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Plastic pollution in the South Pacific subtropical gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 68, 71-76
... in various studies (Alfaro-Núñez et al. 2021). The five subtropical gyres formed by Ekman currents and the Coriolis effect are considered to be the accumulation zones of plastic debris which are termed ocean garbage patches (Eriksen et al. 2013). Coastal cities, marine infrastructures, improper dumping, landfill erosion, and runoff water along with plastic waste reaching the ocean are the major sources of marine plastic pollution (Krüger et al. 2020;Oluwoye et al. 2023). ...
... However, the application of these models in quantifying the degradation of MPs and its risk assessment is not well explored (Kooi et al. 2021). MPs with various shapes such as fragment, pellet, filament, thin film, and so on were found in various ocean water sampling studies (Eriksen et al. 2013). The shape of MPs shows a high influence on the degradation rate in addition to size and intrinsic chemical properties. ...
... Apart from this, the physical stress caused by human activities like transportation and waste handling can also result in the formation of smaller plastic fragments. It is expected that the long-term residence of plastic in the sea makes it brittle, and small mechanical forces are enough to break it into smaller particles (Law et al. 2010;Eriksen et al. 2013). A study was conducted to assess the release of NPs from fragmentation of MPs under shear stress, revealing that shear stress generates a significant number of NPs (Enfrin et al. 2020). ...
The ubiquitous presence of fragmented plastic particles needs comprehensive understanding of its fate in the environment. The long-term persistence of microplastics (MPs) in the environment is a significant threat to the ecosystem. Even though various degradation mechanisms (physical, chemical, and biological) of commonly used plastics have been demonstrated, quantifying the degradation of MPs over time to predict the consequence of plastic littering and its persistence in the environment remains a challenge. Different advanced analytical techniques have been used to quantify the degradation of MPs by introducing various parameters such as bond indices, crystallinity, and carbon–oxygen ratio. However, a simple and widely accepted reliable methodology for comparing the environmental factors and their influence on the MP degradation has yet to be developed and validated. This paper reviews a section of relevant literature (n = 38) to synthesize an overview of methods implemented for the quantification of fragmentation and aging of MPs in natural and artificial environment. In addition, the inherent weakness and extrinsic factors affecting the degradation of MPs in the environment is discussed. Finally, it proposes challenges and future scope as guideline for research on MP degradation in the environment.
Graphical abstract
... Lakes and reservoirs are especially vulnerable environments to MP pollution, as they tend to accumulate it in their basins. Nava et al. [17] studied 38 lakes and reservoirs across the world and observed that the most polluted ones showed concentrations exceeding those found in the infamous ocean gyres that were reported already in 1990, then named "garbage patches" [18]. MPs in saline lakes and lagoons are understudied-they were not included in Nava et al.'s comprehensive study of Pollutants of emerging concern are one of the most recent and ubiquitous threats, notably microplastics (MPs) [16]. ...
... Lakes and reservoirs are especially vulnerable environments to MP pollution, as they tend to accumulate it in their basins. Nava et al. [17] studied 38 lakes and reservoirs across the world and observed that the most polluted ones showed concentrations exceeding those found in the infamous ocean gyres that were reported already in 1990, then named "garbage patches" [18]. MPs in saline lakes and lagoons are understudied-they were not included in Nava et al.'s comprehensive study of inland waters [17], and their abundance, fate, and effects are yet to be understood. ...
Saline lakes are rare and fragile habitats with a high conservation and scientific interest. We have studied the presence of microplastics (MPs) in the water of four inland saline lakes located in the Central Ebro Basin (CEB), NE Spain. Quantification and characterization of MPs were performed by optical microscopy and micro-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (micro-FTIR). MPs analyzed covered the 5–5000 μm range. Most of the MPs collected were contained in the 250–500 and 500–1000 μm ranges. The concentration of MPs varied from 850 ± 271 to 1556 ± 59 MPs/L, fibers being the most dominant typology. Seven different colors were observed, the most abundant being black, and seven types of plastic were identified, polyester, polyethylene terephthalate, and nylon the most abundant. The smallest lakes presented a more homogeneous MP size distribution and a wider variety in color and polymer composition. This work shows that the MP concentration in these lakes is at least one order of magnitude higher than previous values reported in similar environments, and it is expected to multiply fast. This highlights the importance of the hydrological characteristics of these lakes, the evapotranspiration being the only water outflow, the atmospheric deposition of MPs, and other anthropogenic causes.
... However, the rapid increase in economic activities and urban communities within the Pacific SIDS is leading to increased preferences of imported and pre-packed products, resulting in growing volumes of disposable packaging and plastic waste (Friel et al., 2013;SPREP, 2018a). Additionally, these islands are vulnerable to plastic pollution due to their expansive coastlines of 57,797 km (Andrew et al 2019), position within the trade winds and at the outer edges of oceanic gyres (Eriksen et al., 2013). ...
... Remote islands are often exposed to marine plastic pollution to a degree that is disproportionate to their size and domestic contributions, with the source and responsibility often originating thousands of kilometres away (EIA, 2020; Richardson et al., 2017). However, the most plastic accumulations in the South Pacific take place in the South Pacific gyre, in an area located between Chile and the Pitcairn Islands, outside of the research area (Eriksen, et al, 2013). The eastern centre area of the South Pacific is where the highest densities of marine plastics should be found (Martinez, et al, 2009). ...
This report presents the findings of a study that aimed at estimating the impacts of plastics leaked into the marine environment from Fiji, and the costs and benefits of implementing a solution, a regional recycling system to reduce mismanaged plastic waste and its leakage into the marine environment.
Fiji’s fisheries sector and others fishing in the Southeast Pacific contribute to marine plastics through abandoned, discarded, or lost fishing gear or ALDFG, which in turn impacts the fishing industry. ALDFG can perform “ghost fishing,” which means that it can continue to trap fish and crustaceans, as well as ensnaring and capturing other species, given that this gear is no longer being controlled.
Among the recommendations for Fiji to improve its waste management system, research cited in this report states that “it is important to promote plastic reduction…it is equally important to recycle plastic waste that has already been produced”. Source separation is needed, while there is also a need to invest in infrastructure such as waste transfer stations and material recovery facilities to support the recycling sector and source separation. This goes in line with the new Fiji waste strategy, which promotes waste prevention and minimisation through reduction, reuse, and recycling.
... MPs found in aquatic ecosystems can be classified as either aquatic based or land-based sources (Law et al., 2010;Hammer et al., 2012;Eriksen et al., 2013). Aquatic based MPs may result from the fragmentation of bigger plastic particles that are disposed during human activities such as fishing activities, drinking water bottles and other packaged food items. ...
... The direct correlation between population growth and industrialisation on the presence of MPs in aquatic environments can be studied by analysing the effluent from WWTPs and receiving waters. Scientific research has indicated that treatment plants are unable to entirely eliminate MPs (Eriksen et al., 2013;Eerkes-Medrano et al., 2015;Storck et al., 2015). As such, the role of each treatment stage of the waste water treatment process in the generation, degradation, transport, and elimination of MPs is important to consider especially those that come from primary sources (Blair et al., 2017). ...
The occurrence of microplastics (MPs) in the environment has become an emerging global concern and has been reported to pose consequential risks to organisms, human health and the environment. Due to their small size (ranging from 1 μm to 5 mm in size), eliminating MPs from wastewater poses a significant challenge, which leads to their accumulation in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). This review article explores the method of characterizing MPs in WWTPs to understand their environmental impact better. It also discusses various techniques for characterising MPs in WWTPs, drawing on existing scientific literature. The article provides a comprehensive review of the current methodologies used for the characterisation (chemical, morphology, thermal) of MPs in WWTPs. Furthermore, analytical techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy are discussed along with their limitations and potential for recognition and differentiation of various kinds of MPs. The article also highlights the need for standardisation of sampling, extraction, and analytical methods to ensure comparability of results from different studies. The review identifies several obstacles in characterising MPs within WWTPs, such as the absence of standardised methods, restricted detection thresholds, and challenges in quantifying MPs within intricate environmental contexts. To overcome these obstacles, the review recommends prioritising research efforts aimed at enhancing current methodologies, emphasising the need to refine techniques for better comprehension and analysis of MPs within WWTPs.
... These include but are not limited to the potential impacts on navigational safety, biological diversity, ecological services, and the propensity for FMD to transport invasive species (García-Gómez et al., 2021;Gregory, 2009;Villarrubia-Gómez et al., 2018). Three-quarters of marine debris is plastic (Barnes et al., 2009), with concentrations up to 580, 000 pieces per square kilometer (pcs/km 2 ) recorded in the accumulating gyres (Eriksen et al., 2013;Law et al., 2010), and an estimated 170 trillion particles floating on the ocean's surface (Eriksen et al., 2023). Despite the threat posed by mismanaged plastic in the environment, the demand for plastic products continues to grow, leading to a continual increase of FMD on a global scale (Andrady, 2011;Wilcox et al., 2020). ...
... Among the variety of frontal types, estuarine fronts, tidal mixing fronts, shelf and shelf break fronts, and coastal upwelling fronts are frequently detected in coastal zones . FMD hotspots relating to fronts have been observed in previous studies from large-scale subtropical gyres (Barnes et al., 2009;Eriksen et al., 2013;Law et al., 2010), meso-scale (Brach et al., 2018 and submeso-scale eddies (D'Asaro et al., 2018) in the open ocean, to coastal fronts in shelf zones (Meyerjürgens et al., 2019;Nakano et al., 2021;van der Molen et al., 2021). ...
... Plastic bag packaging for hot edible products allows hazardous chemicals to migrate into meals. These include styrene, which is toxic, phthalates, and bisphenol, which causes diabetes and heart and liver damage [6]. As a result, it is past time to transition to alternative packing and transportation materials. ...
... Despite plastics being recognised as a problem in marine settings since the 1970s, plastic contamination in aquatic and freshwater ecosystems has only recently been identified as a global issue. Governments, scientists, nongovernmental groups, and the general public are increasingly gravely concerned about the pollution of marine life by plastic bags [6]. ...
... Microplastics recovered from the ocean contain plasticizers and can also have an impact on terrestrial ecosystem (Eriksen et al., 2013). Plastic products have the potential to release plasticizers into the soil environment, endangering terrestrial systems, while effluents may eventually allow contaminants to enter marine systems . ...
... The specificity of the enzyme, enzymatic degradation only works with some types of plastics, which is why it is difficult to be used broadly. As a result, hybrid enzymes comprised of several types of enzymes should be investigated further in order to endow the higher practical application value (Eriksen et al., 2013). 9) Many of the catalytic-chemical degradations of microplastic were CO 2 and H 2 O and no other high-value chemicals were created as the main or by-product, due to which this process was regarded as very efficient. ...
... Visual sorting should only be used for particles over 500 µm or even 1000 µm. If more accurate methods are not used (e.g., FTIR, Raman spectroscopy) [150], the visual sorting error level ranges from 20% [169] to 70% and increases with the decreasing particle size. Sorting chambers (e.g., a Bogorov counting chamber) can be used to sort water samples [150] and a dissecting microscope can be used to sort smaller particles [170]. ...
... Spectroscopic and chemical techniques have recorded significant progress in the last dozen years. The wide spectrum of techniques for identifying polymer microparticles includes optical microscopy [175]; physico-chemical methods, including SEM [169,176]; spectroscopic techniques such as Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, FTIR [177,178], ATR-FTIR and Raman spectrometry [177]; thermal methods [179] (TGA, DSC); and chromatographic techniques (GC, HPLC). ...
This paper addresses several important problems and methods related to studies of inland waters based on the existing scientific literature. The use of UAVs in freshwater monitoring is described , including recent contact and non-contact solutions. Due to a decline in biological diversity in many parts of the globe, the main threats are described together with a modern method for algae and cyanobacteria monitoring utilizing chlorophyll a fluorescence. Observed disturbances in the functioning of river biocenoses related to mine waters' discharge, causing changes in the physico-chemical parameters of waters and sediments, give rise to the need to develop more accurate methods for the assessment of this phenomenon. Important problems occurring in the context of micro-plastic detection, including the lack of unification, standardization and repeatability of the methods used, were described. In conclusion, accurate results in the monitoring of water quality parameters of inland waters can be achieved by combining modern methods and using non-contact solutions.
... In addition, three other major ocean gyres exist -the Southern Hemisphere Indian Ocean gyre, the South Atlantic gyre, and the South Pacific Subtropical Gyre. Plastic accumulation, including the accumulation of MPs, have been studied in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch [224], the North Atlantic Garbage Patch [223], the South Pacific Subtropical Gyre [70], the South Atlantic Gyre [222] and the Southern Hemisphere Indian Ocean gyre [13]. The beached material can refloat [219] [228]. ...
This short review addresses sampling techniques and analytical techniques for microplastics obtained in near-shore and offshore waters. It also gives an insight into the published data on the distribution of microplastics in coastal and offshore waters of different oceans.
... Unlike non-biodegradable petroleum-based polymers, biopolymers undergo chemical or enzymatic degradation and form biomasses, inorganic compounds, water, carbon dioxide and eventually are converted into humus [114]. Polyolefins remain accumulated in the environment for decades and they break down at a lethargic pace to form microplastics which form garbage patches moving through rivers to the oceans [177]. Utilization of biodegradable polymers hold significance in solving the worldwide oil-based plastic waste accumulation problem [178]. ...
Food industries have a substantial demand for non-biodegradable petroleum-derived packages due to their easy processability, higher strength, and durability. However, the environment faces severe ecological challenges triggered by polyolefin packages as they do not undergo natural decomposition. Using biopolymers in food packages is a promising way to solve these environmental issues. Recently, investigations have been conducted to impart mechanical, physical, thermal, and barrier properties to natural and synthetic biopolymeric films to be a perfect biodegradable replacement for polyolefin films. This chapter explores the natural and synthetic polymers that can be utilized in biodegradable active food packaging, emphasizing their features and mechanisms of natural decomposition. Here, the biopolymers current and potential applications are also mentioned. It also comprises detailed explanations regarding the methods to incorporate those biodegradable polymers into the food packages.
... The amount of marine litter accumulating in Can Gio is generally moderate. Its value was lower than that of studies conducted nearby, such as Selayar Island, Indonesia (Hermawan et al. 2017), where a high amount of mismanaged waste was recorded (Jambeck et al. 2015), or Henderson Island (Lavers and Bond 2017), located in the South Pacific Gyre, where a large amount of marine litter is concentrated (Eriksen et al. 2013). ...
The health of humans, the economy, and the marine ecology are all seriously threatened by marine litter. Therefore, quantifying the scope of the issue is gaining more and more attention. Studying beach litter accumulation is one of the approaches to investigating its flows into the marine environment. This study assessed beach litter composition and abundance in a clam culture area in Can Thanh Town, Can Gio District, during a daily moon cycle. From the higher beach limit (bushes or rocks), a transect with a length of 50 m parallel to the seawater line and a width of 10 m was set to collect all litter. The litters were then cleaned, weighted, and classified according to NOAA’s marine debris guidance, with modifications to the litter category list. As a result, the dominant materials collected were plastic, accounting for more than 90% of all items found throughout the surveys. A total of 3617 items weighing 21,456.674 g were recorded, corresponding to an accumulation rate of 0.24 items/day.m² (1.43 g/day.m²). Despite the research location’s low population density, most items were made of foam and bottle wrappers. Brand auditing showed that PepsiCo, Coca-Cola, and Tan Hiep Phat were the top three recognized brands in the beverage industry. This raises an issue in managing beach litter in Can Thanh Town, and the source of such litter could be the mishandling of litter drifting in from other places.
... These types of microplastics were called secondary microplastics [53]. Due to strong ultraviolet rays, the physical wear of waves, oxidation of oxygen, and other processes, microplastics form into smaller sizes through fragments that account for a relatively high proportion in the ocean [99,100]. However, when this debris is subjected to deep or low temperatures, weaker ultraviolet rays, and reduced microbial activity, its decomposition occurs more slowly [101][102][103][104]. ...
The prevalence of microplastics in a wide range of environmental media has attracted increasing attention worldwide. This review article provides a comprehensive and systematic review of the nature, sources, hazards, and removal methods of microplastics in the environment. In contrast to previous studies focusing on the sources and risks of microplastics in a single environment, this article comprehensively analyses atmospheric, terrestrial runoff, marine and freshwater sources of microplastics and explores the hazards they pose to the environment and the health of humans and other organisms. Microplastics cause multiple adverse effects on aquatic and terrestrial organisms through accumulation, including growth inhibition, oxidative stress, inflammation, organ damage, and germ cell abnormalities. They may also enter the food chain and affect human health. This article summarizes the latest research progress on microplastic removal technologies from biological, physical, and chemical perspectives, with high efficiency, sustainability, and degradability for biological removal and adsorption and filtration being more effective for physical removal. This provides valuable information for future research related to microplastics. We advocate for a reduction in the use of microplastics and provide references for solving the problem of microplastic pollution.
... Less attention has been given to riverine waters despite the fact that about 80% of marine plastic debris is believed to originate from rivers, with an annual transfer of 500 kilotons over the year 2020 (Kaandorp et al. 2023). There is now increasing evidence that many rivers across the globe exhibit significantly higher microplastic concentrations than the marine environment (Eriksen et al. 2013;Weiss et al. 2021). The plastisphere in freshwater ecosystems was also found as a specific niche for microorganisms when compared to the surrounding riverine waters (Yang et al. 2020). ...
Microplastics provide a persistent substrate that can facilitate microbial transport across ecosystems. Since most marine plastic debris originates from land and reaches the ocean through rivers, the potential dispersal of freshwater bacteria into the sea represents a significant concern. To address this question, we explored the plastisphere on microplastic debris (MPs) and on pristine microplastics (pMPs) as well as the bacteria living in surrounding waters, along the river-sea continuum in nine major European rivers sampled during the 7 months of the Tara Microplastics mission. In both marine and riverine waters, we found a clear niche partitioning among MPs and pMPs plastispheres when compared to the bacteria living in the surrounding waters. Across this large dataset, we found that bacterial community structure varied along the river salinity gradient, with plastisphere communities exhibiting almost complete segregation between freshwater and marine ecosystems. We also described for the first time a virulent human pathogenic bacterium (Shewanella putrefaciens), capable of infecting human intestinal epithelial cells, detected exclusively on MPs in riverine environments. Our findings indicate that salinity is the main driver of plastisphere communities along the river-to-sea continuum, helping to mitigate the risk of pathogens transfer between freshwater and marine systems.
Graphical Abstract
... Due to technical challenges, most environmental studies focus on particles > 300 μm, whereas MPs concentrations in surface waters worldwide range from 0.002 to 0.5 mg.L − 1 (particles >10 μm), which may introduce a bias leading to an underestimation of the ecological impact of these anthropogenic pollutants. (Rani-Borges et al., 2022;Bringer et al., 2021b;Fok et al., 2020;Enders et al., 2015;Eriksen et al., 2013). ...
... Polymers such as polyvinylchloride that are heavier than seawater are transported through underlying ocean currents [58]. Other factors impacting plastic transport include changing ocean levels, impacts of the Coriolis, breeze, heat gradients, brininess, lunation gravity, etc. [59]. ...
With nearly 40% of the total plastics produced being used for packaging, up to five trillion plastic bags are consumed in the world annually. The inadequate disposal of plastic waste and its persistence has become a serious challenge/risk to the environment, health, and well-being of living creatures, including humans. The natural degradation of plastics is extremely slow; large pieces of plastic may break down into microplastics (MPs) (1 μm–5 mm) or nanoplastics (NPs) (<1000 nm) after protracted physical, chemical, and/or biological degradations. A brief overview of the transport of micro- and nanoplastics in the aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric environments is presented. Details are provided on the exposure routes for these waste materials and their entry into humans and other biota through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. The greatest concern is the cumulative impact of the heterogeneous secondary MPs and NPs on planetary and human health. Inhaled MPs and NPs have been shown to affect the upper respiratory tract, lower respiratory tract, and alveoli; prolonged exposure can lead to chronic inflammatory changes and systemic disease. These can also lead to autoimmune diseases and other chronic health conditions, including atherosclerosis and malignancy. Sustainable mitigation strategies to reduce the impact of MPs/NPs include source reduction, material substitution, filtration and purification, transformation of plastic waste into value-added materials, technological innovations, etc. Multidisciplinary collaborations across the fields of medicine, public health, environmental science, economics, and policy are required to help limit the detrimental effects of widespread MPs and NPs in the environment.
... Previous studies largely sampled myctophids from oceanic gyres (Beamish et al., 1999;Bernal et al., 2020;Boerger et al., 2010;Davison and Asch, 2011;Lusher et al., 2016), whereas most of our specimens were collected within 100 nautical miles from shore. Oceanic gyres such as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch are infamous for accumulating plastic debris rapidly (Chen et al., 2018;Eriksen et al., 2013), despite lying thousands of miles offshore, and have thus attracted the focus of most research to date. Our study helps to fill out knowledge of the anthropogenic impact of plastic accumulation in other oceanic regions, such as nearshore food webs close to human populations. ...
... Myctophids caught in gyres where plastic debris is known to accumulate are confirmed to consume microplastics (Boerger et al., 2010;Eriksen et al., 2013;Lusher et al., 2016;Wieczorek et al., 2018;McGoran et al., 2021;Justino et al., 2022). Building on this knowledge, our goal was to assess the presence of microparticles in coastal myctophids in the Northern California Current, which we use to provide a spatial context for the influence that distance to a major river mouth might have on the accumulation of microparticles in the digestive tracts of mesopelagic fishes. ...
Introduction
Plastics carried in the outflow of major rivers can be made available and subsequently ingested by marine fishes, causing lethal and sublethal effects. Highly abundant, vertically migrating myctophids play a crucial role in facilitating nutrient cycling between the epi- and mesopelagic zones. However, this diel movement may also make myctophids significant conduits for transporting ingested microparticles from surface waters to deeper food webs.
Methods
We examined the gastrointestinal tracts of 340 myctophids caught at varying distances from the Columbia River mouth in the epipelagic zone of the northeast Pacific Ocean to determine if proximity to a presumed point source influences microparticle ingestion.
Results
While we found no direct spatial connection with ingestion frequency, we discovered that (a) ~34% of myctophids had either synthetic or other anthropogenic particles retained in their GI tract, (b) microparticle ingestion was higher in an active-feeding species of myctophid (Tarletonbeania crenularis) than an inactive-feeding species (Stenobrachius leucopsarus), and (c) species and standard length were the most influential predictors of microparticle consumption in our best fit model.
Discussion
Our failure to detect a significant relationship between distance from a source and ingestion by myctophids is likely due to the particles undergoing fluctuations in dispersal patterns once they enter the ocean, particularly for microfibers which can be transported across large distances. Biological factors like body size may be more relevant to understanding microparticle ingestion patterns in mesopelagic fishes. Overall, our study highlights the potential role myctophids serve as multidirectional transporters of microparticles in Northern California Current food webs, with potential impacts on fisheries and human food systems.
... The Azorean archipelago presents a key foraging habitat for migratory baleen whales in the North Atlantic [27,28], taking advantage of the secondary production generated by the spring bloom [29]. It is also a well-known region of elevated microplastics concentrations [30][31][32][33][34][35]. It has been previously reported that high concentrations of microplastics are found afloat in the Azores region [36] and accumulating on sandy beaches [37,38]. ...
... For example, high densities of plastic fragments have been observed at subtropical latitudes, associated with large-scale surface convergence zones predicted by Ekman dynamics, with the highest density exceeded 10 6 pieces km − 2 , and a marked density difference was observed between convergence and nonconvergence zones (Law et al., 2010(Law et al., , 2014. Observations of MPs in the South Pacific subtropical gyre have shown that surface concentrations of plastic pollution increase towards the center of the gyre and decrease further away, confirming the presence of a MPs patch (Eriksen et al., 2013) with the highest density recorded at 400,000 pieces km − 2 . Such trends have been confirmed in gyres worldwide (Eriksen et al., 2014). ...
... Mismanaged plastic wastes accumulate and contaminate a wide range of terrestrial environments, including freshwater, seashores, the open ocean, and the seafloor. 9 A study by Topçu et al. and Thiel et al. 10,11 revealed that more than 80% of litter stranded on beaches are plastic-containing materials such as single-use bags and food containers, which are responsible for the massive quantities of plastic debris (~79%) in the environment. 12 Despite being persistent recalcitrant materials, plastics ultimately fragment at an extremely slow rate. ...
With the increase in plastic waste in the environment, it is undeniable that humans and most organisms are exposed to plastic particles of various sizes, including nanoplastics (NPs). Humans are at risk owing to various routes of entry, including ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. While the toxicity of NPs is still debatable due to the scarcity of resources and research, most studies have concluded that NPs may exert toxicity, which exacerbates their neurotoxicity potential. Earlier studies concluded that NPs can cause oxidative stress, which results in apoptosis of neuronal cells. Some studies have shown that NPs can affect fundamental cell functions by inducing physical stress through deposition. Furthermore, studies on in vivo models exposed to NPs have demonstrated behavioral changes that are presumably due to alterations in acetylcholinesterase activity and neurotransmitter levels. This review discusses studies conducted on the neurotoxic potential of NPs and their effects, which are dependent on several parameters, including size and type of NPs, exposure concentration, duration, and various models at risk of NP exposure. Furthermore, speculations on how NPs are related to neurotoxicity are also discussed.
... Microplastics (MPs) were plastic fragments, particles, or fibers with particle size less than 5 mm, and currently MPs were found in oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers, polar regions, and organisms around the world (Browne et al., 2011;Eriksen et al., 2013;Lusher et al., 2014) . Under the increasing environmental pollution, MPs were found widely present in various environmental media. ...
Microplastics (MPs) pollution has emerged as a critical global environmental issue, for which rivers serve as key conduits for the transport of MPs from land to ocean. There remained a lack of clarity regarding the characteristics and transport patterns of MPs pollution in diverse environmental media and seasons within a river basin. The Jiulong River basin in Fujian, SE China was studied as case, whose spatial-temporal distribution, pollution characteristics, and transport dynamics of MPs in both surface water and groundwater were analyzed. Additionally, the features of MPs in different land use types during the dry season were examined. Results show that in wet season, the abundance of MPs in river water varied from 840 to 12 300 p/m3, with an average of 3 920 p/m3; in groundwater, the range was 740–1 820 p/m3, averaging 1 107 p/m3; and from 68 to 951 p/kg, with an average value of 265 p/kg in the soil (dry weight). In dry season, levels of MPs in river water ranged from 580 to 8 880 p/m3, with an average of 4 034 p/m3; groundwater exhibited a range of 860–14 980 p/m3, averaging 3 453 p/m3. Fibers consistently dominated the morphology of MPs, of which polyethylene terephthalate (PET) was identified as the predominant composition in each environmental medium. Our findings underscore the spatial and temporal variability in distribution and contamination characteristics of MPs across different media. Notably, MPs abundance in river water and groundwater exhibited a seasonal pattern, being higher in levels in dry season than in wet season. The downstream transport of MPs was facilitated by surface runoff, in which MPs in groundwater and surface water could complement to each other. Furthermore, population density and human activities were identified as influential factors on the distribution and abundance of MPs. This study revealed the order of magnitude of difference in annual estimates of MPs entering the sea among different models. Additionally, the interception volume by mangrove forest in the Jiulong River estuary was estimated approximately 1.51×1010 MPs particles per year. Ecological interception shall be considered when estimating the fluxes of MPs into the sea.
... In addition to vertical gradients of plastic pollution, plastic waste is not evenly distributed across the world's major ocean basins. Instead, certain areas accumulate more plastic debris, such as within gyres, due to these circular currents trapping floating debris [24]. Indeed, gyres, including those within the North and South Pacific, North and South Atlantic, and the Indian Ocean, are well-known accumulation zones for floating plastic debris [25,26]. ...
Background
Plastic pollution is a severe threat to marine ecosystems. While some microbial enzymes can degrade certain plastics, the ability of the global ocean microbiome to break down diverse environmental plastics remains limited. We employed metatranscriptomic data from an international ocean survey to explore global and regional patterns in microbial plastic degradation potential.
Results
On a global oceanic scale, we found no significant correlation between levels of plastic pollution and the expression of genes encoding enzymes putatively identified as capable of plastic degradation. Even when looking at different regional scales, ocean depth layers, or plastic types, we found no strong or even moderate correlation between plastic pollution and relative abundances of transcripts for enzymes with presumed plastic biodegradation potential. Our data, however, indicate that microorganisms in the Southern Ocean show a higher potential for plastic degradation, making them more appealing candidates for bioprospecting novel plastic-degrading enzymes.
Conclusion
Our research contributes to understanding the complex global relationship between plastic pollution and microbial plastic degradation potential. We reveal that the transcription of putative plastic-degrading genes in the global ocean microbiome does not correlate to marine plastic pollution, highlighting the ongoing danger that plastic poses to marine environments threatened by plastic pollution.
... Several worldwide studies have been conducted in recent years to assess the prevalence of floating MPs and microbeads in various water bodies across the world (Eriksen et al. 2013b;Cózar et al. 2014;Reisser et al. 2015). According to a study by Li et al. (2016), the North Atlantic subtropical gyres are the most affected by floating MPs and microbeads (Li et al. 2016). ...
The emergence of plastic waste from industries is a serious ecological concern. In recent years, plastic has been identified in various ecosystems, including human tissues, posing a threat to the biotic components of the Earth and giving rise to potential adverse consequences. The plastic waste is fragmented into smaller components like nanoplastics (NPs) and microplastics (MPs) by different physical and chemical processes. The surface of small plastic polymers is occupied by several microbial communities such as bacteria, fungi, and diatoms, giving rise to the plastisphere. The hydrophobic surface of MPs can provide suitable environment for aquatic microbial communities to colonize and form biofilms. The microbial composition and colonization on the surface of MPs are influenced by the environment and physiochemical properties of the plastisphere. Several techniques are used for the characterization and analysis of the plastisphere to frame a suitable strategy for plastic degradation. In this chapter, we provide a detailed account of the plastic pollution in different environments, factors affecting plastisphere, characterization of plastisphere, and microbial and enzyme-mediated degradation of MPs.
... With some minor exceptions, we found that microplastics have lower absorption, backscatter more strongly, and depolarize light to a greater extent than natural marine particles. These characteristics may enable optical detection and differentiation from typical material suspended in seawater, especially in open-ocean oligotrophic gyres where many plastics have accumulated (Eriksen et al. 2013;Lebreton et al. 2018). We estimate that microplastic concentrations as low as 2 mg m À3 may be detectable by green channels of satellite detectors in these environments, although more dedicated studies are needed to examine effects of vertical distribution of microplastics and the potential for differentiation from natural oceanic material using spectral signatures. ...
Libraries of inherent optical properties (IOPs) of microplastics are sparse, yet they are essential for the development of optical techniques to detect and quantify microplastics in the ocean. In this study, we describe our results and technique for the measurement of the IOPs of microplastic suspensions generated from commonly utilized plastics. The measurements included angle‐resolved polarized light scattering, and spectral absorption and beam attenuation coefficients. We also performed ancillary characterization of particle properties, including size distribution, shape, and mass concentration of suspended matter. We observed several unique optical characteristics regarding absorption, scattering, and polarization properties compared with typical marine particle assemblages. We show that these results are useful for radiative transfer simulations as well as the potential development of novel plastic detection techniques from above‐ or in‐water optical measurements.
We investigate how the relationship between capital accumulation and pollution is affected by the source of pollution: production or consumption. We are interested in polluting waste that cannot be naturally absorbed, but for which recycling efforts aim to avoid massive pollution accumulation with harmful consequences in the long run. Based on both environmental and social welfare perspectives, we determine how the interaction between growth and polluting waste accumulation is affected by the source of pollution, i.e., either consumption or production, and by the fact that recycling may or may not act as an income generator, i.e., either capital-improving or capital-neutral recycling efforts. Several new results are extracted regarding optimal recycling policy and the shape of the relationship between production and pollution. Besides the latter concern, we show both analytically and numerically that the optimal control of waste through recycling allows to reaching larger (resp., lower) consumption and capital stock levels under consumption-based waste compared to production-based waste while the latter permits to reach lower stocks of waste through lower recycling efforts.
Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous in the marine environment and impact organisms at multiple levels. Understanding their actual effects on wild populations is urgently needed. This study develops a toolkit to monitor changes in gene expression induced by MPs in natural environments, focusing on filter-feeding and bioindicator species from diverse ecological and taxonomic groups. Six candidate genes —Caspase, HSP70, HSP90, PK, SOD, and VTG— and nine filter-feeding species —two branchiopods, one copepod, five bivalves and one fish— were selected based on differential expression in response to MPs exposure (mainly the widely used polystyrene and polyethylene polymers) reported in over 30 publications. Some genes are particularly determinant, such as HSP70 and HSP90 (key to managing a wide range of stressors) and SOD (critical for addressing oxidative stress), as they are more directly related to stress. PK is related to carbohydrate metabolism (alterations in energy metabolism); VTG is associated with reproductive problems; Caspase mediates in apoptosis. Each gene in the toolkit plays a role depending on the type of stress assessed, and their combination provides a comprehensive understanding of the impacts of MPs. Differences in gene expressions between species and the exposure thresholds were found. These genes were examined in various scenarios with different types, concentrations, and sizes of MPs, alone or with other stressors. The toolkit offers significant advantages, allowing a comprehensive study of the impact of MPs and focusing on filtering bioindicator species, thus enabling pollution assessment and long-term monitoring. It will outperform traditional methods like tissue counts of MPs where only physical damage is visible, providing a deeper understanding. To our knowledge, this is the first toolkit of its kind.
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There has been considerable research on microplastics in marine environments. Across the globe scientific field studies and laboratory experiments are constantly producing novel microplastic litter which has been termed as research dedicated microplastic pollution. This study aims to assess peer-reviewed microplastic pollution articles for strengths and flaws. Researchers frequently examine plankton and muddy sediments for microplastics. In this topic, researchers also study vertebrate and invertebrate microplastic ingestion and chemical contaminant interactions. According to empirical data, microplastics threaten various marine creatures. More scientific studies on marine polymer degradation, advanced sampling and laboratory analytical methods, emergent pollution sources, and unanticipated consequences were reviewed and debated. This is the first thorough investigation of microplastics' effects on marine ecosystems and creatures. The current and predicted plastic consumption and disposal practises of humans are expected to increase academic publications. Thus, we suggest new research areas and crucial methods.
Anthropogenic activities have introduced various contaminants into freshwater and marine ecosystems. Microplastics (MPs) are persistent and ubiquitous contaminants threatening natural ecosystems and impairing organisms at different biological levels of organization. Their durability and degradation rate pose a great concern in the scientific community, and thus, several techniques have been used to detect MPs effectively. The present study critically reviews the most commonly used techniques (FTIR, Raman, and fluorescence) and others considered novel regarding MP detection and characterisation, namely LIBS. Despite the effectiveness of such methodologies, none are free from drawbacks. The scientific community must join efforts to create, for example, innovative real-time (bio)sensing methodologies for MPs to overcome this gap.
One of the main objectives of the BBNJ Treaty is to enable States to establish large-scale marine protected areas (MPAs) to encompass at least 30 % of areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) by 2030, contributing to the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. We reviewed geological, oceanographical, biological, ecological, cultural and governance information on the Salas y Gómez and Nazca ridges in the southeast Pacific (SEP), described current and future threats, reviewed conservation measures and analyzed what remains to be done to achieve their effective protection. We point the relevance of creating a MPA under the BBNJ treaty and the establishment of specific actions from key intergovernmental organizations to conserve the fragile and unique ecosystems of this region facing multiple threats. Among other measures we propose the closure of the area to fishing, the enactment of effective conservation measures, the rejection of exploratory fishing and the increase of research and capacity-building activities within the region. Protecting this area will have major global benefits for ecosystem connectivity, climate regulation, food security, and other ecosystem services. It would also be seen as a global example for conserving biodiversity in ABNJ by collaboration between neighboring countries with common interests in a shared environment, contributing to global conservation goals. The information gathered here is key to build the scientific basis for decision-making on sustainable use, management, and conservation of biodiversity inhabiting the islands and seamounts of the Salas y Gómez and Nazca ridges, a natural and cultural heritage hotspot in the middle of the SEP.
Microplastics are a widely distributed pollutant that threatens the growth and health of marine organisms. Compared to the mainland, island ecosystems with unique characteristics are fragile and sensitive to natural and human interference. We investigated the characteristics and ecological risks of microplastics in the soils of Wuzhizhou Island, Hainan, China, and its surrounding nearshore sediments affected by human activities. Results show that the microplastic abundance in soil was 1 116.67 items/kg; the particles were fragmented in size of less than 2 mm, the main polymer types were polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), and polybutylene (PB), in transparent, gray, green, or white. The microplastic abundances in nearshore sediments of Wuzhizhou Island and the surrounding Haitang Bay were 274.67 and 755.17 items/kg, respectively; the particles were mainly fibrous, less than 1 mm in size, the main polymer types were rayon and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), mostly transparent. The abundance of microplastics showed a decreasing trend from shore to sea. Microplastics in the supratidal and intertidal zones differed in mainly the abundance and size. The microplastics in land soil were from tourism activities and infrastructure while the those in nearshore sediments came from not only tourism but also domestic sewage and fishing activities. The ecological risk of microplastics in the terrestrial soils of Wuzhizhou Island was higher than that in its surrounding nearshore sediments. These findings help to gain a deeper understanding of microplastic pollution in the island subjected to intensive human activities, and provide a scientific basis for subsequent in-situ toxicology research on microplastics and plastic pollution control.
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Seabirds have become biovectors of plastic pollutants between marine and terrestrial ecosystems, and transport of plastics to their nesting sites becomes relevant due to increasing levels of pollution. To determine the pathways by which plastic reaches their colonies, we analysed the abundance of plastics at the nesting sites of five seabird species (Humboldt penguin Spheniscus humboldti, Peruvian booby Sula variegata, kelp gull Larus dominicanus, grey gull Leucophaeus modestus, Markham's storm-petrel Hydrobates markhami) nesting in northern Chile. Seabirds were primarily grouped according to their nesting behaviour, but two species foraging in contrasting habitats (kelp gull and Markham's storm-petrel) were also compared directly. The abundance, type, and polymer of macro-, meso- and microplastics were analysed in the soil of colonies and control sites, and microplastic ingestion was evaluated for selected species. Densities of plastics in colonies of surface-nesting seabirds ranged from 0 to 21.4 items m−2 (mainly plastic bags and thin films), and 0.002 to 19.7 items m−2 (mainly hard fragments) in colonies of burrow-nesting seabirds. Mean microplastic loads in the stomachs of seabirds were between 3.7 ± 4.2 plastic items individual−1. Overall, the abundances of plastic items in all seabird colonies were low, suggesting a limited transfer of plastics from sea to land. For kelp gulls, the results indicate transfer of macroplastic items to colonies, reaching the colony via regurgitates, with landfills considered as the main plastic source. Our results suggest that contrasting nesting behaviour and foraging habitats among species can explain differential plastic accumulation in seabird colonies, but also other factors, such as wind, contribute to the accumulation of plastic debris in colonies. Proper management of sanitary landfills are key to reduce plastic contamination of coastal seabirds and their colonies.
Plastics are now the dominant fraction of anthropogenic marine debris and as a result of their long residence times, it is important to determine the threats that plastics present to marine ecosystems including their ability to sorb a diversity of environmental pollutants such as trace metals. To address this knowledge gap, this study examined the sorption of cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) by macro- and microplastics of polyethylene terephthalate (PETE) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) within marine intertidal sediments in a human-impacted area of Burrard Inlet (British Columbia, Canada). Trace metal sorption by macro- and microplastics was dependent on 1) polymer characteristics, notably the aging of the plastic over the duration of the field experiment as shown by the formation of new peaks via FTIR spectra; and 2) amounts of sediment organic matter, where the sorption of trace metals by the plastic particles decreased with increasing organic matter content (from 2.8% to 15.8%). Plastic particles play a minor role in trace metals sorption in the presence of organic matter at high concentrations as a result of competitive adsorption. Overall, the interaction of trace metals with sediment plastics was highly dynamic and to understand the key processes controlling this dynamic requires further study. This work contributed to our understanding on metal-plastic interactions in coastal intertidal sediments from urban environments and serve to support plastic pollution risk management and bioremediation studies.
Potensi Pantai Tanjung Karang sebanding dengan tekanan akibat kerusakan. Peluang tersebut berasal dari peningkatan jumlah penduduk, pariwisata, kegiatan perikanan, dan pembangunan yang tinggi. Sampah laut merupakan salah satu permasalahan kompleks yang dihadapi oleh wilayah pesisir yang memiliki beberapa sungai yang bermuara ke laut. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengidentifikasi jenis, kepadatan dan berat sampah serta strategi pengelolaannya di Pantai Tanjung Karang. Metode yang digunakan adalah metode survei dan alternatif strategi pengelolaan dengan analisis SWOT kemudian digunakan matriks EFAS dan IFAS. Kepadatan rata-rata sampah Tanjung Karang adalah 0,082–0,02 butir/m2 sampah makro dan rata-rata 0,04–0,01 butir/m2 sampah messo. Berat rata-rata makro debris adalah 8,4-0,01 gr/m2 dan messo debris adalah 0,06-0,0001 gr/m2. Upaya penanganan sampah laut di Tanjung Karang antara lain meningkatkan atau memanfaatkan program pemerintah Tanjung Karang dalam memanfaatkan sampah yang dikirim dari darat atau dari daerah sekitarnya menjadi barang yang bermanfaat, Zero Waste yang merupakan program utama Provinsi NTB harus disosialisasikan dengan baik, pengelolaan kawasan pesisir Tanjung Karang harus dilengkapi dengan zonasi kawasan pesisir untuk melindungi ekosistem biotik dan abiotik, serta fasilitas tempat sampah yang lengkap dan undang-undang untuk mendukung program tersebut.
Microplastics are ubiquitous in marine environments and have been documented across all ocean compartments, especially surface waters, across the world. Even though several studies identify the presence of microplastics in the world’s five oceans, there remains an overt problem of large inconsistencies in their sampling, extraction, and consequent quantification. Despite the complexity of these methodologies, researchers have tried to explore microplastic abundance in ocean surface waters. Using a systematic review approach, a dataset was derived from 73 primary studies undertaken since the year 2010 following the Oslo and Paris Conventions (OSPAR) guidelines to monitor and harmonise marine debris. The results showed differences in the abundance and distribution of microplastics in surface waters across oceans. The overall concentration of microplastics in all five oceans ranged between 0.002 and 62.50 items/m3, with a mean abundance of 2.76 items/m3. The highest mean concentration of microplastics was found in the Atlantic (4.98 items/m3), while the least was observed in the Southern Ocean (0.04 items/m3). While challenging, this paper recommends harmonisation of the sampling, separation, and identification methods across the globe to aid in the design of the appropriate mitigation strategies for reducing marine plastic pollution.
Water bodies play a crucial role in supporting life, maintaining the environment, and preserving the ecology for the people of India. However, in recent decades, human activities have led to various alterations in aquatic environments, resulting in environmental degradation through pollution. The safety of utilizing surface water sources for drinking and other purposes has come under intense scrutiny due to rapid population growth and industrial expansion. Surface water pollution due to micro-plastics (MPs) (plastics < 5 mm in size) is one of the emerging pollutants in metropolitan cities of developing countries because of its utmost resilience and synthetic nature. Recent studies on the surface water bodies (river, pond, Lake etc.) portrait the correlation between the MPs level with different parameters of pollution such as specific conductivity, total phosphate, and biological oxygen demand. Fibers represent the predominant form of MPs discovered in surface water bodies, exhibiting fluctuations across seasons. Consequently, present study prioritizes understanding the adaptation, prevalence, attributes, fluctuations, and spatial dispersion of MPs in both sediment and surface water environments. Furthermore, the study aims to identify existing gaps in the current understanding and underscore opportunities for future investigation. From the present study, it has been reported that, the concentration of MPs in the range of 0.2–45.2 items/L at the Xisha Islands in the south China sea, whereas in India it was found in the range of 96 items/L in water samples and 259 items/kg in sediment samples. This would certainly assist the urban planners in achieving sustainable development goals to mitigate the increasing amount of emergent pollutant load.
Micro- (0.5–5 mm) and meso-size (0.5–2.5 cm) floating marine litter was collected in June 2022 in the southeastern part of the Baltic Sea using a manta trawl (mesh size 335 µm). Plastic items, excluding fibers and paint flakes, accounted for approximately 90.1% of the total number of collected particles in fifteen surface water samples. The contamination level ranged from (0.33–23.90)×105 items/km2 (or 0.22–15.93 items/m3, or 5–1779 g/km2, or 0.03–11.86 mg/m3). Foamed PS particles accounted for 49.2% of the total number of collected particles. The mass of paraffin in each sample was high, ranging from 1.4 to 3750 g/km2 (9.1×10–3–25.0 mg/m3), which was comparable to or greater than the mass of plastic. This study suggests that plastic particles are retained at the water surface by paraffin stains left after washing tanks on transport ships. This finding highlights an unexpected aspect of the contribution of shipping to plastic pollution in the region.
Micro-plastic marine debris is widely distributed in vast regions of the
subtropical gyres and has emerged as a major open ocean pollutant. The
fate and transport of plastic marine debris is governed by poorly
understood geophysical processes, such as ocean mixing within the
surface boundary layer. Based on profile observations and a
one-dimensional column model, we demonstrate that plastic debris is
vertically distributed within the upper water column due to wind-driven
mixing. These results suggest that total oceanic plastics concentrations
are significantly underestimated by traditional surface measurements,
requiring a reinterpretation of existing plastic marine debris data
sets. A geophysical approach must be taken in order to properly quantify
and manage this form of marine pollution.
Litter from anthropogenic sources is commonly observed on beaches in the SE Pacific. The composition of litter found on the shore suggests that most of it has passed relatively little time at sea, and has mostly local sources. In southern Chile, stray items from aquaculture installations comprise most of the garbage, whereas in central and northern Chile and in Peru, general household litter is most common. Abundances are highest in areas with intense human activities, i.e. harbors, cities, and aquaculture centers. Impacts on the marine life are commonly observed, but have not been systematically studied in the SE Pacific. Estimated costs of litter on local beaches are high, as underlined by the high costs of beach cleaning, especially during the annual tourist season. Current data suggest that beaches without regular cleaning activities accumulate large amounts of litter. Regulations are in place to avoid littering at sea and on beaches, but law enforcement is limited mainly because the governmental bodies in charge are understaffed. Therefore, the most viable option to reduce the amount of litter is to reduce its production in the first place, improve reuse and recycling, and enhance environmental awareness. Several governmental and non-governmental organisations develop education programs that incorporate environmental aspects. The geographic coverage of these programs should be expanded. Furthermore, there is a need for long-term programs that inform the public about the need to reduce the amounts of waste and increase reuse and recycling in all sectors of society. RESUMO Resíduos de fontes antropogênicas são comumente observados nas praias do sudeste (SE) do Pacífico. A composição do lixo encontrado na costa sugere que a maioria deles passou relativamente pouco tempo no mar,
The distribution, abundance, and characteristics of neuston plastic in the North Pacific, Bering Sea, and Japan Sea were studied during the 4-year period 1985-88 at 203 neuston stations encompassing ca. 91,000 m2 of sampling. The highest total density of neuston plastic was 316,800 pieces/km2 at lat. 35"59'N, long. 152"OO'E in Transitional Water east of Japan. The highest total concentration of neuston plastic was 3,491.8 g/km2 at lat. 40"00'N, long. 171'30'E near the Subarctic Front in the central North Pacific. miscellaneous line fragments (21.7% of all stations), Styrofoam (12.8%), polypropylene line fragments (7.4%), miscellaneous or unidentified plastic (7.4%), and raw pellets (5.9%). Plastic fragments were recorded at 52.2% of all stations and at 88.3% of those stations with plastic. The highest densities (number per square kilometer) and concentrations (gram per square kilometer) of neuston plastic occurred in Japan Sea/nearshore Japan Water, in Transitional Water, and in Subtropical Water. Densities of neuston plastic in Subarctic Water and Bering Sea Water were low. Heterogeneous geographic input and currents and winds are important in distributing and concentrating neuston plastic. Microscale convergences appear to be important mechanisms that locally concentrate neuston plastic, increasing the probability of its entering food chains. Main types of neuston plastic were
Plastic pollution in the form of small particles (diameter less than 5 mm)-termed 'microplastic'-has been observed in many parts of the world ocean. They are known to interact with biota on the individual level, e.g. through ingestion, but their population-level impacts are largely unknown. One potential mechanism for microplastic-induced alteration of pelagic ecosystems is through the introduction of hard-substrate habitat to ecosystems where it is naturally rare. Here, we show that microplastic concentrations in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre (NPSG) have increased by two orders of magnitude in the past four decades, and that this increase has released the pelagic insect Halobates sericeus from substrate limitation for oviposition. High concentrations of microplastic in the NPSG resulted in a positive correlation between H. sericeus and microplastic, and an overall increase in H. sericeus egg densities. Predation on H. sericeus eggs and recent hatchlings may facilitate the transfer of energy between pelagic- and substrate-associated assemblages. The dynamics of hard-substrate-associated organisms may be important to understanding the ecological impacts of oceanic microplastic pollution.
The use of pumice as a geological tracer for oceanic dispersal patterns was evaluated by comparing the elemental signatures of drift pumice collected from Christmas Island and Hawaii in relation to prevailing oceanic currents and pumice source areas. Both sites lie in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, far from sources of volcanic pumice. Hawaii lies in the persistent westward-flowing North Equatorial Current. Christmas Island, in contrast, is influenced by the highly variable westward-flowing South Equatorial Current and the eastward-flowing Equatorial Counter Current. Pumice is very abundant at Christmas Island in the beach drift. Pumice from Christmas Island is derived from the western Pacific Ocean (Krakatau), southwestern Pacific Ocean (Tonga Trench), east Pacific Ocean (Mexico), South Atlantic Ridge and an unknown source. In contrast, pumice is rare in Hawaii. Pumice from Hawaii originates primarily from the South Sandwich Islands, Mexico (Isla San Benedicto) and Krakatau. The currents that control dispersal of pumice also control dispersal of larvae and rafted organisms. Christmas Island has a higher coral diversity (31 genera, 81 species) than Hawaii (17 genera, 50 species). Hawaii receives only small amounts of pumice drift from a limited area to the east and has a more restricted coral diversity, while Christmas receives massive amounts of pumice (and presumably larvae and rafted organisms) from the area of high coral diversity to the west.
In the past thirty years, the use of plastics and other synthetic materials has expanded at a rapid pace. As new uses for these materials have been developed, applied, and made available to more people, the quantity of plastic debris entering the marine environment has undergone a corresponding increase. Many of these products degrade very slowly. Those that are buoyant remain suspended at the sea surface for a long time, and those that are not, sink and remain on the bottom for years or even decades. The accumulating debris poses increasingly significant threats to marine mammals, seabirds, turtles, fish, and crustaceans. The threats are straightforward and primarily mechanical. Individual animals may become entangled in loops or openings of floating or submerged debrijs or they may ingest plastic materials. Animals that become entangled may drown, have their ability to catch food or avoid predators impaired, or incur wounds from abrasive or cutting action of attached debris. Ingested plastics may block digestive tracts, damage stomach linings, or lessen feeding drives. The deceptively simple nature of the threat, the perceived abundance of marine life, and the size of the oceans have, until recently, caused resource managers to overlook or dismiss the proliferation of potentially harmful plastic debris as being insignificant. However, developing information suggests that the mechanical effects of these materials affect many marine species in many ocean areas, and that these effects justify recognition of persistent plastic debris as a major form of ocean pollution.
This review of 68 studies compares the methodologies used for the identification and quantification of microplastics from the marine environment. Three main sampling strategies were identified: selective, volume-reduced, and bulk sampling. Most sediment samples came from sandy beaches at the high tide line, and most seawater samples were taken at the sea surface using neuston nets. Four steps were distinguished during sample processing: density separation, filtration, sieving, and visual sorting of microplastics. Visual sorting was one of the most commonly used methods for the identification of microplastics (using type, shape, degradation stage, and color as criteria). Chemical and physical characteristics (e.g., specific density) were also used. The most reliable method to identify the chemical composition of microplastics is by infrared spectroscopy. Most studies reported that plastic fragments were polyethylene and polypropylene polymers. Units commonly used for abundance estimates are "items per m(2)" for sediment and sea surface studies and "items per m(3)" for water column studies. Mesh size of sieves and filters used during sampling or sample processing influence abundance estimates. Most studies reported two main size ranges of microplastics: (i) 500 μm-5 mm, which are retained by a 500 μm sieve/net, and (ii) 1-500 μm, or fractions thereof that are retained on filters. We recommend that future programs of monitoring continue to distinguish these size fractions, but we suggest standardized sampling procedures which allow the spatiotemporal comparison of microplastic abundance across marine environments.
A global ocean circulation model is coupled to a Lagrangian particle tracking model to simulate 30 years of input, transport and accumulation of floating debris in the world ocean. Using both terrestrial and maritime inputs, the modelling results clearly show the formation of five accumulation zones in the subtropical latitudes of the major ocean basins. The relative size and concentration of each clearly illustrate the dominance of the accumulation zones in the northern hemisphere, while smaller seas surrounded by densely populated areas are also shown to have a high concentration of floating debris. We also determine the relative contribution of different source regions to the total amount of material in a particular accumulation zone. This study provides a framework for describing the transport, distribution and accumulation of floating marine debris and can be continuously updated and adapted to assess scenarios reflecting changes in the production and disposal of plastic worldwide.
A wide diversity of organisms is dispersed on abiotic floating substrata, but little is known about the succession of fouling communities on these items. The main abiotic floating items found in the oceans (volcanic pumice, plastics, and Styrofoam) differ in 3 principal characteristics, namely surface rugosity, buoyancy, and floating behaviour, confirmed herein by light and electron microscopy (SEM), measurements of buoyancy, and laboratory tests to determine floating stability. In order to examine how these properties affect colonization and community succession on these substrata, 3 experiments were conducted in the field for 14 wk: (1) substrata were permanently submerged to determine if colonization depends on substratum surface ('Rings' experiment); (2) substrata were tethered at the sea surface to examine the importance of buoyancy ('Lines' experiment); and (3) substrata were caged to test the role of their floating behaviour ('Cages' experiment). The most common colonizers in all 3 experiments were diatoms, Ulvales, and clonal ascidians from the genus Diplosoma. Surface rugosity of the substrata had only minor effects on the taxonomic richness of the developing communities. Buoyancy caused some differences in taxon cover, but taxon richness was similar on all 3 substrata. Finally, the floating behaviour at the sea surface had a strong influence on the communities developing on the floating substrata. Plastics (fewest changes in position) presented a higher richness and cover of taxa, while Styrofoam (most positional changes) harboured very few taxa. We conclude that colonization and succession on floating substrata is strongly influenced by positional changes, while surface rugosity and buoyancy appear important only during initial stages of community succession.
Since the mass production of plastics began in the 1940s, microplastic contamination of the marine environment has been a growing problem. Here, a review of the literature has been conducted with the following objectives: (1) to summarise the properties, nomenclature and sources of microplastics; (2) to discuss the routes by which microplastics enter the marine environment; (3) to evaluate the methods by which microplastics are detected in the marine environment; (4) to assess spatial and temporal trends of microplastic abundance; and (5) to discuss the environmental impact of microplastics. Microplastics are both abundant and widespread within the marine environment, found in their highest concentrations along coastlines and within mid-ocean gyres. Ingestion of microplastics has been demonstrated in a range of marine organisms, a process which may facilitate the transfer of chemical additives or hydrophobic waterborne pollutants to biota. We conclude by highlighting key future research areas for scientists and policymakers.
Plastic debris causes extensive damage to the marine environment, largely due to its ability to resist degradation. Attachment on plastic surfaces is a key initiation process for their degradation. The tendency of environmental marine bacteria to adhere to poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) plastic surfaces as a model material was investigated. It was found that the overall number of heterotrophic bacteria in a sample of sea water taken from St. Kilda Beach, Melbourne, Australia, was significantly reduced after six months from 4.2-4.7×10(3) cfu mL(-1) to below detectable levels on both full-strength and oligotrophic marine agar plates. The extinction of oligotrophs after six months was detected in all samples. In contrast, the overall bacterial number recovered on full strength marine agar from the sample flasks with PET did not dramatically reduce. Heterotrophic bacteria recovered on full-strength marine agar plates six months after the commencement of the experiment were found to have suitable metabolic activity to survive in sea water while attaching to the PET plastic surface followed by the commencement of biofilm formation.
Floating marine plastic debris was found to function as solid-phase extraction media, adsorbing and concentrating pollutants out of the water column. Plastic debris was collected in the North Pacific Gyre, extracted, and analyzed for 36 individual PCB congeners, 17 organochlorine pesticides, and 16 EPA priority PAHs. Over 50% contained PCBs, 40% contained pesticides, and nearly 80% contained PAHs. The PAHs included 2, 3 and 4 ring congeners. The PCBs were primarily CB-11, 28, 44, 52, 66, and 101. The pesticides detected were primarily p,p-DDTs and its metabolite, o,p-DDD, as well as BHC (a,b,g and d). The concentrations of pollutants found ranged from a few ppb to thousands of ppb. The types of PCBs and PAHs found were similar to those found in marine sediments. However, these plastic particles were mostly polyethylene which is resistant to degradation and although functioning similarly to sediments in accumulating pollutants, these had remained on or near the ocean surface. Particles collected included intact plastic items as well as many pieces less than 5 mm in size.
Plastic marine pollution is a major environmental concern, yet a quantitative description of the scope of this problem in
the open ocean is lacking. Here, we present a time series of plastic content at the surface of the western North Atlantic
Ocean and Caribbean Sea from 1986 to 2008. More than 60% of 6136 surface plankton net tows collected buoyant plastic pieces,
typically millimeters in size. The highest concentration of plastic debris was observed in subtropical latitudes and associated
with the observed large-scale convergence in surface currents predicted by Ekman dynamics. Despite a rapid increase in plastic
production and disposal during this time period, no trend in plastic concentration was observed in the region of highest accumulation.
Anthropogenic marine debris (AMD) is an ubiquitous problem, which has motivated public participation in activities such as beach surveys and clean-up campaigns. While it is known that beaches in the SE Pacific are also affected by this problem, the quantities and types of AMD remain largely unknown. In the context of an outreach project, volunteers (approximately 1500 high-school students) participated in a nation-wide survey of AMD on 43 beaches distributed randomly along the entire Chilean coast (18 degrees S to 53 degrees S). The mean density of AMD was 1.8 items m(-2) and the major types were plastics, cigarette butts and glass. Densities in central Chile were lower than in northern and southern Chile, which could be due to different attitudes of beach users or to intense beach cleaning in central regions. We suggest that public participation in surveys and cleaning activities will raise awareness and thereby contribute to an improvement of the situation.
Plastics debris in the marine environment, including resin pellets, fragments and microscopic plastic fragments, contain organic contaminants, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, petroleum hydrocarbons, organochlorine pesticides (2,2'-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane, hexachlorinated hexanes), polybrominated diphenylethers, alkylphenols and bisphenol A, at concentrations from sub ng g(-1) to microg g(-1). Some of these compounds are added during plastics manufacture, while others adsorb from the surrounding seawater. Concentrations of hydrophobic contaminants adsorbed on plastics showed distinct spatial variations reflecting global pollution patterns. Model calculations and experimental observations consistently show that polyethylene accumulates more organic contaminants than other plastics such as polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride. Both a mathematical model using equilibrium partitioning and experimental data have demonstrated the transfer of contaminants from plastic to organisms. A feeding experiment indicated that PCBs could transfer from contaminated plastics to streaked shearwater chicks. Plasticizers, other plastics additives and constitutional monomers also present potential threats in terrestrial environments because they can leach from waste disposal sites into groundwater and/or surface waters. Leaching and degradation of plasticizers and polymers are complex phenomena dependent on environmental conditions in the landfill and the chemical properties of each additive. Bisphenol A concentrations in leachates from municipal waste disposal sites in tropical Asia ranged from sub microg l(-1) to mg l(-1) and were correlated with the level of economic development.
Over the past five or six decades, contamination and pollution of the world's enclosed seas, coastal waters and the wider open oceans by plastics and other synthetic, non-biodegradable materials (generally known as 'marine debris') has been an ever-increasing phenomenon. The sources of these polluting materials are both land- and marine-based, their origins may be local or distant, and the environmental consequences are many and varied. The more widely recognized problems are typically associated with entanglement, ingestion, suffocation and general debilitation, and are often related to stranding events and public perception. Among the less frequently recognized and recorded problems are global hazards to shipping, fisheries and other maritime activities. Today, there are rapidly developing research interests in the biota attracted to freely floating (i.e. pelagic) marine debris, commonly known as 'hangers-on and hitch-hikers' as well as material sinking to the sea floor despite being buoyant. Dispersal of aggressive alien and invasive species by these mechanisms leads one to reflect on the possibilities that ensuing invasions could endanger sensitive, or at-risk coastal environments (both marine and terrestrial) far from their native habitats.
Plastic debris has significant environmental and economic impacts in marine systems. Monitoring is crucial to assess the efficacy of measures implemented to reduce the abundance of plastic debris, but it is complicated by large spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the amounts of plastic debris and by our limited understanding of the pathways followed by plastic debris and its long-term fate. To date, most monitoring has focused on beach surveys of stranded plastics and other litter. Infrequent surveys of the standing stock of litter on beaches provide crude estimates of debris types and abundance, but are biased by differential removal of litter items by beachcombing, cleanups and beach dynamics. Monitoring the accumulation of stranded debris provides an index of debris trends in adjacent waters, but is costly to undertake. At-sea sampling requires large sample sizes for statistical power to detect changes in abundance, given the high spatial and temporal heterogeneity. Another approach is to monitor the impacts of plastics. Seabirds and other marine organisms that accumulate plastics in their stomachs offer a cost-effective way to monitor the abundance and composition of small plastic litter. Changes in entanglement rates are harder to interpret, as they are sensitive to changes in population sizes of affected species. Monitoring waste disposal on ships and plastic debris levels in rivers and storm-water runoff is useful because it identifies the main sources of plastic debris entering the sea and can direct mitigation efforts. Different monitoring approaches are required to answer different questions, but attempts should be made to standardize approaches internationally.
One of the most ubiquitous and long-lasting recent changes to the surface of our planet is the accumulation and fragmentation of plastics. Within just a few decades since mass production of plastic products commenced in the 1950s, plastic debris has accumulated in terrestrial environments, in the open ocean, on shorelines of even the most remote islands and in the deep sea. Annual clean-up operations, costing millions of pounds sterling, are now organized in many countries and on every continent. Here we document global plastics production and the accumulation of plastic waste. While plastics typically constitute approximately 10 per cent of discarded waste, they represent a much greater proportion of the debris accumulating on shorelines. Mega- and macro-plastics have accumulated in the highest densities in the Northern Hemisphere, adjacent to urban centres, in enclosed seas and at water convergences (fronts). We report lower densities on remote island shores, on the continental shelf seabed and the lowest densities (but still a documented presence) in the deep sea and Southern Ocean. The longevity of plastic is estimated to be hundreds to thousands of years, but is likely to be far longer in deep sea and non-surface polar environments. Plastic debris poses considerable threat by choking and starving wildlife, distributing non-native and potentially harmful organisms, absorbing toxic chemicals and degrading to micro-plastics that may subsequently be ingested. Well-established annual surveys on coasts and at sea have shown that trends in mega- and macro-plastic accumulation rates are no longer uniformly increasing: rather stable, increasing and decreasing trends have all been reported. The average size of plastic particles in the environment seems to be decreasing, and the abundance and global distribution of micro-plastic fragments have increased over the last few decades. However, the environmental consequences of such microscopic debris are still poorly understood.
The potential for ingestion of plastic particles by open ocean filter feeders was assessed by measuring the relative abundance and mass of neustonic plastic and zooplankton in surface waters under the central atmospheric high-pressure cells of the North Pacific Ocean. Neuston samples were collected at 11 random sites, using a manta trawl lined with 333 u mesh. The abundance and mass of neustonic plastic was the largest recorded anywhere in the Pacific Ocean at 334271 pieces km2 and 5114 g km2, respectively. Plankton abundance was approximately five times higher than that of plastic, but the mass of plastic was approximately six times that of plankton. The most frequently sampled types of identifiable plastic were thin films, polypropylene/monofilament line and unidentified plastic, most of which were miscellaneous fragments. Cumulatively, these three types accounted for 99% of the total number of plastic pieces.
The deleterious effects of plastic debris on the marine environment were reviewed by bringing together most of the literature published so far on the topic. A large number of marine species is known to be harmed and/or killed by plastic debris, which could jeopardize their survival, especially since many are already endangered by other forms of anthropogenic activities. Marine animals are mostly affected through entanglement in and ingestion of plastic litter. Other less known threats include the use of plastic debris by "invader" species and the absorption of polychlorinated biphenyls from ingested plastics. Less conspicuous forms, such as plastic pellets and "scrubbers" are also hazardous. To address the problem of plastic debris in the oceans is a difficult task, and a variety of approaches are urgently required. Some of the ways to mitigate the problem are discussed.
Millions of metric tons of plastic are produced annually. Countless large items of plastic debris are accumulating in marine habitats worldwide and may persist for centuries ([ 1 ][1]–[ 4 ][2]). Here we show that microscopic plastic fragments and fibers ([Fig. 1A][3]) are also widespread in the
For centuries humans have indiscriminantly discarded their waste into, and on the mar-gins of, oceans, lakes, and rivers. Seafarers traditionally disposed their garbage by simply heaving it overboard, and the practice continues to this day despite international agreements such as the London Dumping Convention (LDC) and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). When quantities of mostly (bio) degradable waste were low, environmental and other consequences remained minimal. However, the advent of nondegradable synthetic materials has had profound biological and environmental effects (Laist 1987; Laist, Chapter 8, this volume) on shores and in oceanic and coastal surface waters (Pruter 1987a).
Marine debris directly threatens and indirectly impacts upon marine wildlife and humans throughout the world. Proper management requires information on debris abundance, distribution and sources for specific regions. This data was previously unavailable for the Greater Sydney Region, Australia. Thus, a marine debris survey was conducted on six selected beaches from the Greater Sydney Region. Two beaches from each of three areas with differing degrees of urbanisation were sampled once a month for five months. Sampling was conducted from within a series of transects, zones and strata to obtain information on the abundance, distribution, composition and sources of debris. On average sampled beaches had 33.3 items per 250m2 transect equating to 2,664 items per kilometre of beach with a 20m wide cross-shore sub-aerial zone. The vast majority (89.8%) of debris found was plastic, particularly hard plastic (52.3%) predominantly originating from stormwater or beachgoers. The beaches with the highest debris density were those within the least urbanised area, possibly due to the relatively small distance (<50km) between sample areas and the ability of debris to disperse quickly from its source and travel long distances. Significant differences in debris abundance were found between sample areas, beaches, beach strata and over time. The abundance of marine debris within the Greater Sydney Region was comparable to some of the most polluted beaches around the world, and is thus a problem that requires immediate attention.
Studies from South Pacific Islands, some of which are uninhabited, as well as eastern Australia and New Zealand, show that discarded plastics are a significant pollutant of shorelines and adjacent coastal and oceanic waters. Environmental impacts include: death and/or debilitation of wildlife through entanglement and ingestion, reductions in quality of life and reproductive performance, hazards to shipping and possibly health, and a vector for the introduction of alien taxa that may endanger island ecosystems or traditional seafood resources. This material is also aesthetically distasteful.Blame for this pollution has been placed largely on indiscriminate disposal of plastic by vessels at sea. However, there is a growing appreciation that much shoreline litter has urban sources reflecting inadequate disposal practices as well as recreational visitors. Increasing population pressures and shipping activities around the region will lead to ever-growing quantities of unsightly plastic litter on shorelines of the region and experience elsewhere suggests this could be to the detriment of tourism.The problems need to be addressed through the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region with common regional management policies developed similar to those now in place for the Caribbean. These should focus on waste disposal practices and identification of sites suitable for land-fill operations as well as development of port reception facilities. Alleviation of the problems may also come from Annex V of MARPOL and the London Dumping Convention, but ultimately the solutions will have to be regional in character and involve education sensitive to local cultures.
In just 4 decades, marine litter has become abundant in northern oceans and seas and is increasing on even remote Southern Ocean island shores. The Southern Ocean was thought to be protected from rafting organisms by its freezing sea surface temperatures. Here we report on an assemblage of animals attached to a piece of plastic that was washed ashore on Adelaide Island, Antarctic Peninsula (68° S). The band of plastic was positively buoyant. At least 10 species belonging to 5 phyla were present on the plastic and the size of some indicated that it had been afloat for more than a year. Clearly it is possible for a range of animals to survive and grow in such an environment, and so exotic species could enter or leave the Southern Ocean.
Polyethylene and polypropylene pellets, together with tarballs, were found to be the most common contaminates of the sea surface in the Cape Basin area of the South Atlantic Ocean. This is an area far removed from any obvious source of such materials.
Throughout the world's oceans a wide variety of floating plastics are found, among which buoys stand but for their high floatability and diversity and abundance of associated organisms. Between 2001 and 2005, we conducted 25 ship surveys in the Bay System of Coquimbo (BSC), during which we registered 34 detached buoys floating between 1 and 45 km from the coast. The objective of this study was to infer the possible origin of these buoys, identify the associated biota and characterize their biological traits. Short-term drift experiments (30 min) showed that buoys without rope responded primarily to the velocity and direction of the wind, while buoys with ropes (3 m length) followed surface currents. Using the wind velocity and direction during the 12 h before capture of the detached buoys, we estimated the hypothetical trajectories of these buoys during that time period. Results indicated that most buoys originated from aquaculture facilities in the BSC. A total of 134 different species from 14 phyla was found on 18 anchored (91 species) and 22 detached (116 species) buoys sampled. Community composition was similar among buoys - 54 % of all species were common for anchored and detached buoys-but a higher number of rare species occurred on detached buoys. Buoys do not seem to lose but rather gain organisms after detachment. The most common functional groups on these buoys were mobile species, suspension-feeders and species with sexual reproduction, separate sexes, internal fertilization and direct or very short larval development. Fouling communities on detached buoys were mostly in advanced successional stages, comprising diverse species (including several non-indigenous species) adapted to the conditions at the sea surface. These results suggest that floating buoys may transport associated species over extensive distances, thereby also contributing to the spread of non-indigenous species.
The outdoor weathering of polyethylene homopolymer under exposure in air and in sea water was studied. Rate of deterioration as indicated by the loss in mean ultimate extension was found to be slower when the material was weathered in sea water compared to that in air. The difference in rates is explained in terms of the lack of heat buildup in plastic material floating in sea water. A similar study on a commercially available ethylene–carbon monooxide copolymer indicated rapid photodegradation under both exposure conditions.
a b s t r a c t Floating objects are suggested to be the principal vector for the transport and dispersal of marine invertebrates with direct development as well as catalysts for carbon and nutrient recycling in accumulation areas. The first step in identifying the ecological relevance of floating objects in a specific area is to identify their spatio-temporal distribution. We evaluated the composition, abundance, distribution, and temporal variability of floating objects along the continental coast of central–southern Chile (33–421S) and the Patagonian fjords (42–501S) using ship surveys conducted in austral winter (July/August) and spring (November) of the years 2002–2005 and 2008. Potential sources of floating items were identified with the aid of publicly available databases and scientific reports. We found three main types of floating objects, namely floating marine debris (mainly plastic objects and Styrofoam), wood (trunks and branches), and floating kelps (Macrocystis pyrifera and Durvillaea antarctica). Floating marine debris were abundant along most of the examined transects, with markedly lower abundances toward the southern fjord areas. Floating marine debris abundances generally corresponded to the distribution of human activities, and were highest in the Interior Sea of Chiloé , where aquaculture activities are intense. Floating wood appeared sporadically in the study area, often close to the main rivers. In accordance with seasonal river run-off, wood was more abundant along the continental coast in winter (rainy season) and in the Patagonian fjords during the spring surveys (snow melt). Densities of the two floating kelp species were similar along the continental coast, without a clear seasonal pattern. M. pyrifera densities increased towards the south, peaking in the Patagonian fjords, where it was dominant over D. antarctica. Densities of M. pyrifera in the Patagonian fjords were highest in spring. Correlation analyses between the abundances of floating objects and the distance to the nearest sources were generally non-significant, suggesting that post-supply processes affect the distribution of the floating objects in the study region. The identification of several major retention zones supports this idea. Accumulation areas of floating objects appear to be more common in the fjord zones. In general, the results underscore the abundance of floating objects throughout the study region and the fact that floating marine debris sources are mostly local, whereas floating algae may be dispersed over greater distances. Future studies should focus on the ecological role of floating objects in biota dispersal and nutrient cycling.
IntroductionPlastic Litter and other Marine DebrisBiological and Environmental ImpactsDegradation of Plastics at SeaPhotodegradable Plastics as a Mitigation StrategyConclusions
Pollution of the oceans by garbage is a serious problem. Worldwide, as many as 8 million items of garbage may enter the seas on a daily basis. These items may survive some time, drifting in the oceans and give rise to other environmental problems such as causing hazards to wildlife (through ingestion and entanglement) before being washed ashore. Surveys of beaches on Ducie and Oeno Atolls in the Pitcairn Islands were compared with a similar survey on a beach in S.W. Ireland. The three beaches were similar in the density and major categories of garbage to be found, but differed in subtle ways. For example the Pacific beaches had a greater proportion of bottles and buoys, whereas the Irish beach had a greater proportion of sweet wrappers and polythene bags. Although these remote islands may be thousands of miles from industrial centres their beaches are apparently as dirty as those in Europe.
Organisms have travelled the Atlantic Ocean as neuston and have rafted on natural marine debris for millions of years. Shipping increased opportunities for marine organism travel mere thousands of years ago but in just decades floating plastic debris is transforming marine rafting. Here we present a combined open-ocean and remote coasts marine debris survey of the Atlantic (from 68S–78N). Daily shipboard observations were made from the Southern Ocean to the high Arctic and the shores of 16 remote islands were surveyed. We report (1) anthropogenic debris from the most northerly and southerly latitudes to date, (2) the first record of marine biota colonising debris at latitudes >68, and (3) the finding of exotic species (the barnacle Elminius modestus) on northern plastic debris. Plastic pieces dominated both open-ocean and stranding marine debris. The highest densities of oceanic debris were found around northwest Europe, whereas the highest stranding levels were equatorial. Our findings of high east-Arctic debris colonisation by fauna contrast with low values from west Arctic (though only two samples) and south Atlantic shores. Colonisation rates of debris differed between hemispheres, previously considered to be similar. Our two South Atlantic mega-debris shipboard surveys (10years apart) found no changes in open-ocean debris densities but resurvey of a UK and an Arctic island both found increases. We put our findings in the context of the Atlantic literature to interpret spatial and temporal trends in marine debris accumulation and its organismal consequences.
Global set of trajectories of satellite-tracked Lagrangian drifters is used to study the dynamics of marine debris. A probabilistic model is developed to eliminate the bias in spatial distribution of drifter data due to heterogeneous deployments. Model experiments, simulating long-term evolution of initially homogeneous drifter array, reveal five main sites of drifter aggregation, located in the subtropics and maintained by converging Ekman currents. The paper characterizes the geography and structure of the collection regions and discusses factors that determine their dynamics. A new scale R(c)=(4k/|D|)(½) is introduced to characterize tracer distribution under competing effects of horizontal divergence D and diffusion k. Existence and locations of all five accumulation zones have been recently confirmed by direct measurements of microplastic at the sea surface.
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More so than at any previous time, there is a heightened awareness of the amount of plastic in the environment, it's spread to even remote localities and the multiple influences of this on organisms. In the austral summer of 2007/08 Greenpeace and British Antarctic Survey ships (MV Esperanza and RRS James Clark Ross respectively) conducted the first co-ordinated joint marine debris survey of the planet's most remote seas around East and West Antarctica to reveal floating macroplastics. With observations also made from the ice patrol vessel HMS Endurance in the same season and seabed samples collected from the RRS James Clark Ross, this was the widest survey for plastics ever undertaken around Antarctica.
Main features:
The 2008 visit of RRS James Clark Ross to the Amundsen Sea breached two last frontiers; the last and most remote sea from which biological samples and plastic debris have been reported. A plastic cup and two fishing buoys were seen in the Durmont D'Urville and Davis seas while two pieces of plastic packaging and a fishing buoy were observed in the Amundsen Sea. Agassiz trawls revealed rich biodiversity on the Amundsen (and south Bellingshausen) seabed but no sunken plastic pieces. We found no microplastics in five epibenthic sledge samples (300 microm mesh) from the Amundsen seabed. The seabeds immediately surrounding continental Antarctica are probably the last environments on the planet yet to be reached by plastics, but with pieces floating into the surface of the Amundsen Sea this seems likely to change soon. Our knowledge now touches every sea but so does our legacy of lost and discarded plastic.
Floating marine debris (FMD) is reported from all oceans. The bulk of FMD are plastics, which due to their longevity cause multiple negative impacts on wildlife and environment. Identifying the origins of FMD (land- or sea-based) is important to take the necessary steps to diminish their abundance. Using ship surveys we examined the abundance, composition and distribution of FMD during the years 2002-2005 in the fjords, gulfs and channels of southern Chile. Abundances of FMD were relatively high compared with other studies, ranging from 1 to 250 items km(-2). The majority (approximately 80%) of FMD was composed of styrofoam (expanded polystyrene), plastic bags and plastic fragments. Styrofoam, which is intensively used as flotation device by mussel farms, was very abundant in the northern region but rarely occurred in the southern region of the study area. Food sacks from salmon farms were also most common in the northern region, where approximately 85% of the total Chilean mussel and salmon harvest is produced. Plastic bags, which could be from land- or sea-based sources, were found throughout the entire study area. Our results indicate that sea-based activities (mussel farming and salmon aquaculture) are responsible for most FMD in the study area. In order to reduce FMDs in the environment, in addition to stronger legislation and identification of potential sources, we suggest environmental education programs and we encourage public participation (e.g. in beach surveys and clean-ups).
Plastic particles, in concentrations averaging 3500 pieces and 290 grams per square kilometer, are widespread in the western
Sargasso Sea. Pieces are brittle, apparently due to the weathering of the plasticizers, and many are in a pellet shape about
0.25 to 0.5 centimeters in diameter. The particles are surfaces for the attachment of diatoms and hydroids. Increasing production
of plastics, combined with present waste-disposal practices, will undoubtedly lead to increases in the concentration of these
particles. Plastics could be a source of some of the polychlorinated biphenyls recently observed in oceanic organisms.
Plastic resin pellets (small granules 0.1-0.5 centimeters in diameter) are widely distributed in the ocean all over the world. They are an industrial raw material for the plastic industry and are unintentionally released to the environment both during manufacturing and transport. They are sometimes ingested by seabirds and other marine organisms, and their adverse effects on organisms are a concern. In the present study, PCBs, DDE, and nonylphenols (NP) were detected in polypropylene (PP) resin pellets collected from four Japanese coasts. Concentrations of PCBs (4-117 ng/g), DDE (0.16-3.1 ng/g), and NP (0.13-16 microg/g) varied among the sampling sites. These concentrations were comparable to those for suspended particles and bottom sediments collected from the same area as the pellets. Field adsorption experiments using PP virgin pellets demonstrated significant and steady increase in PCBs and DDE concentrations throughout the six-day experiment, indicating that the source of PCBs and DDE is ambient seawater and that adsorption to pellet surfaces is the mechanism of enrichment. The major source of NP in the marine PP resin pellets was thought to be plastic additives and/or their degradation products. Comparison of PCBs and DDE concentrations in mari
Herein we report on the abundance and composition of floating marine debris (FMD) in coastal waters of the SE-Pacific (off the Chilean coast) during the austral summer 2002. The observed FMD consisted mainly of plastic material (86.9%). Densities of FMD were highest between 20 degrees S and 40 degrees S, corresponding to the main concentrations of human population and activities. Low densities of FMD were found in the south between 40 degrees S and 50 degrees S (<1 item km(-2)). Generally, the highest densities were recorded in nearshore waters of major port cities (>20 items km(-2)), but occasionally high concentrations of debris were also found 50 km offshore. Densities of FMD in coastal waters of the SE-Pacific are of similar magnitudes as those found in coastal waters or inland seas of highly populated regions in the northern hemisphere, indicating the need for improved regulation and legislation in the countries of the SE-Pacific.
The occurrence of plastic particles has recently been reported in the Sargasso Sea and in coastal waters of southern New England. These reports were based on a small number of samples within limited geographic areas, but the observers suggested that plastics might be more widely distributed. In this study the authors confirm, after examination of neuston (surface) net samples taken in July and August 1972, that plastic particles do occur over a wide area of the North Atlantic. These samples were collected on the first multiship MARMAP ichthyo plankton survey of coastal and oceanic waters from Cape Cod to the North Caribbean. Three National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration vessels participated in the survey. The type and characteristics of the plastic particles were as follows: white opaque polystyrene spherules; translucent to clear polystyrene spherules containing gaseous voids; opaque to translucent polyethylene cylinders or disks; pieces of Styrofoam; sheets of thin, flexible wrapping material; and pieces of hard and soft, clear and opaque plastics of various thicknesses which appear to be parts of plastic containers, toys, and so forth. It is concluded that the widespread distribution of polystyrene spherules and polyethylene disks in rivers, estuaries, and the open ocean suggests that improper waste water disposal is common practice in the plastics industry. Strong federal, state, and municipal pollution control and monitory programs are necessary to prevent the emission of plastic beads into the waste water systems of plastic producing and plastic processing plants.
Plastic debris litters marine and terrestrial habitats worldwide. It is ingested by numerous species of animals, causing deleterious physical effects. High concentrations of hydrophobic organic contaminants have also been measured on plastic debris collected from the environment, but the fate of these contaminants is poorly understood. Here, we examine the uptake and subsequent release of phenanthrene by three plastics. Equilibrium distribution coefficients for sorption of phenanthrene from seawater onto the plastics varied by more than an order of magnitude (polyethylene > polypropylene > polyvinyl chloride (PVC)). In all cases, sorption to plastics greatly exceeded sorption to two natural sediments. Desorption rates of phenanthrene from the plastics or sediments back into solution spanned several orders of magnitude. As expected, desorption occurred more rapidly from the sediments than from the plastics. Using the equilibrium partitioning method, the effects of adding very small quantities of plastic with sorbed phenanthrene to sediment inhabited by the lugworm (Arenicola marina) were evaluated. We estimate that the addition of as little as 1 microg of contaminated polyethylene to a gram of sediment would give a significant increase in phenanthrene accumulation by A. marina. Thus, plastics may be important agents in the transport of hydrophobic contaminants to sediment-dwelling organisms.
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