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AMS Radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin
Abstract
Very small samples from the Shroud of Turin have been dated by
accelerator mass spectrometry in laboratories at Arizona, Oxford and
Zurich. As controls, three samples whose ages had been determined
independently were also dated. The results provide conclusive evidence
that the linen of the Shroud of Turin is mediaeval.
... In an article published in Nature in the late 1980s, C14 (carbon-14) dating suggested that the Turin Shroud originated in the medieval period [2]. This finding seemed to extinguish hopes that the shroud was an authentic relic associated with a biblical figure. ...
... Even authors who advocate the authenticity of the piece generated images with the expected structural deformation when they projected the marks and body onto a two-dimensional plane [7] [19]. Furthermore, it is reasonable to assume that there were artists or sculptors with sufficient knowledge to compose a piece like that, whether by painting or bas-relief, both in the period alleged by dating tests, which covers 1260-1390 [2], as for the one who claims to have been before [4] and even the other compatible with the period in which Jesus Christ would have lived [21]. The skills of 8 artists in relation to the issue of realism or techniques compatible with those in vogue today, can be observed over the millennia, even in cultures that excelled in stylized structures such as that of Ancient Egypt, most notably in the case of the statue by Kaaper composed in ca. ...
... Hands folded on the lap are a constant theme in religious figures, as well as verbal and non-verbal information about their lives [25][27] [29]. If it is taken into account that the first documented appearance of the Shroud of Turin was in 1355 in France, and that in a later report written by the Bishop of Troy for Pope Clement VII there is a part addressing ""the truth being attested by the artist who had painted it" and being presented by the Pope as a "representation" [1] [15], linking this to the C14 exam that presents a date between 1260 and 1390 [2], it seems reasonable to infer that there was already an entire artistic system available for making the piece and in relation to the location of the first documentary occurrence, there is a suspicion that, for example, the first bronze effigy in relief in England, created in 1279 may have been forged in France [26], corroborating its status as a center that radiates artistic technology, even though there were already similar productions in other regions of Europe. ...
[ABSTRACT] Many people believe that the Shroud of Turin is the cloth that was used to wrap Jesus Christ after his death, while others consider it a medieval work or even a forgery from that period. This artifact has generated significant controversy and debate, especially with the advent of new technologies and the recent popularity of social networks. This study seeks to present a simple and objective explanation about the element of origin that imprinted in a fabric the figure of an adult man with signs of physical violence, indicating that the pattern corresponds more to a low-relief origin than to the volumetry of a real human body in a post-mortem state. The work is based on a digital environment, with free and open-source 3D modeling software. [HIGHLIGHTS] • Fabric dynamic simulation and distance texturing of meshes allowed the generation of patterns that simulate the possible structure that generated the image on the Shroud of Turin. • The pattern of the spots indicates that the source of the impression on the Shroud of Turin is more compatible with a low-relief base. • The volume of the human body would generate a distorted and significantly more robust image pattern than that present on the Shroud of Turin. • European funerary art from the medieval period shows elements very compatible with those present in the Shroud of Turin.
... In 1988, the HST was radiocarbon-dated to 1260-1390 A.D. [16], but the result is questionable [2,[17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24] also in the light of the new results discussed in Sections 6.1 and 7. ...
... Finally, a study [2] illustrates the reported Phillips' hypothesis reported [19,20] which assumed that neutron radiation on the HST would have transformed the nitrogen and 13C nuclei into 14C, thus heavily skewing the results of the radiocarbon dating of the HST performed in 1988 [16] by many centuries. ...
After a critical revision of the main results obtained on the hematic material of the Holy Shroud in Turin, this paper presents various news of both a macroscopic and microscopic nature. At a macroscopic level, news regarding the directions and position of blood and the probable presence of pulmonary fluid are discussed. Also, the bloodstains on the left arm are examined to try to distinguish different kinds of hematic fluid. At a microscopic level, three different types of blood are evidenced. Hypotheses have been formulated to distinguish pre-mortem and post-mortem blood and to distinguish erythrocytes on the basis of their different sizes. The presence of fibrin, earthy material, creatinine typical of a tortured person, and the stacking of erythrocytes is also discussed along with their Beta-activity and fluorescence. Finally, the physical conditions relating to Jesus are discussed from a medical point of view which could explain all the news of the hematic material taken from the HST and are consistent with the tortures of Jesus Christ described in the Holy Bible.
... In 1988 the TS was radiocarbon dated by three famous laboratories (Damon et al. 1989), and it turned out to be attributed to the year 1325 AD, with uncertainty of ±65 years. This result has been widely criticized [10][11][12] (Rogers 2005;Riani et al. 2013;Fanti et al. 2015b;Casabianca et al. 2019) both for procedural and statistical deficiencies. ...
Various images of the face of the Turin Shroud Man, acquired at different wavelengths, from the near infrared region to the ultraviolet, have been studied and compared. A correlation as a function of the wavelength, between the penetration depth in the fabric of the incident light and the anatomic details visible on the images, is discussed based on the physical properties of linen threads and light. In addition, the backside of the Turin Shroud, in correspondence of the region of the face, has been examined, evidencing the possible presence of a second superficial image impressed on the backside. Notwithstanding the high level of scientific knowledge today reached, there is no known physical/chemical process which allows to explain all the properties of the Turin Shroud’s body image. According to our scientific knowledge, the corpse of a dead man cannot produce an energy capable to imprint on a linen cloth an image with all the microscopical and macroscopical properties discovered by analyzing the body image of the Turin Shroud, which has not yet been reproduced in any laboratory in the world. According to faith the corpse of a living Man can do it, during the resurrection, assuming a different state of matter. With this respect, the Turin Shroud can be considered as a two-thousand-old relic witnessing to the humanity, just in the age of science, the reasonableness of the faith in the resurrection.
... Three laboratories from Oxford, Zurich and Arizona participated in this dating. The results were published in Nature (Damon et al. 1989) and are summarized here. ...
The Shroud of Turin is an old linen fabric imprinted with the image of a tortured man who lies prone with his hands crossed before him. Since for many it is related to Jesus of Nazareth, this cloth is among the most studied, controversial and enigmatic of all archaeological and religious objects. Since its radiocarbon dating at the end of the eighties of the last century, it is considered by many to be an object made in the Middle Ages. The controversy is due to the fact that there are other scientific and artistic evidences that place this object outside the medieval sphere. An argument map is a critical thinking way of representing the relationships between evidences and arguments, and is used here to represent the sequences of argumen-tation that defend that the Shroud of Turin is not a medieval object.
Radiocarbon dating is a scientific method for determining the age of ancient organic materials, specimens, and artifacts based on the decay of 14C isotopes. This study outlines the mode of formation and assimilation of 14C isotopes in the atmosphere. A traditional carbon-14 dating method estimates sample age by measuring β-ray decay, however, this new technique uses an incredibly sensitive mass spectrometer to count individual carbon-14 atoms in a sample directly. This approach offers several advantages. It eliminates issues related to the cosmic ray background and allows for shorter counting times on much smaller samples, leading to more precise age determinations. Moreover, a wide range of archaeological materials can be dated using milligram-sized samples. Currently, research is underway to develop a specialized machine for counting C-14 atoms, and radiocarbon dating cannot provide exact dates for archaeological or environmental studies on its own. Instead, it needs to use a calibration curve to adjust for changes in atmospheric carbon levels. Any model that proposes the validity of C-14 dating must acknowledge its objectivity and reproducibility. The fundamental principles, methods, and methodology of accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS), and the history, evolution, and revolution in radiocarbon dating techniques are presented in this review.
Les reliques, parce qu’elles doivent justifier de leur prétention à l’authenticité, sont parmi les objets le plus régulièrement décrits dans la documentation depuis le Moyen Âge. Ainsi, l’apparence des Suaires du Christ est détaillée par des textes et des images depuis le xie siècle jusqu’à nos jours. Ces descriptions évoluent sur plusieurs points : les fragments deviennent des linges entiers, les linges blancs se chargent de taches. Cette mutation se concentre particulièrement sur les derniers siècles du Moyen Âge, témoignant à la fois d’une montée en puissance de l’esthétique indiciaire dans la culture visuelle et d’un changement plus profond dans le rapport aux reliques, dont les descriptions tendent à se spécifier, leur consacrant un régime de singularité. Pour ces objets au statut singulier, il est encore aujourd’hui difficile d’obtenir des données fiables sur leur matérialité : ainsi, le Suaire de Turin, au centre d’un culte contemporain, est concerné par des études nombreuses et contradictoires, présentant des méthodes à la scientificité discutée, nouvelle étape dans la longue histoire de ce polymorphisme des objets.
Balanites aegyptiaca is an edible fruit bearing tree of arid and semi-arid regions. It has been used by humans since ancient times as a source of food and for other ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal purposes. Many review articles were published about this tree, and we will present the most important of them, to explain why this review article is the most important. The number of the medicinal activities of Balanites aegyptiaca is relatively large and these include antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiparasitic, hepatoprotective, wound healing and nutritional. The chemical composition of this tree was extensively studied and published and the publications will be summarized in this article. In the discussion section, various factors that affect the quality of the tree products will be presented, in addition to its economic value and its use in the preparation of nanoparticles that have notable medicinal activities. In the last part, conclusions will be drawn and suggestions future research and uses will be proposed. Abbreviations: ABTS 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), ahc and her/his colleagues, AChE acetylcholine esterase, BuChE butyrylcholine esterase, COX cyclooxygenase, DPPH 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, DCM dichloromethane, EO essential oil, FRAP ferric reducing activity power, GC-MS gas chromatography mass spectrometry, GSH glutathione, LC-MS liquid chromatography mass spectrometry, LPS lipopolysaccharide, LOX lipoxygenase, MDA malondialdehyde, NPs nanoparticles, OSI oxidative stress index, PE petroleum ether, PLA phospholipase, STZ streptozotocin, TAC total antioxidant capacity, TAR total antioxidant response, TBARS thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, TEAC Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity, TFC total flavonoid content, TOS total oxidative status, TPC total phenolic content, TTC total tannins content.
Esta es una presentación que hice el sábado, 20 de abril de 2024, en el canal “La Biblia en Contexto” de Norma Lilia. En esta presentación discuto la narrativa que se suele hacer a favor de la autenticidad de la Síndone de Turín, la cuestiono y presento evidencia en contra de esta convicción, sin apelar a las pruebas de carbono 14.
Count rates, representing the rate of 14 C decay, are the basic data obtained in a 14 C laboratory. The conversion of this information into an age or geochemical parameters appears a simple matter at first. However, the path between counting and suitable 14 C data reporting (table 1) causes headaches to many. Minor deflections in pathway, depending on personal interpretations, are possible and give end results that are not always useful for inter-laboratory comparisons. This discussion is an attempt to identify some of these problems and to recommend certain procedures by which reporting ambiguities can be avoided.
Radiocarbon ages of dendrochronologically-dated wood spanning the last 4500 years were determined at both the Seattle and Belfast laboratories. The combined results are reported in this issue of radiocarbon in two papers, with this paper covering the AD 1950—500 BC interval, and the twin (Pearson & Stuiver, 1986) covering the 500 BC–2500 BC interval.
The levels and sources of the measurement background in an AMS 14 C dating system have been studied in detail. The relative contributions to the total background from combustion, graphitization, storage, handling, and from the accelerator were determined by measuring the C concentrations in samples of anthracite coal ranging in size from 15μg to 20mg. The results show that, for the present system, the uncertainty in the background is greater than that due to measurement precision alone for very old or for very small samples. While samples containing 100μg of carbon can yield useful 14 C dates throughout the Holocene, 200 to 500μg are required for dating late Pleistocene materials. With the identification of the procedures that introduce contamination, the level and uncertainty of the total system background should both be reducible to the point that 100μg of carbon would be sufficient for dating most materials.
Graphite in various forms has become the standard target for accelerator 14 C dating. Graphite has been made by catalytic graphitization of charcoals (Lowe, 1984). Thin films of graphite have also been produced by thermal cracking (Beukens & Lee, 1981), electric discharge (Andrée et al , 1984; Wand, Gillespie & Hedges, 1984). Vogel et al (1984) pointed out the ease of graphite formation on iron from CO 2 and H 2 mixtures at ca 600°C. The deposition reactions of carbon from the CO, H 2 , and CO 2 equilibria are well known (Wagman et al , 1945) and well studied. Formation of graphite from CO 2 was discussed extensively by Boudouard (1902) and Schenck and Zimmerman (1903), and was known to chemists in France in 1851. We have used a related method, where graphite forms away from the iron, by using a higher temperature, and reduction of CO 2 to CO over Zn in the presence of H 2 (Jull et al , 1986) as an alternative to the use of Fe alone. The object of this paper is to point out an even simpler graphite preparation system, which eliminates hydrogen. The decomposition reaction of CO (Boudouard, 1902) takes place according to reaction (1).
The calibration curves and tables given in this issue of RADIOCARBON form a data base ideally suited for a computerized operation. The program listed below converts a radiocarbon age and its age error o s (one standard deviation) into calibrated ages (intercepts with the calibration curve), and ranges of calibrated ages that correspond to the age error. The standard deviation o C in the calibration curve is taken into account using (see Stuiver and Pearson, this issue, for details).
The chemistry of the various stains and images on the Shroud of Turin is presented. The chemical conclusions were drawn from all the data and observations, both physical and chemical, collected by direct investigation of the Shroud in 1978. The conclusions are that the body image is made up of yellowed surface fibrils of the linen that are at more advanced stages of degradation than the non-image linen. The chromophore is a conjugated carbonyl. No evidence was found in the body image of any added substances that could have contributed to the yellow color of the fibrils that form the image. The blood images on the cloth are made of blood. The data, taken together, do not support the hypothesis that the images on the Shroud are due to an artist.
The performance of six laboratories with the capacity to date small samples (4 AMS and 2 small gas-counter laboratories) has been compared using 100mg samples of tex-tiles from Ancient Egypt and Peru, with the British Museum laboratory acting as independent coordinator. This intercomparison was one of normal practices and has demonstrated that a coherent series of results can be obtained when several laboratories undertake blindfold mea-surements, although the occurrence of outliers emphasizes the continuing need for the dating of unusually important or controversial samples to be undertaken by a group of laboratories.
Radiocarbon dating at the Arizona accelerator facility has improved substan-tially in the last three years. Since starting to use graphite targets (see Jull et al, 1986), we have been able to obtain routinely a precision of ca ± 1 % (ca 80 yr) for relatively modern material. Our routine technique of tuning and operating the tandem accelerator mass spectrometer (TAMS) and our method of calculating 14C results are discussed in detail. Data on activity ratios of oxalic acid-II/oxalic-I are presented. Examples of the wide variety of projects on which we have collaborated are given. Brief discussions of three such projects are presented for our colleagues who were unable to attend this conference: an Arizona Indian archaeologic project, a study of megafaunal extinctions, and a study of the growth of phosphorite nodules on the sea floor off the Peruvian coast.
Dates from the first runs of the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit span the range from present to c. 17,000 bp, with errors (1 s.d.) from ± 100 to ± 300 years. Material dated comprises bone, wood, charcoal, seeds, organic residues in pottery, and charcoal inclusions in slag.