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Discrete states of redshift and galaxy dynamics. I - Internal motions in single galaxies
Abstract
This paper develops the concept that the redshift can occur only in
specific discrete values. The key to the development is a dual-redshift
model for individual galaxies. Well-known local galaxies, especially M31
in great detail, are shown to consist of two basic opposed streams of
outflowing material which have an intrinsic difference of redshift of
70-75 km/s. A smooth symmetrical rotation and expansion curve coupled
with the multiple-redshift model is sufficient to account for all the
redshift data. The paper is almost entirely empirical and draws upon
large amounts of the best data available on galaxies. Where definite
differences exist in the form of the data as predicted by conventional
dynamics and the discrete redshift concept, the data favor the latter.
... Neste primeiro artigo, ele analisa os movimentos internos de galáxias individuais medidos pelos desvios para o vermelho. Ele apresenta distribuições de z que aparecem em múltiplos discretos de cz = 70−75 km/s [71]. Em trabalhos posteriores, ele refinaria o passo da quantização para cz = 72 km/s, como no estudo de galáxias binárias (ver fig. ...
... Figura 9.2: Esquerda: figura 1 de Tifft[74] com a distribuição de desvios, expressos em km/s, para uma amostra de galáxias binárias. Os picos em 72 km/s e seus múltiplos são aparentes (ver também[71]). Direita: figura 1 de Karlsson[73] com a distribuição de desvios para o vermelho z de uma amostra de 574 quasares. ...
Este livro contém uma coletânea de textos onde apresento as minhas reflexões sobre vários aspectos da cosmologia moderna.
Ele surgiu de minha experiência como professor de cosmologia relativista no curso de graduação em física do Departamento de
Física da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, durante o período de 2001 a 2010. O público alvo é, primordialmente, constituído
por estudantes de física e astronomia que cursam a graduação, mas leitores em nível de pós-graduação e pesquisadores em
astrofísica e cosmologia também poderão encontrar algum proveito na leitura destes Ensaios. Por outro lado, a maioria dos ensaios não
exige conhecimento da matemática de graduação universitária.
Um ensaio, "A escuridão do espaço profundo", foi escrito em colaboração com meu colega da Universidade Estadual de Maringá, PR,
Prof. Marcos César Danhoni Neves. A ele, os meus sinceros agradecimentos. Agradeço também, em especial, ao Prof. Reynier Peletier
do Instituto Astronômico Kapteyn, da Universidade de Groningen, Holanda, pela facilitação do uso do computador do Instituto Kapteyn,
que muito me ajudou, particularmente na confecção de muitas figuras e diagramas que aparecem nos Ensaios.
A capa é a reprodução de uma imagem obtida pelo "Two Micron All Sky Survey" (2MASS), um projeto conjunto da Universidade de
Massachusetts e do Centro de Análise e Processamento de Infravermelho do Instituto de Tecnologia da Califórnia, financiado pela
NASA e pela NSF ("National Science Foundation").
Todos os Ensaios desta coleção aparecem também em minha página eletrônica pessoal no Departamento de
Física (http://www.fisica.ufmg.br/dsoares/) nas seções "Tópicos em cosmologia relativista" e "Textos & Notícias"
Domingos Soares
Belo Horizonte, MG, outubro de 2021
... In this first paper, he analyses the internal motions of individual galaxies measured by the redshifts. He shows distributions of z which appear in discrete multiples of cz = 70 − 75 km/s [19]. In later studies, he would refine the quantization step to cz = 72 km/s, as in the study of binary galaxies (see fig. 2 ...
... [22] with the distribution of shifts, expressed in km/s, for a sample of binary galaxies. The peaks at 72 km/s and their multiples are apparent (see also [19]). Right: figure 1 of Karlsson [21] with the distribution of redshifts z for a sample of 574 quasars. ...
Cosmologist Edward Harrison (1919-2007) created an instructive image regarding the redshifts observed in modern astrophysics. The light detected by our telescopes is affected by three types of redshifts that perform a true dance of ∆λs, the Harrison ballet. Inspired in the work of astronomer Halton Arp (1927-2013) --- the "Galileo of Palomar" ---, I present the contemporary version of the ballet by adding to the three types two more characteristics, which prove to be very important in modern cosmology: the anomalous redshifts and the quantization of redshifts. I also discuss a Machian relativistic cosmology that aims to incorporate these new observational features.
... Neste primeiro artigo, ele analisa os movimentos internos de galáxias individuais medidos pelos desvios para o vermelho. Ele apresenta distribuições de z que aparecem em múltiplos discretos de cz = 70− 75 km/s [19]. Em trabalhos posteriores, ele refinaria o passo da quantização para cz = 72 km/s, como no estudo de galáxias binárias (ver fig. 2 abaixo). ...
... As investigações de Geoffrey Burbidge, publicada em 1968 [20], e do astrônomo sueco K. G. Karlsson, publicada em 1977 [21], apresentaram as periodicidades para grandes desvios para o vermelho. Eles encontraram uma progressão geométrica, denominada série de Karlsson, dada por ∆ log(1 + z) = constante = 0, 089 ou, escrevendo de outra forma, [19]). Direita: figura 1 de Karlsson [21] com a distribuição de desvios para o vermelho z de uma amostra de 574 quasares. ...
O cosmólogo Edward Harrison (1919-2007) criou uma imagem instrutiva a respeito dos desvios para o vermelho observados na astrofísica moderna. A luz detectada por nossos telescópios está afetada por três tipos de desvios para o vermelho, os quais executam uma verdadeira dança de lambdas, o "balé de Harrison". Inspirado no trabalho do astrônomo Halton Arp (1927-2013) --- o "Galileu de Palomar" ---, apresento a versão contemporânea do balé, acrescentando aos três tipos mais duas características que se mostram muito importantes na cosmologia moderna: os desvios anômalos e a quantização dos desvios para o vermelho. Discuto também uma cosmologia relativista machiana que pretende incorporar estas novas características observacionais.
... In order to find the time, that will be independent of one's choice of coordinates, an upper limit of measurable time from an event, back to the big-bang singularity was proposed by Suchard [6]. Tifft put forward the idea that the observed redshift quantization of galaxies could possibly explain an underlying time quantization scheme [7]. A more recent developments on time quantized models are based on quasi-local invariant observables by Elze [8] and a perturbative approach to quantization by Barbero et.al [9]. ...
... In a homogeneous and isotropic universe we also expect the redshift distribution of extragalactic objects to approximate to a continuous and aperiodic distribution. However, Tifft [366,367,368] affirmed that there was a periodicity of 70-75 km/s in the redshift of the galaxies. In an improved correction for the optimum solar vector, the periodicity is found to be 37 km/s (which includes Tifft's result for twice this velocity) with a probability of finding this period by chance of 2.7 × 10 −5 [369]. ...
The main foundations of the standard CDM model of cosmology are that: 1) The redshifts of the galaxies are due to the expansion of the Universe plus peculiar motions; 2) The cosmic microwave background radiation and its anisotropies derive from the high energy primordial Universe when matter and radiation became decoupled; 3) The abundance pattern of the light elements is explained in terms of primordial nucleosynthesis; and 4) The formation and evolution of galaxies can be explained only in terms of gravitation within a inflation+dark matter+dark energy scenario. Numerous tests have been carried out on these ideas and, although the standard model works pretty well in fitting many observations, there are also many data that present apparent caveats to be understood with it. In this paper, I offer a review of these tests and problems, as well as some examples of alternative models.
... In a homogeneous and isotropic universe we also expect the redshift distribution of extragalactic objects to approximate to a continuous and aperiodic distribution. However, Tifft [366][367][368] affirmed that there was a periodicity of 70-75 km/s in the redshift of the galaxies. In an improved correction for the optimum solar vector, the periodicity is found to be 37 km/s (which includes Tifft's result for twice this velocity) with a probability of finding this period by chance of 2.7×10 −5 [369]. ...
The main foundations of the standard CDM model of cosmology are that: 1) The redshifts of the galaxies are due to the expansion of the Universe plus peculiar motions; 2) The cosmic microwave background radiation and its anisotropies derive from the high energy primordial Universe when matter and radiation became decoupled; 3) The abundance pattern of the light elements is explained in terms of primordial nucleosynthesis; and 4) The formation and evolution of galaxies can be explained only in terms of gravitation within a inflation+dark matter+dark energy scenario. Numerous tests have been carried out on these ideas and, although the standard model works pretty well in fitting many observations, there are also many data that present apparent caveats to be understood with it. In this paper, I offer a review of these tests and problems, as well as some examples of alternative models.
... are the associated Legendre polynomials, n is the gravitational equivalent of the principal quantum number, l is the gravitational equivalent of the orbital quantum number and m is the gravitational equivalent of the magnetic quantum number. For physical reasons, only the following combination of gravitational quantum numbers, extension of the previous method in the two body problem with comparable rest mass, the quantization in galaxy pairs can be obtained (Tifft's effect[16]).The inertial forces 0 D D m V V appear for m=0states (static states), in which the Newton and non-differentiable forces balance each other: dynamical states) the inertial, Newton and non-differentiable forces are in balance in every field ...
The present paper analyzes the morphogenesis of gravitational structures, assuming that dynamics of a test particle in a gravitational field takes place on continuous but non-differentiable curves. The dynamics of such gravitational system is described by an equation for a complex speed that characterizes its rheological behavior. Moreover, the separation of movements on interaction scales in the dynamics equation implies a non-differentiable hydrodynamical model. Finally, such an approach was applied both to one and two body problems and, via numerical simulation, to the morphogenesis of gravitational structures. Consequently, quantization at intragalactic (Solar System) and extragalactic scales (Tifft’s effect) as well as certain modifications of Newton’s force occur. At the same time there is a tendency to form gravitational structures at any epoch, without inflationary phase.
... Many of the galaxies spatially near M31 appear to be dynamically affected by its presence and motion. Arp [39] managed to circumvent the problem by correcting velocities of more massive galaxies in the Local Group for redshift quantization [40,41], bringing the question of the local circular velocity of the Galaxy into the controversial arena of quasar redshifts. Arp's solution of 251 km s −1 for the Sun's motion relative to neighbouring galaxies [39] agrees closely with the Carlberg and Innanen result, but the methodology raises questions about its validity. ...
... In order to find the time, that will be independent of one's choice of coordinates, an upper limit of measurable time from an event, back to the big-bang singularity was proposed by Suchard [6]. Tifft put forward the idea that the observed redshift quantization of galaxies could possibly explain an underlying time quantization scheme [7]. A more recent developments on time quantized models are based on quasi-local invariant observables by Elze [8] and a perturbative approach to quantization by Barbero et.al [9]. ...
In this paper, we examine an ansatz, where anti-commutation rules hold only as integrated averages over time intervals, and not at every instant, giving rise to a time-discrete form solution to the Klein-Gordon equation. This coarse-grained validation of the anti-commutation rules enables us to show that the relativistic energy-momentum relation holds only over discrete time intervals (or at discrete time instants), fitting well with the known time-energy uncertainty relation. How this time-discrete scheme, when applied to 4-vector notation in relativity, could quantize the line-element and thereby quantizing the physical attributes associated with time, space and matter is sketched. By associating this time-discrete energy-momentum conservation, with the conservation of physical quantities of a particle in relativistic motion, we identify particle-instants, separated by particle-intervals and thereby show that, more precisely one determines a particle's physical attributes associated with particle-instants, the less precisely its attributes associated with particle-intervals can be known, and vice-versa, and how this scheme could potentially be extended to discuss the Zeno's arrow paradox within the classical limit is presented. As the solutions of the Dirac equation can be used to construct solutions to the Klein-Gordon equation, we apply this temporal quantization rule to the Dirac equation and ask how it interprets the solutions associated with the Dirac equation under such conditions. Finally, we introduce the general relativistic effects to a line-element associated with a particle in relativistic motion and obtain a time quantized line-element associated with gravity.
... These last two Milky Way Subgroup and Galaxy low density black holes would actually fit the quantized galactic distances and quantized redshift phenomenon researched in the late 90s [47,48,49,50,51]. Other scientists (including Hawking) tried to find this periodicity with the latest data but found no correlation, or that could not be explained by grouping or selection effects [47]. ...
What is the average density of a black hole, assuming its spin can prevent it
from collapsing into a singularity? For stellar black holes, the average
density is incredibly dense and has over a trillion G force and tidal force
that will rip almost anything apart at the black hole boundary.
Surprisingly, the average density decreases dramatically for massive black
holes. A black hole of 387 million solar masses would have the average density
of water and would be comparable to a giant water balloon extending from the
sun almost to Jupiter. A black hole of 11 billion solar masses would have the
average density of air and would be analogous to a giant air filled party
balloon extending 2.5 times farther out than Pluto. The average mass density in
space itself, however small, eventually can become a low density black hole. If
the average density of the universe matches the critical density of just 5.67
hydrogen atoms per cubic meter, it would form a Schwarzschild low density black
hole of approximately 13.8 billion light years, matching the big bang model of
the universe.
A black hole can use rotation and/or charge to keep from collapsing. The G
and tidal forces become negligible for large low density black holes. Thus one
can be living in a large low density black hole and not know it. Further
analysis about the critical density rules out an expanding universe and
disproves the big bang theory. Higher densities could produce a much smaller
reflecting universe.
... Though it justifies electron-positron immediately annihilate each other. 20 it also explains why proton and antiproton or neutron and antineutron fails to produce Gamma ray photons directly 21 If Dirac's hypothesis of 2mc 2 (Ref. 23) would have been the only way to annihilation, 22 even in the later case, photon must have been generated. ...
The present paper explains how the relative motion of inertial frames of reference is not an absolute real motion, but a synthesis of both real and imaginary motions that yields a simple resolution to all cases of special theory of relativity. The phenomenon of time dilation, Doppler's effect, and variation of mass with velocity are discussed in detail in the changed perspective. It is seen that the physical processes are exactly the same as Einstein predicted but without reciprocity effects and thus provide a justification of quantization of red-shift and particle decay. These considerations are useful in understanding the intricacies of the microworld such as short-lived particle, antimatter, subatomic particles, gamma rays, gamma ray burst (GRBs) cosmic rays, dark matter, and asymmetry of Doppler's shifting images. (C) 2011 Physics Essays Publication. [DOI: 10.4006/1.3660803]
... Many of the galaxies spatially near M31 appear to be dynamically affected by its presence and motion. Arp [39] managed to circumvent the problem by correcting velocities of more massive galaxies in the Local Group for redshift quantization [40,41], bringing the question of the local circular velocity of the Galaxy into the controversial arena of quasar redshifts. Arp's solution of 251 km s −1 for the Sun's motion relative to neighbouring galaxies [39] agrees closely with the Carlberg & Innanen result, but the methodology raises questions about its validity. ...
The nature of our Milky Way galaxy is re-examined from an eclectic point of view. Evidence for a central bar, for example, is not reflected in the distribution of RR Lyrae variables in the central bulge (Majaess. Acta Astron.60, 55 (2010); Dékány et al. arXiv:1309.5933. 2013), and it is not clear if either a 2-armed or 4-armed spiral pattern is appropriate for the spiral arms. Radial velocity mapping of the Galaxy using radio H I, H II, or CO observations is compromised by the assumptions adopted for simple Galactic rotation. The Sun’s local standard of rest (LSR) velocity is ∼14 km s⁻¹ rather than 20 km s⁻¹, the local circular velocity is 251 ± 9 km s⁻¹ rather than 220 km s⁻¹, and young groups of stars exhibit a 10–20 km s⁻¹ “kick” relative to what is expected from Galactic rotation. By implication, the same may be true for star-forming gas clouds affected by the Galaxy’s spiral density wave, raising concerns about their use for mapping spiral arms. Proper motion data in conjunction with the newly-estimated velocity components for the Sun’s motion imply a distance to the Galactic centre of R0 = 8.34 ± 0.27 kpc, consistent with recent estimates, which average 8.24 ± 0.09 kpc. A cosinusoidal Galactic potential is not ruled out by observations of open star clusters. The planetary nebula cluster Bica 6, for example, has a near-escape orbit for a Newtonian potential, but a near-normal orbit in a cosinusoidal potential field. The nearby cluster Collinder 464 also displays unusually large tidal effects consistent with those expected for a cosinusoidal potential. A standard Newtonian version of the Virial theorem for star clusters yields very reasonable masses (∼3 × 10¹¹M⊙ and ∼4 × 10¹¹M⊙) for the Milky Way and M31 subgroups of the Local Group, respectively. A cosinusoidal relation should yield identical results.
... W.G. Tifft (Tifft 1976(Tifft , 1977(Tifft , 1979(Tifft , 1991 claims to have measured 'quantization' in extragalactic redshifts. Setterfield invokes these results to build a cosmological redshift model. ...
One of the primary problems for Young-Universe Creationists (YUCs) is the question of how light could have travelled from galaxies millions and billions of light years away in the less than 10,000 year old Universe required in their cosmology. One solution proposed by Barry Setterfield is that the speed of light was much higher in the not-so- distant past. In this paper, I will examine this hypothesis and demonstrate that it does not match up with many cosmological observations as well as observations in our own galaxy and even here on Earth.
... So the general increase in redshift with distance may hold, but there also exist components of "intrinsic" redshift, due to the interaction of the stars themselves. Moreover, Doppler expansion offers little explanation for the William Tifft's discovered quantization of redshift with distance from a rotational center 28,29,30 . As the planet spacing in a Bode's Law quantization suggests some sort of interaction between the planets, so Tifft's quantization suggests interaction between the sources of the redshifted light. ...
The growing body of anomalies in new energy, low energy nuclear reactions,
astrophysics,
atomic physics, and entanglement, combined with the failure of the Standard Model and string theory to predict many of the most basic fundamental phenomena, all point to a need for major new paradigms. Not Band‐Aids, but revolutionary new ways of conceptualizing physics, in the spirit of Thomas Kuhn’s The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. This paper identifies a number of long‐held, but unproven assumptions currently being challenged by an increasing number of alternative scientists. Two common themes, both with venerable histories, keep recurring in the many alternative theories being proposed: (1) Mach’s Principle, and (2) toroidal, vortex particles. Matter‐based Mach’s Principle differs from both space‐based universal frames and observer‐based Einsteinian relativity. Toroidal particles, in addition to explaining electron spin and the fundamental constants, satisfy the basic requirement of Gauss’s misunderstood B Law, that motion itself circulates. Though a comprehensive theory is beyond the scope of this paper, it will suggest alternatives to the long list of assumptions in context.
One key topic in astronomy is the redshift of light from distant galaxies. Currently there are two main models for what is observed, but discrepant data reveal that neither approach gives an adequate answer to the matter. In 1985 a suggestion was made that the answer to this problem may be found in the light emitted from the atoms within the galaxies themselves, rather than something happening to light in transit. That suggestion is examined with a more complete understanding of the vacuum Zero Point Energy (ZPE) that has emerged recently, since, on one view, it controls the electromagnetic properties of space. A review is undertaken of both the redshift and its problems and also the way our understanding of the ZPE has developed. The facts emerging from these reviews are then applied to suggest a different cause for the redshift, and a concordant reason for redshift quantization.
The no-evolution concordance expanding universe cosmology and no-evolution, static universe tired light model are compared against observational data on eight cosmology tests. The noevolution
tired light model is found to make a superior fit on all tests. Any attempts to introduce evolutionary corrections to improve the concordance cosmology fit on one test often worsens its fit on other tests. Light curve data of high redshift gamma ray bursts and quasars fail to support
claims for cosmological time dilation due to expansion. Also, the SCP supernova light curve test results are considered to be flawed by selection effect biases. The big bang theory also has difficulty accounting for redshift quantization, for the multi megaparsec periodicity seen in the
distribution of galaxy superclusters, and for the discovery of galaxies at redshifts as high as z ~ 11.9. In overview, it is concluded that a static universe cosmology must be sought to explain the origin of the universe. One possible choice is a cosmology that predicts nonconservative tiredlight redshifting in intergalactic space, the continuous creation of neutrons in space, the rate of matter creation scaling with both celestial body mass and temperature, galaxies growing progressively in size, and changing their morphology in the manner suggested by Jeans and
Hubble.
The large-scale structure of the Universe is dominated by vast voids with galaxies clustered in knots, sheets, and filaments, forming a great 'cosmic web'. In this personal account of the major astronomical developments leading to this discovery, we learn from Laird A. Thompson, a key protagonist, how the first 3D maps of galaxies were created. Using non-mathematical language, he introduces the standard model of cosmology before explaining how and why ideas about cosmic voids evolved, referencing the original maps, reproduced here. His account tells of the competing teams of observers, racing to publish their results, the theorists trying to build or update their models to explain them, and the subsequent large-scale survey efforts that continue to the present day. This is a well-documented account of the birth of a major pillar of modern cosmology, and a useful case study of the trials surrounding how this scientific discovery became accepted.
The large-scale structure of the Universe is dominated by vast voids with galaxies clustered in knots, sheets, and filaments, forming a great 'cosmic web'. In this personal account of the major astronomical developments leading to this discovery, we learn from Laird A. Thompson, a key protagonist, how the first 3D maps of galaxies were created. Using non-mathematical language, he introduces the standard model of cosmology before explaining how and why ideas about cosmic voids evolved, referencing the original maps, reproduced here. His account tells of the competing teams of observers, racing to publish their results, the theorists trying to build or update their models to explain them, and the subsequent large-scale survey efforts that continue to the present day. This is a well-documented account of the birth of a major pillar of modern cosmology, and a useful case study of the trials surrounding how this scientific discovery became accepted.
Probably the biggest problem in cosmology is one that many people don't even think about or want to think about. It has to do with the nature of the redshifts of astronomical bodies.
Although the majority of astronomers interpret the redshifts of quasars according to Hubble's law, there are isolated cases as well as detailed studies indicating that the redshifts of quasars and even some galaxies may have noncosmological components. The evidence discussed here will be on two counts: (i) the periodicities in redshift distributions, (ii) the associations between discrepant redshifts objects. In addition, theoretical constraints on physical models based on the cosmological hypothesis will be briefly mentioned.
This paper presents new material and analysis for three clusters of galaxies. We assume familiarity with the initial Coma work (Tifft 1972, 3). Redshifts and nuclear magnitudes are now available for 108 Perseus galaxies. The sample is nearly complete to radius and V(6)=16.8 (6″ scaled from in Coma). No field galaxies are seen, not surprising in view of field studies in the Coma region (Tifft and Gregory 1976). Table 1 shows average data. The central field has a mean redshift 700 km/s less than the outer part, a difference independent of magnitude and significant at the 99.9 confidence level. A redshift excess appears around N1275 and N1265. Excluding these radio regions the difference exceeds 1000 km/s.
The HI redshift distribution of nearby spiral galaxies has been studied to test long-running but generally ignored claims that extragalactic redshifts are periodic or 'quantized'. The existence of the phenomenon is confirmed at an extremely high confidence level, the quantization appearing in the galactocentric frame of reference. It is proposed that the energy density of the vacuum is a local, oscillating quantity associated with large masses such as spiral galaxies. A variety of 'anomalies' should then be detectable in massive galaxies, associated with their redshifts, their ambient gravitational lensing and their dynamics.
Period doubling, or a frequency halving sequence, is a common property of nonlinear dynamical systems. Period can be related to other physical quantities, e.g. length, energy and temperature, which obtain the corresponding doubling/halving behavior. It is found that physical properties of natural phenomena, systems and elementary particles can be derived directly from the Planck time, taken as the fundamental period. Analysis of experimental data suggests that the period doubling process takes place in three and four internal degrees of freedom. It is further found out that long term stability complies with the stability condition of nonlinear dynamical systems. A theory of period doubling in 1/r-type nonlinear systems with three and four internal degrees of freedom is presented.
According to the Titus-Bode law, orbits of planets in the Solar System obey a geometric progression. Many works have been done to improve this law. In this paper, we apply square and exponential models to planets of Solar System, moons of planets, and some extra solar systems, and compare them with each other.
A project intended to examine the long-standing claims that extragalactic redshifts are periodic or ‘quantized’ was initiated some years ago at the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh. The approach taken is outlined, and the main conclusions to date are summarized. The existence of a galactocentric redshift quantization is confirmed at a high confidence level.
This Essay is one of a series of invited contributions appearing in the
PASP throughout the years 2000 and 2001 to mark the new millennium.
(Eds.)
Recent analyses of Cepheid distances to spiral galaxies have led to the announcement of a Hubble constant of H0=72+/-8 km s-1 Mpc-1. The new Cepheid distances, however, show that there are numerous redshift distances with large excesses that cannot be due to peculiar velocities. Ignoring these discordant redshifts, if the Hubble constant is calibrated with Cepheid distances of low-redshift spirals, then a value near H0=55 is obtained. Use of independent distance criteria such as Tully-Fisher and group membership verifies this value and leads to three conclusions: (1) the peculiar velocities of galaxies in space are characteristically small; (2) Sc companions to normal Sb galaxies tend to be less luminous, with younger stellar populations and small amounts of nonvelocity redshift; and (3) ScI and other purportedly overluminous spiral galaxies have large amounts of intrinsic redshift.
Probably the biggest problem in cosmology is one that many people don’t even think about or want to think about. It has to do with the nature of the redshifts of astronomical bodies.
The evidence for anomalous redshifts in both quasars and galaxies is examined. It is attempted to establish as unequivocally as possible that non-Doppler redshifts exist, taking into account both statistical probabilities of associations as well as interactions between different redshift objects. Attention is given to galaxy-companion-quasar associations, evidence for galaxy-quasar interaction, the correlation of properties of associated galaxies and quasars, and the absolute magnitudes of associated quasars. The special case of radio sources and a quasar on a line from an elliptical galaxy is considered and new discordant redshift galaxies are discussed. A description is given of the small systematic redshift of normal companion galaxies.
Tifft's (1972, 1977) hypothesis that redshifts are partially quantized with a periodicity in the range 70-75 km/s is tested for samples of bright spiral and dwarf irregular galaxies with accurate H I redshifts in the region of the Virgo cluster. The heliocentric redshifts are corrected for solar motion, first by adopting an estimate of the sun's motion with respect to the centroid of the Local Group, and then by allowing the solar velocity vector to vary in direction over the whole sky. Power spectrum analyses of the corrected redshifts are used to search for a significant periodicity in the prescribed range 70-75 km/s. No such periodicity is found for the dwarf irregulars, but there is a possible periodicity of about 71.1 km/s for the bright spirals. In a further exploratory study, the sample of 112 spirals is divided up according to environment. The spirals in high-density regions of the cluster show no quantization, whereas those in low-density regions appear to be partially quantized in intervals of about 71.0 km/s.
In equilibrium cosmology (EC), the Universe neither expands nor changes globally in other respects, i.e., it is in equilibrium. Theoretically, EC is based on the (empirically supported) strong (“perfect”) cosmological principle (CP) and—as a consequence of the CP—electrogravitational coupling (EGC). The essence of and arguments for the EGC are summarized. EC divides into three fields: radiation and gravitation, connected via EGC, and research into equilibrium evolutionary processes (EEP), which in the CP-universe, ensure the properties of matter are unchanging, even though all individual systems evolve. The foundations and construction of EC are simple and coherent, and the CP-property makes it extremely sensitive to the empirical tests.
This paper explores the cosmological and astrophysical implications of subquantum kinetics, a novel methodology developed for the description of subatomic particles and field phenomena. The following is implied: Space is Euclidean and nonexpanding. Matter is continuously created in space, with creation preferably taking place in the vicinity of already existing matter. Photons gradually lose energy while travelling through intergalactic regions of space, but gradually gain energy in the vicinity of material bodies where the gravitational potential is sufficiently negative. The former effect secures a non-Doppler interpretation of the cosmological redshift phenomenon. The latter effect leads to the prediction that all celestial bodies, whether they be planets, stars, bare stellar cores, or condensed masses, should evolve energy spontaneously. Thus the existence of a new kind of energy source, “genic energy,” is predicted and tests for its direct detection in photon beams are proposed. It is suggested that genic energy may be the energy source powering stellar pulsations, supernovae, and galactic core explosions. It is predicted that planets, brown dwarfs, and lower main sequence stars should share a common genic energy, mass-luminosity relation of the form L∞M;ρ;Black holes do not exist in this cosmology, only intensely radiating condensed masses
Although atomic and nuclear physics have made enormous advances during the last century, there has been an increasing crisis in fundamental physical theory with regard to the nature of the ultimate constituents of matter which appear to have both particle and wave-like properties and occur in a bewildering variety of types and masses. Since there is now overwhelming evidence that the universe is expanding from a highly compact state that appears to have had the dimensions of a single proton or less, further progress in understanding the origin of the universe and its structure cannot be made until the problem of the nature of the fundamental particles is resolved.
The Power Spectrum Analysis'' method developed by Yu and Peebles has been widely employed as a technique for establishing the existence of periodicities. This method generates a sequence of random numbers from observational data which, it was claimed, is exponentially distributed with unit mean and variance, essentially independent of the distribution of the original data. We show that the derived random process preserves a subtle imprint of the original distribution, rendering the derived process nonstationary and producing a small but systematic bias in the usual estimate of the mean and variance. Although the derived variable may be reasonably described by an exponential distribution, the tail of the distribution is far removed from that an exponential, thereby rendering statistical inference and confidence testing based on the tail of the distribution completely unreliable. 22 refs.
This is a short review of recent studies and reports on interacting galaxies and binary galaxies. Early studies were primarily made at optical wavelengths, but recent ones have concentrated on observing HI at lambda21 cm. Application of the Virial Theorem to these observations indicates M/L values of the binary systems of less than or similar to50, suggesting the existence of moderate halos around spiral galaxies.
The claim by Tifft and colleagues that extragalactic redshifts are periodic in ranges around 24.2, 36.3 or 72.5 km s–1 was investigated for an independent sample of 89 nearby spirals, in the general field, with accurately determined heliocentric
redshifts. Corrections were applied for a range of solar vectors encompassing various derivations of the solar motion relative
to the Galactic Centre and the centroid of the Local Group, and power spectrum analyses were carried out on the sets of corrected
redshifts. A strong periodicity of emerged, against a white noise background, for an assumed solar vector coincidental, within the uncertainties, with that
corresponding to the Sun's probable motion around the Galactic Centre. Comparison with sets of synthetic data simulating the
overall characteristics of the real data showed the periodicity to be present at a high confidence level. As an independent
test, the sample was divided into two groups of 40 and 49 galaxies with more and less accurately determined redshifts respectively.
The measured strength of the periodicity appears to be significantly greater for the group of 40 galaxies. The overall probability
that the periodicity of 37.2 km s–1 arises by chance is in the range .
Newman et al. (1989) made four objections to Tifft's (1980, 1982)
analyses of the 72.45 km/s redshift periodicity. In this paper, each of
the four objections are shown to be invalid. It is also shown that
proper statistical procedures were followed by Tifft both in defining
the 72.45 km/s period and in evaluating its significance.
It is established, by spectroscopic measures of a class of objects
consisting of 87 companion galaxies apparently associated with 61 larger
galaxies, that the spectral characteristics of the companions relative
to the larger galaxies are: (1) a tendency for the companions to have
more emission and higher excitation, and (2) their exhibiting of
earlier-type absorption spectra. Differential redshifts are analyzed for
the cases where the companions could be accepted as physically
associated, at values of + or - 800 km/sec. Positive differential
redshifts are found to outnumber negative ones by 36 to 15, with the
remainder ranging from +4000 to +36,000 km/sec. It is suggested that not
many of the companions can be considered to be accidental projections of
background galaxies.
The amplitude of the solar velocity correction to the centroid of the
Local Group which is currently in use is 300 km s-1. If those
galaxies which are considered certain members of the Local Group are
fitted with a solution which minimizes their mean deviation, they give a
correction of only 251 km s-1. This leads to a motion of the
local standard of rest in the direction of rotation of about
vθ = 239 km s-1, in much better agreement
with the measured value of galactic rotation of θ0 =
220 km s-1. The one remaining anomally which has always
troubled this subject is the large differential blueshift between our
own Galaxy and M31. This effect is now explained empirically by the
systematic negative redshifts which dominant galaxies have been recently
shown to have with respect to their companions. The periodicity in
redshifts of 72 km s-1 (Tifft, 1976) now emerges for the
first time from the M31 and the M81 groups of galaxies as: period =
72±2 km s-1 (p.e.).
The redshift pattern in M82 is shown to be consistent with the
multiple-redshift concept, as are redshift differentials in other active
objects. The presence of multiple-redshift states and the general lack,
therefore, of violent motion appear consistent with all types of
galaxies. Evidence is examined for effects of multiple-redshift effects
in stars within our own Galaxy. Four possibilities are considered:
interstellar material, pre-main-sequence objects, rotation in massive
stars, and highly evolved or peculiar stars. All classes show evidence
of the predicted redshift periodicity. Stellar rotation, in particular,
is shown to occur preferentially in steps of 72.5 km/s. Implications of
the correlations are briefly discussed.
In this paper we show that strong statistical evidence has been
available for many years showing that QSO redshifts in at least some
cases are not caused by the expansion of the Universe. In a complicated
world the number of unexpected associations that can be subjected to
statistical test is very large and somewhere among the entire ensemble
of such associations a few may seem of significance, if taken
separately, which are only chance effects, however, occasioned by the
profusion of cases in the ensemble. False associations of this kind show
up readily as new data become available, since the original chance
effects are unlikely to be repeated in the new data. An example was an
algebraic formula for the sunspot number which caused a considerable
stir early in the present century, the formula agreeing with sunspot
numbers over many years with seemingly uncanny precision, only for the
agreement to disappear as soon as new sunspot numbers came along. This
well-known statistical trap cannot be claimed against the proposition
that QSOs of high redshifts are sometimes physically associated with
nearby galaxies. This proposition has now been exposed to statistical
test for almost thirty years, and it survives in new data just as well
as in old data. Additionally, a number of cases have come along with the
years where actual physical connections have been detected between QSOs
and nearby galaxies. Six of these cases are discussed in detail in the
present paper. It is consistent with standard physics for redshifts to
arise from doppler motions and also in radiation emitted by matter in a
gravitational field, as well as from the cosmological expansion of the
Universe. These other possibilities have been examined repeatedly over
the years but have never been found to give convincing explanations for
the QSO-nearby galaxy associations described above. One is therefore
left with the non-standard possibility that different samples of matter
can have different mass scales. No theory of how the QSO mass scale
could be different from the usual galaxy mass scale has hitherto been
found acceptable, with the consequence that most astrophysicists and
cosmologists have felt justified in ignoring the evidence for anomalous
redshifts, the thought being that what is known to be impossible remains
impossible no matter how strong the evidence for it may be. The main
purpose of the present paper is to question this mode of thinking. We
show how, consistent with the quasi steady-state cosmological theory
developed recently in a number of papers, it is possible for samples of
material of different ages to have different mass scales.
In the first paper in this series, a basic model was developed, for
individual galaxies, consisting of two expanding opposed streams of
material differing systematically in redshift. In this paper, galaxies
in pairs and groups are shown to manifest no evidence of gravitational
interaction. Redshift differentials between pairs of galaxies and
between galaxies in clusters are found to take on preferred values which
are various multiples of a basic 72.5 km/sec. There is also direct
evidence that the redshift periodicity phases together between groups to
imply that there is no large-scale motion between clusters of galaxies.
The various mass discrepancies or peculiarities arising from a dynamical
interpretation of differential redshifts are also shown to be of a form
that no gravitational interaction and no significant motion require.
The HI redshift distribution of nearby spiral galaxies has been studied to test long-running but generally ignored claims that extragalactic redshifts are periodic or ‘quantized’. The existence of the phenomenon is confirmed at an extremely high confidence level, the quantization appearing in the galactocentric frame of reference. It is proposed that the energy density of the vacuum is a local, oscillating quantity associated with large masses such as spiral galaxies. A variety of ‘anomalies’ should then be detectable in massive galaxies, associated with their redshifts, their ambient gravitational lensing and their dynamics.
Radio and optical redshifts from Peterson for double galaxies are shown
to contain a strong periodicity in the redshift intervals.
Data from the Coma, Perseus, and A 1367 clusters are taken together with
data from QSS to provide information on slope and location of
redshift-magnitude bands. Both slope and location are found to be fairly
constant in comparisons of one cluster with another. An analysis of the
Perseus cluster shows a distinct change in redshift-magnitude and mean
redshift with radius. This radial brightening trend is applied to
observations of the Coma cluster, as well, noting that the outer part of
the cluster contains the same band pattern as the core. The analysis is
also extended to low redshifts in an attempt to construct an empirical
model of band and galactic evolution.
The concept of the discrete redshift is applied to dwarf-galaxy H I
redshifts and line profiles. After removing the solar motion derived
from the data, it is shown that strong periodicities predicted by the
discrete-redshift model are present. Strong related correlations exist
in line-profile shape. A model of the redshift based upon ultimate
discrete levels uniformly spaced near 12 km/s is developed. Each cycle
of 72 km/s contains a pattern of six sublevels. A model of redshift
levels in terms of energy changes is also introduced.
Persistent claims have been made over the last ~15yr that extragalactic
redshifts, when corrected for the Sun's motion around the Galactic
centre, occur in multiples of ~24 or ~36km/s. A recent investigation by
us of 40 spiral galaxies out to 1000km/s, with accurately measured
redshifts, gave evidence of a periodicity ~37.2-37.7km/s. Here we extend
our enquiry out to the edge of the Local Supercluster (~2600km/s),
applying a simple and robust procedure to a total of 97 accurately
determined redshifts. We find that, when corrected for related vectors
close to recent estimates of the Sun's galactocentric motion, the
redshifts of spirals are strongly periodic (P~37.6km/s). The formal
confidence level of the result is extremely high, and the signal is seen
independently with different radio telescopes. We also examine a further
sample of 117 spirals observed with the 300-foot Green Bank telescope
alone. The periodicity phenomenon appears strongest for the galaxies
linked by group membership, but phase coherence probably holds over
large regions of the Local Supercluster.
Current ideas on the amount, distribution, and nature of dark matter in
galaxies are reviewed. Observations indicate that dark halos surround
most, if not all, galaxies. Recent evidence suggests that many dwarf
galaxies have higher dark-matter fractions than normal galaxies as well
as higher central dark-matter densities. Some spiral-galaxy rotation
curves are rising and others are falling at the optical radius, thereby
weakening the 'disk-halo conspiracy'. Observation and theoretical
techniques to probe the dark halos of ellipticals are becoming more
refined, and various methods are being employed to investigate the shape
of halos. There are useful constraints on the extent of the dark matter
around our own Galaxy, whereas in some other galaxies the edge of the
halo may have been detected. Microlensing experiments have recently
commenced which may soon uncover the nature of the Galactic dark matter.
These and the other issues reviewed here have far-reaching implications
for galaxy formation and evolution, and a variety of cosmological
questions.
Previous work on the redshift-magnitude banding correlation is briefly reviewed. New tests of the concept are applied successfully to a second cluster (A2199) and the outer portions of the Coma cluster. Using more than 200 redshifts in Coma, Perseus, and A2199 the presence of a distinct band-related-periodicity in redshift is indicated. Finally, a new sample of accurate redshifts of bright Coma galaxies on a single band is presented, which shows a strong redshift periodicity of 220 km s−1. An upper limit of 20 km s−1 is placed on the internal Doppler component of motion in the Coma cluster.
Redshift-magnitude bands are, therefore, now recognized to consist of discrete ‘spin states’ organized into ‘spin groups’ which show strong morphological associations. Bands are probably in turn organized into band systems. The individual spin states are suggested to represent distinct configurations of matter at the nuclear or fundamental particle structure level. Transitions between states in a time systematic sense of decreasing redshift (increasing internal binding) are suggested to occur in galaxy nuclei. Energy released in such transitions may be the driving energy in radio sources and related objects.
Observations of radiation from neutral hydrogen in the Small Cloud of Magellan at a wavelength of 21 em have been made using the 210 ft Parkes telescope and multichannel receiver. Profiles were observed over an area of 30 sq deg of sky.
The nucleus of M31 was photographed at a resolution of 0.2 sec with the
91-cm balloon-borne Stratoscope II telescope. At the half-intensity
level, the nucleus was observed to be elliptical with its major axis
lying in position angle of 63 (plus or minus 5) deg. The peak surface
brightness was 12.7 plus or minus 0.3 V mag per square second of arc
assuming B - V = 1.0. The nucleus appears to be a separate feature from
the bulge with a scale height of approximately 0.5 pc. The mass of the
nucleus is of the order of 100 million solar masses, and the apparent
visual mass-to-light ratio is of the order of 20.
The extensive Hat Creek survey of neutral hydrogen combined with southern observations provides the basis for a new discussion of the spiral structure of the galaxy. The purpose of this investigation is to provide a general picture of the galaxy. It is found that the pitch of the spiral arms is approximately 12°.5 and that there are many spurs and interarm features as we observe in external galaxies.
The sun is not located in a major spiral arm, but rather in a spur or offshoot originating near or at the Sagittarius arm, which is a major structure in the galaxy. The young stars in the general vicinity of the sun delineate this spur, not a major arm structure. The stars and the gas are in agreement in indicating a large pitch angle (20°–25°) for this local structure, which differs from the smaller pitch angle for the arms which form the system as a whole.
In the presentation a computer-produced movie of the galaxy based on Hat Creek hydrogen contour maps similar to those in Figure 1 was shown. It was used to illustrate generally the complexity of the gas structure and, in particular, to show (i) observational aspects of the spur in which the sun is located and (ii) the point of origin of the so-called Perseus arm.
Radial-velocity observations of the nucleus of M31 obtained with the
Lallemand electronic camera and 120-inch coude spectrograph and with the
prime-focus nebular spectrograph are presented. These observations cover
the radial distance range (r) from 0 to 24 sec of arc and show that the
rotation curve, which has its maximum amplitude in P.A. equals 52 deg,
increases linearly from zero at r equals 0 to 104 km per sec at r equals
1.9 sec of arc, beyond which it drops approximately as inversely to the
square root of r. After making approximate correction for the effect of
seeing and instrumental resolution, we find the radius of the nucleus r
equals 1.55 sec of arc or 5.2 pc, a rotational period of 310,000 years,
and a mass of 0.16 billion solar masses.