristics, concerning the type of ST, training volume, and the reasons for including ST in their training programs. To assess the possible associations between categorical variables, data were analyzed using the chi-square test for independent samples. Approximately 625 runners (78.1%) reported that they included ST in their training routine, with a statistically significant difference between the sexes (men: 73.5% vs. women: 85.4%; X2 = 14.09; p = 0.01). Traditional strength training (TST) was the predominant type of ST included (78.5%), with most participants performing 2–4 sets and 8–12 repetitions per set at a frequency of 3–4 sessions per week. The importance of ST was primarily attributed to performance improvement (85%). The results suggest that recreational runners incorporate different types of ST into their training routines, with TST being the predominant type perceived by runners as a valuable asset for improving running performance.
... Therefore, adding strength training to the endurance training programs of middle-and longdistance runners -known as concurrent training [10]-plays an essential role. When endurance athletes incorporate strength training, they can achieve several important adaptations as described in the literature [3,4,[11][12][13][14][15][16]. These adaptations include reducing the required force for the same workload, resulting in energy conservation and delayed onset of fatigue. ...
... Some previous studies concluded that EXP could yield better results than maximum strength [32], whereas other research reported the opposite [33]. However, due to limited research, it was 3 impossible to determine which type of strength enhances further endurance performance [12]. Moreover, studies recommend combining MAX and EXP with endurance training for better results [2,34]. ...
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The effectiveness of combining strength-specific training with endurance training to enhance the performance of endurance runners remains uncertain. This study aimed to analyze effect of practising maximum-strength (MAX), explosive strength (EXP) or both combined (COMB) on seven runners’ performance-indicators: vertical jump (VJ), one-repetition-maximum-squat (1RM), peak-velocity/peak-running-speed (PV), lactate-threshold (over incremental-test-protocols, LT), middle-distance-time-trial (TT), maximum-oxygen-consumption (VO2max), running-economy (RE). Systematic-review (Scopus, Wed of Science, Sports Discuss, PubMed) with meta-analysis was conducted following PRISMA standards. Inclusion-criteria (PICOS) were: recreational or welltrained athletes aged 18-45 performing concurrent-training ≥five-week. Used search-terms were related to different types of strength/endurance, participants’ age, sport-modality. 20 manuscripts were selected, quality-assessed with PEDro. MAX training is more effective than EXP, COMB in improving VJ, 1RM, PV, while COMB is more effective than MAX, EXP to enhance TT. MAX is more effective than EXP in improving LT. Concurrent-workouts do not provide additional benefits to VO2max. It is unknown which strength-modality (MAX, EXP or COMB) is more effective in improving RE. Concurrent-training is more effective than single-mode-endurance-training for enhancing specific performance-variables in adult-endurance-runners. Middle-, long-distancerunners may consider incorporating MAX-training to target specific goals, e.g., improving VJ, 1RM, LT, PV while utilizing COMB-training to enhance TT. Certain variables may benefit from EXP. New randomized-controlled-trials are required to confirm these findings.
... Circuit resistance training is one of the best methods for improving cardiovascular fitness 33,46,47 . In addition, suspension training performed under unstable conditions may affect performance and motor control, positively contributing to a decrease in the incidence of injury [21][22][23] . ...
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Optimal physical fitness is essential for military personnel to effectively meet their rigorous physical demands. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of a suspension training program on physical fitness, biomechanical risk factors for lower extremity injury, mental health, and work-related factors in Navy personnel. A total of 50 young men participated in a randomized controlled trial. The participants were randomly assigned to two groups (n = 25): the intervention group and the control group. The intervention group performed an eight-week suspension training session three times per week, while the control group maintained their daily duties. The primary outcome was physical performance. The secondary outcomes were determined biomechanical risk factors for lower extremity injuries, mental health, and work-related factors. The data were analyzed using the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Compared with the control group, the intervention group showed significant improvements in physical performance, biomechanical risk for lower extremity injuries, and work-related factors from baseline to follow-up (p ≤ 0.05). However, there was no improvement in mental health. Based on these findings, suspension training positively impacted physical fitness, reduced injury risk, and enhanced the work-related factors of Navy personnel. This study provides new insights for various related experts and military coaches because it is an easy-to-use and feasible method with minimal facilities.
... Assim como são escassos os estudos envolvendo natação em águas abertas nas mais diversas óticas investigativas, tem-se observado também uma escassez de pesquisas envolvendo a modalidade em relação à aspectos da distribuição de cargas e da periodização do treinamento (Baldassarre, Bonifazi, Meeusen, & Piacentini, 2019). Uma vez que a modalidade é caracterizada por ser um esporte de endurance, compreender como são estabelecidos os parâmetros de distribuições de volume e intensidade ao longo de um ciclo de preparação para uma competição, pode trazer à luz um corpo de evidências muito relevantes para treinadores, atletas e entusiastas da modalidade (Yamamoto et al., 2008;Doherty et al., 2020). ...
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O objetivo do presente estudo foi revisar sistematicamente a literatura ace”rca do tema distribuição de cargas de treinamento e periodização em natação em águas abertas. As buscas foram conduzidas nas bases PubMed, SportDiscus, Web of Science, Scopus, Lilacs e Scielo. A análise das informações dos artigos foi realizada pela lista de checagem da declaração STROBE e os dados foram analisados pela técnica de análise de conteúdo do tipo categorial. A revisão incluiu 5 estudos publicados no período de 2016 a 2022. Os atletas, de ambos os sexos, contemplando os níveis de competição elite e amador eram competidores das distâncias de 5 a 25 Km para os atletas de elite e 78 Km para o atleta amador. As pesquisas foram desenvolvidas na Itália (4) e na França (1). Os resultados revelaram que foi utilizada a periodização clássica, composta por distribuição de cargas piramidal e polarizada na maior parte dos estudos (80%), bem como os atletas de elite reportaram alta carga horária semanal para os treinamentos, 22 a 28 horas com 70 a 85 Km semanais. Da mesma forma, o estudo que investigou o atleta amador apresentou uma carga horária semanal de até 19 horas com 15 a 70 Km semanais. Este estudo concluiu que altos volumes de treinamento, somado a uma predominância de cargas de domínio de intensidade baixa, são diretrizes centrais para a prescrição do treinamento de natação em águas abertas. Palavras-chave: Esporte. Performance. Exercício de Endurance. Natação em águas abertas. Maratona aquática.
... poorer SE was partially the result of superfluous movement, indicating that efficient skiers had a higher ability to reduce the residual movement during DP 15 . Moreover, neuromuscular characteristics have been proven to improve the exercise economy by storing and releasing elastic energies in muscles and tendons, ultimately enhancing exercise efficiency 16 . DP techniques require developed upper-body strengths; therefore, the upper body might positively influence SE DP . ...
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To assess the skiing economy (SE) and kinematics during double poling (DP) roller skiing between two groups of skiers in a field setting. Five experienced and five novice male skiers performed a SEDP test at 16 km∙h⁻¹ on an outdoor athletics track. Gas exchange parameters were measured to determine SEDP. A two-dimensional video was filmed to measure the kinematics variables. Experienced skiers exhibited a 21% lower oxygen cost than novice skiers (p = 0.016) in DP, indicating a strong association between SEDP, cycle length and cycle rate (p < 0.001). Additionally, before the poling phase, experienced skiers manifested significantly greater maximum hip and knee extension angles than novice skiers (p < 0.001). During the poling phase, experienced skiers with a greater pole plant angle (p = 0.001), longer flexion time (p < 0.001) and higher flexion angular velocity in the elbow joint (p < 0.05) demonstrated better SEDP. There was an interaction effect of the one-repetition maximum bench press × group in SEDP (b = − 0.656, SE = 0.097, t = − 6.78, p = 0.001). Therefore, experienced skiers with better SEDP demonstrated more efficient cycles, potentially accomplished using dynamic full-body DP motion to ascertain effective propulsion. Combined upper body strength and ski-specific skill training may enhance SEDP in novice skiers.
... Over the years, multiple review articles have been published examining concurrent strength and endurance training, including meta-analyses and systematic reviews that examine the influence of the sequence of concurrent strength and endurance training [14,15], describe and analyze the "interference effect" [10,16,17], and assess the influence of training status on strength gains during concurrent strength and endurance training [18]. Several systematic reviews have also been published that are specific to concurrent strength and endurance training for optimizing endurance performance [19], rowing and canoeing [20], running [21][22][23][24][25], cycling [21,26], soccer [27], multiple training modes [28], and high-intensity interval training [7,29]. Reviews have evaluated the effect of endurance training on muscle hypertrophy [10][11][12], while also exploring topics such as detraining [30]. ...
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Background Both strength and endurance training are included in global exercise recommendations and are the main components of training programs for competitive sports. While an abundance of research has been published regarding concurrent strength and endurance training, only a small portion of this research has been conducted in females or has addressed their unique physiological circumstances (e.g., hormonal profiles related to menstrual cycle phase, menstrual dysfunction, and hormonal contraceptive use), which may influence training responses and adaptations. Objective The aim was to complete a systematic review of the scientific literature regarding training adaptations following concurrent strength and endurance training in apparently healthy adult females. Methods A systematic electronic search for articles was performed in July 2021 and again in December 2022 using PubMed and Medline. This review followed, where applicable, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The quality of the included studies was assessed using a modified Downs and Black checklist. Inclusion criteria were (1) fully published peer-reviewed publications; (2) study published in English; (3) participants were healthy normal weight or overweight females of reproductive age (mean age between > 18 and < 50) or presented as a group (n > 5) in studies including both females and males and where female results were reported separately; (4) participants were randomly assigned to intervention groups, when warranted, and the study included measures of maximal strength and endurance performance; and (5) the duration of the intervention was ≥ 8 weeks to ensure a meaningful training duration. Results Fourteen studies met the inclusion criteria (seven combined strength training with running, four with cycling, and three with rowing or cross-country skiing). These studies indicated that concurrent strength and endurance training generally increases parameters associated with strength and endurance performance in female participants, while several other health benefits such as, e.g., improved body composition and blood lipid profile were reported in individual studies. The presence of an “interference effect” in females could not be assessed from the included studies as this was not the focus of any included research and single-mode training groups were not always included alongside concurrent training groups. Importantly, the influence of concurrent training on fast-force production was limited, while the unique circumstances affecting females were not considered/reported in most studies. Overall study quality was low to moderate. Conclusion Concurrent strength and endurance training appears to be beneficial in increasing strength and endurance capacity in females; however, multiple research paradigms must be explored to better understand the influence of concurrent training modalities in females. Future research should explore the influence of concurrent strength and endurance training on fast-force production, the possible presence of an “interference effect” in athletic populations, and the influence of unique circumstances, such as hormone profile, on training responses and adaptations.
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Middle-age and older runners demonstrate differences in running biomechanics compared with younger runners. Female runners demonstrate differences in running biomechanics compared with males, and females experience hormonal changes during menopause that may also affect age-related changes in running biomechanics. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between age and running biomechanics in healthy female recreational runners. Fifty-two participants (ages 27–65 y) ran on an instrumented treadmill at 2 different self-selected speeds: easy pace and 5 km race pace. Lower-extremity kinematic and kinetic variables were calculated from 14 consecutive strides. Linear regression was used to determine the relationship between age and lower-extremity running biomechanics, controlling for self-selected running speed. There was a negative relationship between age and easy pace ( R = −.49, P < .001) and age and 5 km race pace ( R = −.43, P = .001). After controlling for self-selected running speed, there were no significant relationships between age and running biomechanics for either running speed. Several biomechanical variables were moderately to strongly correlated with running speed. Running speed should be considered when investigating age-related differences in running biomechanics.
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Objective: This study aimed to analyze the effect of practicing maximum strength (MAX), explosive strength (EXP), or both combined (COMB) on seven runners’ performance indicators: vertical jump (VJ), one-repetition maximum squat (1RM), peak velocity/peak running speed (PV), lactate threshold (LT), middle-distance time trial (TT), maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max), and running economy (RE). Methods: A systematic review (Scopus, Web of Science, Sports Discuss, PubMed) with meta-analysis was conducted following PRISMA standards. Inclusion criteria (PICOS) were: Recreational or well-trained athletes aged 18-45 performing concurrent training for at least five weeks. The search terms used were related to different types of strength/endurance and participants’ age and sports modality. Twenty manuscripts were selected, and quality assessed with PEDro. Results: MAX training is more effective than EXP and COMB in improving VJ, 1RM, and PV, while COMB is more effective than MAX and EXP to enhance TT. MAX is more effective than EXP in improving LT. Concurrent workouts do not provide additional benefits to VO2max. It is unknown which strength modality (MAX, EXP, or COMB) is more effective in improving RE. Conclusion: Concurrent training is more effective than single-mode endurance training for enhancing specific performance variables in adult endurance runners. Middle- and long-distance runners may consider incorporating MAX training to target specific goals (i.e., improving VJ, 1RM, LT, PV) while utilizing COMB training to enhance TT. Certain variables may benefit from EXP. New randomized controlled trials are required to confirm these findings. Keywords: endurance, running, concurrent training, maximum strength, explosive strength
Article
Resistance training can provide many benefits to distance runners, but is often either overlooked or not effectively incorporated into a distance runner’s practice schedule. Thus, when appropriately planned and practiced, overall distance running economy can be improved by resistance training. This paper examines the benefits of resistance training for distance running in high school athletes to improve running experiences and competitive performances.
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This study determined the effects of a 10-week strength training program on running economy in 12 female distance runners who were randomly assigned to either an endurance and strength training program (ES) or endurance training only (E). Training for both groups consisted of steady-state endurance running 4 to 5 days a week, 20 to 30 miles each week. The ES undertook additional weight training 3 days a week. Subjects were tested pre and post for [latin capital V with dot above]O2, max, treadmill running economy, body composition, and strength. A repeated-measures ANOVA was used to determine significant differences between and within groups. The endurance and strength training program resulted in significant increases in strength (p < 0.05) for the ES in both upper (24.4%) and lower body (33.8%) lifts. There were no differences in treadmill [latin capital V with dot above]O2, max and body composition in either group. Running economy improved significantly in the ES group, but no significant changes were observed in the E group. The findings suggest that strength training, when added to an endurance training program, improves running economy and has little or no impact on [latin capital V with dot above]O2, max or body composition in trained female distance runners. (C) 1997 National Strength and Conditioning Association
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MILLET, G. P., B. JAOUEN, F. BORRANI, and R. CANDAU. Effects of concurrent endurance and strength training on running economy and V̇O2 kinetics. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 34, No. 8, pp. 1351-1359, 2002. Purpose: It has been suggested that endurance training influences the running economy (CR) and the oxygen uptake (V̇O2) kinetics in heavy exercise by accelerating the primary phase and attenuating the V̇O2 slow component. However, the effects of heavy weight training (HWT) in combination with endurance training remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of a concurrent HWT+endurance training on CR and the V̇O2 kinetics in endurance athletes. Methods: Fifteen triathletes were assigned to endurance+strength (ES) or endurance-only (E) training for 14 wk. The training program was similar, except ES performed two HWT sessions a week. Before and after the training period, the subjects performed 1) an incremental field running test for determination of V̇O2max and the velocity associated (VV̇O2max), the second ventilatory threshold (VT2); 2) a 3000-m run at constant velocity, calculated to require 25% of the difference between V̇O2max and VT2, to determine CR and the characteristics of the V̇O2 kinetics; 3) maximal hopping tests to determine maximal mechanical power and lower-limb stiffness; 4) maximal concentric lower-limb strength measurements. Results: After the training period, maximal strength were increased (P < 0.01) in ES but remained unchanged in E. Hopping power decreased in E (P < 0.05). After training, economy (P < 0.05) and hopping power (P < 0.001) were greater in ES than in E. V̇O2max, leg hopping stiffness and the V̇O2 kinetics were not significantly affected by training either in ES or E. Conclusion: Additional HWT led to improved maximal strength and running economy with no significant effects on the V̇O2 kinetics pattern in heavy exercise.
Article
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Thirty-five healthy men were matched and randomly assigned to one of four training groups that performed high-intensity strength and endurance training (C; n = 9), upper body only high-intensity strength and endurance training (UC; n = 9), high-intensity endurance training (E; n = 8), or high-intensity strength training (ST; n = 9). The C and ST groups significantly increased one-repetition maximum strength for all exercises (P < 0.05). Only the C, UC, and E groups demonstrated significant increases in treadmill maximal oxygen consumption. The ST group showed significant increases in power output. Hormonal responses to treadmill exercise demonstrated a differential response to the different training programs, indicating that the underlying physiological milieu differed with the training program. Significant changes in muscle fiber areas were as follows: types I, IIa, and IIc increased in the ST group; types I and IIc decreased in the E group; type IIa increased in the C group; and there were no changes in the UC group. Significant shifts in percentage from type IIb to type IIa were observed in all training groups, with the greatest shift in the groups in which resistance trained the thigh musculature. This investigation indicates that the combination of strength and endurance training results in an attenuation of the performance improvements and physiological adaptations typical of single-mode training.
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In accordance with the principles of training specificity, resistance and endurance training induce distinct muscular adaptations. Endurance training, for example, decreases the activity of the glycolytic enzymes, but increases intramuscular substrate stores, oxidative enzyme activities, and capillary, as well as mitochondrial, density. In contrast, resistance or strength training reduces mitochondrial density, while marginally impacting capillary density, metabolic enzyme activities and intramuscular substrate stores (except muscle glycogen). The training modalities do induce one common muscular adaptation: they transform type IIb myofibres into IIa myofibres. This transformation is coupled with opposite changes in fibre size (resistance training increases, and endurance training decreases, fibre size), and, in general, myofibre contractile properties. As a result of these distinct muscular adaptations, endurance training facilitates aerobic processes, whereas resistance training increases muscular strength and anaerobic power. Exercise performance data do not fit this paradigm, however, as they indicate that resistance training or the addition of resistance training to an ongoing endurance exercise regimen, including running or cycling, increases both short and long term endurance capacity in sedentary and trained individuals. Resistance training also appears to improve lactate threshold in untrained individuals during cycling. These improvements may be linked to the capacity of resistance training to alter myofibre size and contractile properties, adaptations that may increase muscular force production. In contrast to running and cycling, traditional dry land resistance training or combined swim and resistance training does not appear to enhance swimming performance in untrained individuals or competitive swimmers, despite substantially increasing upper body strength. Combined swim and swim-specific 'in-water' resistance training programmes, however, increase a competitive swimmer's velocity over distances up to 200 m. Traditional resistance training may be a valuable adjunct to the exercise programmes followed by endurance runners or cyclists, but not swimmers; these latter athletes need more specific forms of resistance training to realise performance improvement.
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Designing Resistance Training Programs, Fourth Edition, is a guide to developing individualized training programs for both serious athletes and fitness enthusiasts. Two of the world’s leading experts on strength training explore how to design scientifically based resistance training programs, modify and adapt programs to meet the needs of special populations, and apply the elements of program design in the real world. The fourth edition presents the most current information while retaining the studies that are the basis for concepts, guidelines, and applications in resistance training. Meticulously updated and heavily referenced, the fourth edition contains the following updates: A full-color interior provides stronger visual appeal.Sidebars focus on a specific practical question or an applied research concept, allowing readers to connect research to real-life situations.Multiple detailed tables summarize research from the text, offering an easy way to compare data and conclusions.A glossary makes it simple to find key terms in one convenient location.Newly added instructor ancillaries make the fourth edition a true learning resource for the classroom (available at www.HumanKinetics.com/DesigningResistanceTrainingPrograms). Designing Resistance Training Programs, Fourth Edition, is an essential resource for understanding and applying the science behind resistance training for any population.
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Background and purpose: Assessment of the quality of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) is common practice in systematic reviews. However, the reliability of data obtained with most quality assessment scales has not been established. This report describes 2 studies designed to investigate the reliability of data obtained with the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale developed to rate the quality of RCTs evaluating physical therapist interventions. Method: In the first study, 11 raters independently rated 25 RCTs randomly selected from the PEDro database. In the second study, 2 raters rated 120 RCTs randomly selected from the PEDro database, and disagreements were resolved by a third rater; this generated a set of individual rater and consensus ratings. The process was repeated by independent raters to create a second set of individual and consensus ratings. Reliability of ratings of PEDro scale items was calculated using multirater kappas, and reliability of the total (summed) score was calculated using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC [1,1]). Results: The kappa value for each of the 11 items ranged from.36 to.80 for individual assessors and from.50 to.79 for consensus ratings generated by groups of 2 or 3 raters. The ICC for the total score was.56 (95% confidence interval=.47-.65) for ratings by individuals, and the ICC for consensus ratings was.68 (95% confidence interval=.57-.76). Discussion and conclusion: The reliability of ratings of PEDro scale items varied from "fair" to "substantial," and the reliability of the total PEDro score was "fair" to "good."
Article
Recombination processes in antimonide-based materials for thermophotovoltaic (TPV) devices have been investigated using a radio-frequency (rf) photoreflectance technique, in which a Nd–YAG pulsed laser is used to excite excess carriers, and the short-pulse response and photoconductivity decay are monitored with an inductively coupled noncontacting rf probe. Both lattice-matched AlGaAsSb and GaSb have been used to double cap InGaAsSb active layers to evaluate bulk lifetime and surface recombination velocity with different active layer thicknesses. With an active layer doping of 2×1017 cm−3, effective bulk lifetimes of 95 ns and surface recombination velocities of 1900 cm/s have been obtained. As the laser intensity is increased the lifetime decreases, which is attributed to radiative recombination under these high-level injection conditions. Similar measurements have been taken on both TPV device structures and starting substrate materials for comparison purposes. © 1999 American Institute of Physics.
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summary: The positive effects of resistance training on distance-running performance through enhanced running economy are well established. However, few practical recommendations exist to aid coaches in planning resistance training to supplement a distance-running program. This article reviews literature in this area and offers practical applications for the athletics coach. (C) 2007 National Strength and Conditioning Association