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Red tides along the coasts of Baja California Sur, México (1984 to 2001)
Abstract
Thirty red tide spots were observed from 1984 to 2001 on both coasts of Baja California Sur. The involved species were: Gonyaulax polygramma, Noctiluca scintillans, Mesodinium rubrum, Akashiwo sanguinea, Scrippsiella trochoidea, Ceratium furca, Prorocentrum mexicanum, and Cylindrotheca closterium. The most frequent species were N. scintillans and M. rubrum. The sea water discolorations by N. scintillans were seen mainly in Bahía Concepción during Autumn-Win ter. The blooms of M. ru brum we recorded in Bahía de La Paz and off Isla Cerralvo during Spring- Summer. The highest concentration of this species was 23,000 cells ml-1 during April 1994. Toxic species, producers of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) such as Alexandrium catenella, A. monilatum, and Gymnodinium catenatum, and a producer of haemolytic toxin P. mexicanum, were identified for Bahía Concepción and the west coast of the peninsula. However, most proliferations caused no PSP or other officially known public health problems. In this study, only three cases of fish, lobster, and marine bird mortality has been recorded for a coastal lagoon of Baja California Sur. The first was at Laguna San Ignacio and was caused by C. closterium and A. sanguinea. The second fish mortality occurred in la Ensenada de La Paz and was related to G. polygramma. The third (jellyfish mortality) was observed during a red tide of M. rubrum occurred in the southern part of the Gulf of California.
... La información utilizada para la realización de este trabajo se ha compilado de diversas publicaciones, en las que se aborda la composición de la comunidad fitoplanctónica. Los primeros estudios de fitoplancton en la Bahía de La Paz datan de finales de los años 70 (Gilmartin & Relevante, 1978;Nienhuis, 1979;Signoret & Santoyo, 1980), mientras que los estudios de los florecimientos algales se iniciaron a principios de los 80 (García-Pamanes y Gárate-Lizárraga, 1984;Gárate-Lizárraga & Martínez-López, 1997;Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001). Para el caso particular de los dinoflagelados desnudos, se consideraron los siguientes artículos recientes: Gárate-Lizárraga (2010, 2011, 2013, 2014a, 2014b), Gárate-Lizárraga et al., (2001, Okolodkov & Gárate-Lizárraga (2006), Hernández-Sandoval et al., (2009) y López-Cortés et al. (2014). ...
... Los primeros estudios de fitoplancton en la Bahía de La Paz datan de finales de los años 70 (Gilmartin & Relevante, 1978;Nienhuis, 1979;Signoret & Santoyo, 1980), mientras que los estudios de los florecimientos algales se iniciaron a principios de los 80 (García-Pamanes y Gárate-Lizárraga, 1984;Gárate-Lizárraga & Martínez-López, 1997;Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001). Para el caso particular de los dinoflagelados desnudos, se consideraron los siguientes artículos recientes: Gárate-Lizárraga (2010, 2011, 2013, 2014a, 2014b), Gárate-Lizárraga et al., (2001, Okolodkov & Gárate-Lizárraga (2006), Hernández-Sandoval et al., (2009) y López-Cortés et al. (2014). ...
... Distribución regional y comentarios: es formadora de FAN a lo largo de la costa pacífica de México (Kiefer & Lasker, 1975;Gómez-Aguirre, 1987;Cortés-Altamirano & Núñez-Pasten, 1992; Turrubiates- Morales, 1994;Licea-Durán et al., 1999;Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001, 2016cGárate-Lizárraga & Siqueiros-Beltrones, 2003;Okolodkov & Gárate-Lizárraga, 2006, Cortés-Lara et al., 2012. Esta especie es muy común a través de todo el año en la Bahía de la Paz. ...
En el Golfo de California, la Bahía de La Paz representa un importante capital natural. Su situación geográfica, la protección que ofrece contra fenómenos meteorológicos, la abundancia de sus recursos naturales y su innegable belleza, propiciaron que en este lugar se desarrollara la ciudad de La Paz hace más de 400 años. Desde entonces, sus aguas, costas e islas han sido fuente de sustento para sus habitantes. Esta obra comprende 26 capítulos agrupados en tres secciones, Oceanografía y Climatología, Zona Costera y Zona Marina. La Primera sección incluye trabajos sobre la variación batimétrica de la ensenada de La Paz, la distribución de nutrientes y clorofila en el estero El Conchalito, y las condiciones oceanográficas de la Bahía de La Paz durante El Niño. La sección de Zona Costera, presenta trabajos de aspectos biológicos, como el del camarón de salmuera en la salina de Pichilingue; de aspectos ecológicos como la florística del medio terrestre, los anfibios y reptiles terrestres de la bahía e islas; y de aspectos sociales y económicos como la caracterización antropogénica en el complejo insular de Espíritu Santo, los requerimientos de energía de la ciudad de La Paz, la vulnerabilidad y adaptación al cambio climático del turismo y la pesca, y la maricultura en la bahía. La sección de Zona Marina es la más grande y comprende trabajos de diferentes taxa enfocados a aspectos biológicos, ecológicos, de aprovechamiento y conservación. Los cuales incluyen toda la Bahía de La Paz, sobre corales escleractinios, copépodos, esponjas, tortugas y mamíferos marinos. Estudios en localidades específicas como el de comunidades ícticas en manglares, equinodermos en aguas someras de las islas, y moluscos de la facie rocosa de la isla Espíritu Santo. Trabajos sobre temas diversos como la reproducción de bivalvos, de los afloramientos de dinoflagelados, de los patrones espaciales de la biodiversidad animal marina en la bahía, y de varamientos de mamíferos marinos. Finalmente, dos estudios sobre taxonomía, conservación y aprovechamiento, uno sobre peces, y otro sobre tiburones y rayas.
... Los dinoflagelados atecados presentan gran importancia ecológica debido a que aproximadamente la mitad de las especies son fotosintéticos y la otra mitad son heterotróficos y se alimentan a través de mecanismos de osmotrofía y fagotrofía (Gaines & Elbrächter, 1987 (Mee et al., 1986;Cortés-Altamirano & Pasten Núñez, 1992;Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001;Band et al., 2004;Maciel-Baltazar & Hernandez-Becerril, 2013). En la Bahía de La Paz, los dinoflagelados atecados contribuyen de manera importante en el desarrollo de florecimientos (Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001, 2004a, 2006, 2007, 2009Hernández-Sandoval et al., 2009;Gárate-Lizárraga, 2012, 2013, 2014a, 2014b, 2014cLópez-Cortés et al., 2014). ...
... Los dinoflagelados atecados presentan gran importancia ecológica debido a que aproximadamente la mitad de las especies son fotosintéticos y la otra mitad son heterotróficos y se alimentan a través de mecanismos de osmotrofía y fagotrofía (Gaines & Elbrächter, 1987 (Mee et al., 1986;Cortés-Altamirano & Pasten Núñez, 1992;Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001;Band et al., 2004;Maciel-Baltazar & Hernandez-Becerril, 2013). En la Bahía de La Paz, los dinoflagelados atecados contribuyen de manera importante en el desarrollo de florecimientos (Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001, 2004a, 2006, 2007, 2009Hernández-Sandoval et al., 2009;Gárate-Lizárraga, 2012, 2013, 2014a, 2014b, 2014cLópez-Cortés et al., 2014). Algunos han sido inocuos, otros nocivos e ictiotóxicos. ...
... La información utilizada para la realización de este trabajo se ha compilado de diversas publicaciones, en las que se aborda la composición de la comunidad fitoplanctónica. Los primeros estudios de fitoplancton en la Bahía de La Paz datan de finales de los años 70 (Gilmartin & Relevante, 1978;Nienhuis, 1979;Signoret & Santoyo, 1980), mientras que los estudios de los florecimientos algales se iniciaron a principios de los 80 (García-Pamanes y Gárate-Lizárraga, 1984;Gárate-Lizárraga & Martínez-López, 1997;Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001). Para el caso particular de los dinoflagelados desnudos, se consideraron los siguientes artículos recientes: Gárate-Lizárraga (2010, 2011, 2013, 2014a, 2014b), Gárate-Lizárraga et al., (2001, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2013, 2016a Desde 2001 a la fecha se han realizado muestreos sistemáticos mensuales en una estación fija ubicada frente al muelle de Petróleos (figura 1). ...
Armored and unarmored dinoflagellates are common along the southern Baja California coast. Dinoflagellate blooms have been studied since 1980 in several areas from this Mexican state. However, systematic monitoring of these events has only been performed since 2001. Phytoplankton or algae blooms samples were collected with plastic or Van Dorn bottles. Samples were fixed with Lugol solution and were analyzed using 5 ml and 2 ml settling chambers or 1 ml Sedgewick-Rafter chambers. Samples blooms were also examined live. From the unarmored dinoflagellate group, 11 bloom-forming species have been recorded: Akashiwo sanguinea, Amphidinium carterae, Ceratoperidinium falcatum, Margalefidinium fulvescens, M. polykrikoides, Gymnodinium catenatum, Gyrodinium
spirale, Kapelodinium vestifici, Levanderina fissa, Noctiluca scintillans and Polykrikos hartmannii. Most blooms were innocuous; however, blooms of M. polykrikoides reached high densities of up to 8 x 106 cells L–1, causing caged-fish mortalities. Blooms of this
species have become recurrent in Bahía de La Paz. On the other hand, Gymnodinium catenatum is a paralytic toxin-producing species that has proliferated in several sites in the southern Baja California littoral. Blooms of this species have reached densities of up to 1 million cells L–1. Wild strains of G. catenatum had a toxin profile composed of 7-8 saxitoxin analogues. Blooms of this species showed a well-marked seasonal variation and occurred between April and June. Some dinoflagellates species are heterotrophs: N. scintillans, G. spirale and K. vestifici. The first two are voracious predators of dinoflagellates and diatoms. At present, the monitoring program of microalgal bloom species, particularly harmful or toxic species, is ongoing.
... Interest in these phenomena has increased worldwide in recent decades due to concern about the eventual damage they may cause to ecosystems and/or human health . Events of this kind have been recorded frequently along México's western and eastern coasts, where the main species responsible are not restricted to one taxonomic group but, rather, present high biodiversity, as they include dinoflagellates, diatoms, ciliates, and cyanophytes (Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001;Cortés-Altamirano, et al., 2019). Regarding the ciliates, the earliest reports of non-toxic proliferations of Myrionecta rubra on México's coasts date to the 19 th (Streets, 1872) and 20 th centuries (Pakkard et al., 1978), but have become more common in recent times (Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001;López-Cortés at al., 2008). ...
... Events of this kind have been recorded frequently along México's western and eastern coasts, where the main species responsible are not restricted to one taxonomic group but, rather, present high biodiversity, as they include dinoflagellates, diatoms, ciliates, and cyanophytes (Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001;Cortés-Altamirano, et al., 2019). Regarding the ciliates, the earliest reports of non-toxic proliferations of Myrionecta rubra on México's coasts date to the 19 th (Streets, 1872) and 20 th centuries (Pakkard et al., 1978), but have become more common in recent times (Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001;López-Cortés at al., 2008). ...
Las llamadas "mareas rojas" o floraciones de fitoplancton se caracterizan por un aumento exponencial de la abundancia de una o varias especies. Se ha reportado que su ocurrencia puede estar asociada a eventos naturales y antropogénicos, por lo que se ha observado un incremento global en las últimas décadas. De acuerdo a su impacto en el ecosistema, estos fenómenos han sido clasificados como tóxicos o nocivos. El presente trabajo es resultado de una investigación sustentada en los análisis de muestras recolectadas el 12 de abril de 2018, en la región sur del Parque Nacional Loreto, BCS. En cuanto a la composición específica de las muestras, se determinaron nueve taxones pertenecientes a la fracción microfitoplanctónica (siete diatomeas, un dinoflagelado, un ciliado) con una abundancia total de 264,600 cells. L-l, con una concentración de 40.79 mg m-3 de clorofila a, y una productividad primaria equivalente a 80.5 mg C m-3 h-1. Las abundancias registradas para las diferentes especies, dan evidencia clara de una proliferación monoespecífica del ciliado Myronecta rubra el cual presentó una abundancia máxima de 256,600 cells. L-1 la cual representa más de 96% de la abundancia total del microfitoplancton. Palabras clave. - Proliferación, productividad primaria, clorofila a.
... The maximum densities reached by this ciliate during red tides in the Colombian Caribbean exceeded those recorded by other authors during various events that occurred in coastal cities of Chile and Mexico (Table 3). However, some authors recorded maximum densities higher than 2 × 10 7 (Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001, 2002 during the red tides in the Gulf of California (Table 3). This indicates Table 2. Cochlodinium (= Margalefidinium) densities recorded during different red tide events on the Pacific coast and the mid-Atlantic. ...
... The proliferation of M. rubrum Caribe colombiano excedieron a las registradas por otros autores durante varios eventos que ocurrieron en ciudades costeras de Chile y México (Tabla 3). Sin embargo, algunos autores registraron densidades máximas superiores a 2 × 10 7 (Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001, 2002 durante las mareas rojas producidas en el golfo de California (Tabla 3). Esto indica que las densidades de M. cf. ...
Con el propósito de describir las condiciones ambientales y climáticas asociadas con la ocurrencia de seis eventos de mareas rojas entre 2010 y 2017 en Santa Marta (Caribe colombiano), se recopiló la información biológica y fisicoquímica obtenida durante estos eventos. Adicionalmente, se consultaron los datos de precipitación y el Índice Oceánico de El Niño (ONI) entre 2010 y 2017. Los resultados mostraron que el dinoflagelado Cochlodinium sp. fue el responsable de tres eventos ocurridos en octubre de 2010, octubre de 2011 y noviembre de 2015, períodos en los que alcanzó densidades máximas de 5 × 106 cél. L-1. Estos eventos se asociaron con un incremento en las precipitaciones y la temperatura superficial del agua de mar (29,7 ºC) y con un descenso en la salinidad (< 35,5). El ciliado Mesodinium cf. rubrum fue responsable de otros tres eventos (enero de 2015, enero de 2017 y marzo de 2017), períodos en los que registró concentraciones máximas de 9.2 × 106 cél. L-1. Durante estos últimos eventos, no se presentaron precipitaciones y se evidenciaron elevadas concentraciones de nutrientes, incrementos en la salinidad (> 36,6) y temperaturas del mar inferiores a 26 ºC. Al asociar las ocurrencias de mareas rojas y los valores del índice ONI, se evidenció que las floraciones de Cochlodinium sp. ocurrieron durante años influenciados por eventos climáticos (térmicos) moderados y fuertes (ONI > ±1 ºC) en tanto que las floraciones de M. cf. rubrum se presentaron durante años neutrales (ONI entre 0,5 y -0,5 ºC). Las mareas rojas presentaron un patrón temporal de ocurrencia en la región del Magdalena, influenciadas por la variabilidad climática y ambiental de cada época, sin representar hasta el momento un riesgo para la salud humana.
... Si bien estos valores son bajos, es importante destacar, que son el resultado del análisis de un solo muestreo de una sola muestra, y, por ende, es muy probable que exista una subestimación. Cabe destacar el hecho de que todos los taxones de dinoflagelados encontrados en este estudio han sido reportados con anterioridad para las aguas costeras mexicanas (Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001;Okolodkov & Gárate-Lizárraga, 2006). ...
The Guadalupe Island Biosphere Reserve (RBIG) is located 241 km from Mexico's western coast and is thus one of the most distant island territories in the country. Therefore, studying its biodiversity is of great interest in a biogeographic context. This study aimed to present the first records of dinoflagellates found in the RNIG. Thirty-four dinoflagellate species and infraspecific taxa were reported and illustrated. All species have been previously recorded in Mexican coastal waters, and two of them, Dinophysis tripos and Phalacroma mitra, have been reported in the literature as toxin producers. This study represents the first contribution to the knowledge of dinoflagellates in the RBIG.
... Of the 605 dinoflagellates that have been recorded from the Gulf of California (Hernández-Becerril, 1987;Licea et al., 1995;Okolodkov and Gárate-Lizárraga, 2006), the most common and recurrent in the region are the HAB species Akashiwo sanguinea, Gymnodinium catenatum, Margalefidinium fulvescens, and M. polykrikoides (e.g. Hernández-Becerril et al., 2007;Band-Schmidt et al., 2011;Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001), but regional yessotoxin producers are poorly known. Several dinoflagellate cyst studies have also been conducted on surface sediments from Gulf of California (e.g. ...
A new Pentaplacodinium species with six precingular plates is described from Bahía Concepción and Bahía de la Paz, Gulf of California. The non-fossil motile stage is described as Pentaplacodinium lapazense, whilst the fossil stage is described as Operculodinium lapazense. The cyst morphology is compared to topotype material of Operculodinium israelianum, which is larger, has longer processes and has a different wall structure. The motile cells display a plate formula of Po, Pt, X, 2′ + *2′, 6′′, 6c, 7 s, 5′′′, 1p, 1′′′′. A typical gonyaulacalean fission line and plate overlap are observed. SSU-ITS-LSU ribosomal DNA sequences demonstrate that Pentaplacodinium saltonense is its closest relative. The species is homothallic. This species occurs in relatively shallow and restricted coastal areas, and has a preference for higher sea-surface temperatures and salinities. MicroFTIR spectra of the cysts are compared to spectra of cysts of other gonyaulacaleans and suggest very similar compositions. No yessotoxins were detected in any of the analyzed strains, hence, this species is unlikely to be responsible for the elevated yessotoxin concentration observed in shellfish on the southern and central coastal region of the Gulf of California.
... En este estudio se reportaron 32 especies formadoras de FAN entre las que destaca Cylindrotheca closterium que fue la especie más abundante en el mes de febrero en los dos sistemas y es una especie que ha llegado a formar florecimientos algales en otras lagunas costeras, como en el Puerto Chelem y Telchac con densidades de 750 a 500×10 3 céls.L -1 (Ortegón-Aznar et al., 2011) y en la Bahía de la Paz formando florecimientos algales con densidades de 1. Esto hace necesario monitorear el sistema para prevenir o en su caso mitigar los riesgos causados por esta microalga, así como por la presencia de otras especies altamente nocivas, las cuales no fueron abundantes en este estudio, como las diatomeas: Actinoptychus senarius, Asterionello psisglacialis, Bacillaria paxifiller, Coscinodiscus concinnus, Cyclotella meneghiniana, Thalassionema nitzschioides, Thalassiosira eccentrica, los dinoflagelados: Neocera tiumfurca, Oxyphysisoxytoxoides, Peridinium quinquecorne, Prorocentrum gracile, P. micans, P. triestinium, Scripsiella trochoidea y las euglenofitas: Euglena viridis y Phacustortus, estas últimas especies han llegado a formar FAN en otros cuerpos de agua, causando mortandad de peces por anoxia (Fukuyo et al., 1990;Gárate-Lizárraga et al., 2001; Gárate-Lizárraga y Muñetón- Gómez, 2006;Aké-Castillo y Vázquez-Hurtado, 2008;Khondker et al., 2008). ...
The study of the cenotes and caves of the State of Campeche (Mexico) by the Subdirectorate of Underwater Archeology of the National Institute of Anthropology and History has yielded evidence of their use from the Preclassic period to the Viceregal period. In this sense, elements of judgment have been identified to indicate that the caves are providers of the raw material used in ritual activities and of another nature developed inside them. Their development motivated the permanence of groups in these spaces during periods of determined and considerable time. Examples of this are the Huachabí caves in Bolonchén de Rejón, municipality of Hopelchén, as well as Aktun Aam and Loxboxbé, Champotón.
This thesis investigates the ecological role, bloom dynamics, and spatiotemporal distribution of the harmful algal bloom-forming species Noctiluca scintillans, which adversely impacts food webs, ecosystem productivity, aquaculture, and tourism. With an extensive literature review (1857–2023), the potential global expansion of N. scintillans and its associated environmental factors are described. The analysis shows that N. scintillans has increased over time in coastal regions of Australia, China, and Europe, including the North Sea, with eutrophication, ocean warming, and deoxygenation identified as potential key drivers of these intensifications.
To validate these findings and identify drivers as well as spatiotemporal hotspots of N. scintillans in the rapidly warming North Sea, two long-term, high-resolution time series (Helgoland Roads and Continuous Plankton Recorder survey) were analysed. Results reveal that N. scintillans abundances and bloom durations increased significantly after the 1990s, with hotspots identified near the Elbe and Rhine river estuaries.
Following the identification of these hotspots, sampling campaigns were carried out in summer 2022 near Helgoland to study an entire N. scintillans bloom. Innovative imaging tools provided novel insights into its ecological role. Heavy predation on diatoms and its function as a significant recycler of phosphate and ammonium, followed by an increase in nutrient-affine dinoflagellates, suggest an important role for N. scintillans within plankton communities.
This thesis underscores the value of long-term time series and advanced methodologies in understanding and predicting N. scintillans trends. The research contributes to mitigating the economic and societal impacts of these blooms on aquaculture, fisheries, and tourism in rapidly changing ecosystems.
About the importance of red tides in Baja California Sur, Mexico
Background and Aims:
Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB) commonly occur in the Mexican Pacific, being important HABs of Gymnodinium catenatum (Gc) and of Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum (Pbc) for being saxitoxin-producing dinoflagellates that cause paralytic shellfish poisoning. The latter is a taxon that sporadically occurs in the tropical Mexican Pacific. This study describes the behavior of both taxa throughout the annual cycle and analyzes their morphology, abundance, distribution, and their bloom dynamics, in relation to environmental and climatological parameters.
Methods:
Phytoplankton collections were made ten times from October 2009 to January 2011 within Acapulco Bay and its surroundings, together with measurements of physicochemical parameters. Climatic data were obtained from Acapulco weather station. Abundance of phytoplankton was evaluated with the Utermöhl method. Statistical analyses were carried out to investigate the relationship of Gc and Pbc abundances with environmental and climatic parameters.
Key results:
Gc was present throughout the year 2010 in low densities and in November 2010 it reached a maximum of 189×10³ cells l⁻¹, associated with several species of diatoms and dinoflagellates, including Pbc. Gc bloom coincided with decrease in ammonium and decrease in water temperature with respect to the average. Pyrodinium bahamense morphometry from Acapulco corresponds to var. compressum. Pbc formed an intense HAB in July 2010 (reaching a maximum abundance of 773×10³ cells l⁻¹), causing significant toxicity and had an upturn in November.
Conclusions:
Pbc HABs in Acapulco require the occurrence of a previous HAB in the central Pacific or Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico, horizontal transportation of their cysts, as well as high water temperature conditions, abundant rainfall that increased the concentration of phosphates, which is propitiated in the periods of transition “El Niñoˮ-“La Niñaˮ events. Gc HABs in Acapulco are related to “La Niña” events, with an abrupt change in water temperature and an increase in nitrogenous forms.
Previously considered as toxin-free, the Baja California Peninsula has witnessed several toxic algal blooms during the past
three years. Apparently these ‘red-tide’ phenomena's outbreaks are not linked to any human related activity. This may just
reflect better detection and training. Such events may be periodical and natural rather than induced. The most common types
of marine toxins have been detected along the coast of the Peninsula and neighboring waters by mouse bioassay and chromatographic
techniques. These are: Tetrodotoxin (TTX), Amnesic Shellfish Poison (ASP), Paralytic Shellfish Poisons (PSP), Diarrhetic Shellfish
Poisons (DSP) and even Ciguatera (CFP), which are related to the presence of organisms of Prorocentrum sp. and Alexandrium
sp. groups, and the diatom Pseudonitzschia sp. among others. There are also some indications about different kinds of TTX
in the puffer fish of the region, and reasons to believe that we are facing a quite different pattern in toxic components,
since PSP toxic potency (defined as the number of mouse units per gram(MU/g)of shellfish meat) is very high in spite of low
dinoflagellates cell density registered. The ecological and social impact of the above has been considerable, with mass deaths
of shellfish, seagulls, dolphins and turtles, and even some human casualties. The locally registered toxicity records: PSP
found in one single fanshell reaches to 23 000 MU/100 g of tissue as determined by the mouse bioassay and, on a different
event, two persons killed after ingesting puffer fish fillet. The largest reservoir of commercial marine organisms in Mexico
is precisely the Northwest coast of the country and important plans for building large harbors and develop aquaculture areas
are in progress. Therefore, a monitoring program is essential for an adequate management of such resources. Considering the
large extension of the Peninsula (about1600 km)and, at this time, the lack of efficient communication means and scarce population,
the implementation of such monitoring programs presents a big challenge.
Great strides have been made within the last few years in the chemistry of ciguatera toxins. Also included are sections covering ecology, culture studies, population genetics, and the physiology of toxin production. -from Authors
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