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Abstract
Slightly more males are born in the world than females. But because male mortality is usually greater, in old age groups there are many more women than men. The situation is particularly stark in the former Soviet Union, where male adult death rates are exceptionally high. In much of Asia, strong son preference has long informed unusually high female child mortality. And the impact of this on population sex ratios has been reinforced by the recent spread of sex-selective abortion. Especially in China, there is an unusually large number of boys relative to girls. Sex ratios are also skewed by migration, most notably male labor migration. Unbalanced sex ratios have many effects. Among other things, research has focused on the consequences of male outmigration for those who are left behind and on the implications of the coming heightened masculinity of young adult populations in Asia, e.g., with respect to marriage and crime.
... In particular, we argue that perceived mate competition can provoke hate crimes against refugees. 3 In many contexts, migrant populations feature skewed sex ratios (Dyson 2012). This situation also characterizes the population that entered Germany during the mid-2010s, when over one million migrants, the majority of them young men originating from the Middle East, sought asylum. ...
... Rather than investigating labor or housing markets, however, we focus on dating and marriage markets. We thus connect work on immigrant conflict (e.g., Adida 2014;Dancygier 2010;Homola and Tavits 2018;Hopkins 2010;Money 1999) to debates about how the relative lack of women influences discriminatory behavior against migrants (Dyson 2012;Klasen 2009). In doing so, we propose that the role of dating and marriage markets should be more firmly integrated into accounts of immigrant conflict. ...
... The relationship between excess men and marriage markets has received attention where preferences for sons and associated sex-selective neglect and abortions generate skewed sex ratios (cf. Dyson 2012;Guilmoto 2012;Klasen 2009). Internal migration can also distort sex ratios. ...
As the number of refugees rises across the world, anti‐refugee violence has become a pressing concern. What explains the incidence and support of such hate crime? We argue that fears among native men that refugees pose a threat in the competition for female partners are a critical but understudied factor driving hate crime. Employing a comprehensive data set on the incidence of hate crime across Germany, we first demonstrate that hate crime rises where men face disadvantages in local mating markets. Next, we complement this ecological evidence with original survey measures and confirm that individual‐level support for hate crime increases when men fear that the inflow of refugees makes it more difficult to find female partners. Mate competition concerns remain a robust predictor even when controlling for anti‐refugee views, perceived job competition, general frustration, and aggressiveness. We conclude that a more complete understanding of hate crime and immigrant conflict must incorporate marriage markets and mate competition.
... Regional SRMs can be different from the SRB in the same region because of migration (Dyson 2012;Sharygin, Ebenstein, and Das Gupta 2013). In China, massive voluntary internal migration began in the mid-1980s (Chan 2013;Duan et al. 2008). ...
... Figure 3 shows the proximate (in regular font) and distal determinants (in italics) of the SRB (proxied by the SR0) and the SRM. Technically, the SRB is directly determined by prenatal sex selection, the SR0 is determined by the SRB and sex differences in infant mortality, and the SRM is directly determined by the SRB, sex differences in mortality, and sex differences in migration between birth and prime marriageable ages (Coale 1991;Dyson 2012;Hesketh and Xing 2006). The recorded sex ratios might also be affected by reporting biases. ...
Following the homeostatic principle in demography and the notion of a sex ratio transition, I propose a self‐corrective mechanism to describe the dynamics of regional sex ratios in China. The mechanism consists of two pathways: (1) internal migration redistributes men and women across regions in a way that reduces highly skewed regional sex ratios at prime marriageable ages (SRM); and (2) a competitive marriage market for men reduces parental incentives for son‐biased sex selection, thus lowering sex ratios at birth (SRB). The mechanism suggests several hypotheses about the dynamics between regional SRBs and SRMs. I test these hypotheses using prefecture‐level sex ratios in four Chinese population censuses from 1982 to 2010. I use regression analyses that control for prefectural demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. Results show that prefectures with higher SRBs in 1982 and 1990 experienced a greater decline in sex ratios of residents when the birth cohort reached marriageable ages in 2000 and 2010, respectively, resulting in a weak correlation between SRBs and subsequent SRMs in the same prefecture. Prefectural SRBs in 2000 and 2010 were negatively correlated with contemporary SRMs—a one‐unit higher prefectural SRM was associated with an approximately 0.3‐unit lower SRB in 2000 and 0.2‐unit lower SRB in 2010. Changes in prefectural SRBs between 1990 and 2010 are negatively correlated with changes in SRMs during the same period. The empirical findings are consistent with the implications of the proposed self‐corrective mechanism, suggesting that sex ratios may be subject to homeostatic forces within the population system.
... In 2000, for the country as a whole, Mexican women in their twenties and thirties outnumbered men of the same age by about 15%, although the substantial regional differences in both international and domestic migration generate considerable variation across communities (Rafael, 2013). But while it has become increasingly recognized that imbalanced, or skewed, population sex ratios can exert important and wide-ranging effects on a society's population dynamics, sociodemographic behavior, and health (Bien et al., 2013;Dyson, 2012;Hesketh & Xing, 2006), the impact of this numerical deficit of men in Mexican communities has thus far received little attention. Prior research has described sex ratio variation among immigrants to the U.S. (Hofmann & Reiter, 2018), but little is known about the patterns or consequences of sex ratio variation in immigrant-sending countries such as Mexico. ...
... This sex difference in emigration streams, along with other forces such as differential mortality and incarceration, generates a numeric deficit of men and attendant surplus of women in many Mexican communities. A growing body of theory and research in other geographic contexts suggests that an imbalance in the numbers of women and men may have important consequences for a variety of demographic behaviors and social experiences (Dyson, 2012). One possible outcome is an altered frequency of crime and violence. ...
The migration of young men from Mexico to the United States generates a deficit of men and a relative abundance of women in many Mexican communities, but the implications of this imbalanced sex ratio for Mexicans’ risks of criminal victimization has received little attention. We merge individual-level data from 19,551 inhabitants of 136 municipalities covered in the 2002 Mexican Family Life Survey with aggregated data from the 2000 Mexico population census to examine the association between the municipality-level percentage of men at ages 15 to 39 and self-reports of recent violent victimization. Multilevel logistic regression modeling reveals a curvilinear relationship between percent male and the likelihood of experiencing a violent victimization, with victimization risks lowest in municipalities characterized by either unusually low or unusually high numbers of men. Respondents residing in municipalities having a more balanced sex composition experience the highest risk of victimization. The risk of experiencing a violent victimization also varies sharply by age, gender, socioeconomic status, and community characteristics.
... There is a general lack of studies of female-biased sex ratios in the literature (discussed in Schacht & Kramer, 2016), as malebiased sex ratios are far more common in well-documented datasets. There is a need to understand the consequences of female biased sex ratios, as the sex ratios of many regions around the world are currently trending towards female bias (Dyson, 2012). To address this issue, I employ data from European regions within countries, which I find show significant female-biased ASRs. ...
... These comparisons suggests that the effects are neither groundbreaking nor trivial. In many countries such as China, far more extreme sex ratios are observed, with areas being 55% male not uncommon (Dyson, 2012). In these countries, the sex ratio may exert a substantial impact on SWB, though caution must be taken generalising beyond the range of the data and to different cultures. ...
In recent years, researc in subjective well-being has found several ecological factors that may underpin societal differences in happiness. The adult sex ratio, the number of males relative to females in an environment, influences many behaviours in both humans and non-human animals. However, the possible influence of the sex ratio on subjective well-being has received little attention. I investigated the relationship between the adult sex ratio and subjective well-being in over 29,000 respondents from 133 regions of Europe. I find that women report lower subjective well-being in areas with more female-biased sex ratios, but males’ well-being was unaffected. I did not find that the sex ratio influences the sex specific probability of marriage, or marriage rates overall. I also find that increased population density is associated with lower well-being. Drawing from sociological and evolutionary theories, I suggest that results may be due to females’ decreased bargaining power in the dating market.
... Without manipulation, the sex ratio remains relatively constant; fluctuations are minor between 104.6 and 105.9 across a 60-year time period in the USA [1][2][3][4]. Notable alterations in the sex ratio occur in times of war, labor migration, and in populations with son preference [1,3,5,6]. Ramifications of a skewed sex ratio include increased heightened masculinity of young adult male populations, increased male to female death rates at older ages, and sustained patriarchy [3,6]. Approximately 1.7% of all infants born yearly in the USA are conceived using assisted reproductive technology (ART) [7]. ...
... Notable alterations in the sex ratio occur in times of war, labor migration, and in populations with son preference [1,3,5,6]. Ramifications of a skewed sex ratio include increased heightened masculinity of young adult male populations, increased male to female death rates at older ages, and sustained patriarchy [3,6]. Approximately 1.7% of all infants born yearly in the USA are conceived using assisted reproductive technology (ART) [7]. ...
PurposeTo determine if pre-implantation genetic testing (PGT) shifts the sex ratio (SER), the ratio of male to female births in a population normalized to 100 and typically stable at 105, following in vitro fertilization (IVF).Methods
Data from 2014 to 2016 was requested from the Society for Assisted Reproductive Technologies (SART) database including fresh and frozen transfer cycles. Women with a singleton live birth following a fresh or frozen autologous embryo transfer of a PGT blastocyst, non-PGT blastocyst, or non-PGT cleavage stage embryo were included. The SER between groups was compared using chi-square tests. Modified Poisson regression modeled the relative risk (RR) of having a male compared to a female among PGT blastocyst transfers versus non-PGT cleavage and blastocyst transfers adjusting for age, BMI, smoking status, race, parity, number of oocytes retrieved, and clinic region.ResultsThe SER was 110 among PGT blastocyst offspring, 107 among non-PGT blastocyst offspring (p = 0.005), and 99 among non-PGT cleavage offspring (p < 0.001). The risk of having a male infant was 2% higher among PGT blastocyst transfers compared to non-PGT blastocyst transfers (RR 1.02; 95% CI: 1.01, 1.04). The risk was 5% higher among PGT blastocyst transfers compared to non-PGT cleavage transfers (RR 1.05; 95% CI: 1.02, 1.07). The association between PGT and infant gender did not significantly differ by region (p = 0.57) or parity (p = 0.59).Conclusion
Utilizing PGT shifts the SER in the IVF population from the standard of 105 to 110, increasing the probability of a male offspring.
... В качестве главной независимой переменной использован медианный возраст из базы данных Отдела народонаселения ООН, где он определяется как возраст, при котором население страны делится на две равные по численности части, то есть людей с возрастом выше медианы столько же, сколько людей с возрастом ниже медианы; выражается в годах 9 . Важно отметить, что медианный возраст хорошо подходит для того, чтобы количественно определить, насколько та или иная страна продвинулась в демографическом переходе [28], что напрямую соотносится с нашими гипотезами. Кроме того, в теории Р. Чинкотты о влиянии возрастной структуры населения на стабильность политической обстановки медианный возраст также выступает в качестве главной независимой переменной [22]. ...
Although there are plenty of quantitative cross-national analyses on the influence of population age structure on revolutionary risks, there are currently not enough studies that examine its impact on the risks of armed and unarmed revolutions taken separately. Assuming that the dependence of potential political destabilization on the median age will differ for armed and unarmed revolutions, we propose the following hypothesis. High median age and the level of a country’s economic development will negatively correlate with armed revolutions. A moderately young median age will have positive influence on the risks of non-violent rebellions, while the overall dependence of unarmed revolutions on median age will be slightly positive and curvilinear. Relying on materials from NAVCO 1.3 and the UN Population Division databases and by means of utilizing cross-tabulations, correlations and logistic regression, we analyze about 250 revolutionary episodes between 1950 and 2019. All of our hypotheses turn out to be supported. The higher the median age of the population — the less likely the occurrence will be of armed revolutionary instability. On the other hand, as the population ages, the risks of unarmed revolutionary actions first grow, but then decline.
... While the world-wide ASR hovers near an even number of men to women, nation states express wide variation in ASRs. Skewed ASRs today are caused by a number of demographically and behaviorally mediated factors, the most influential being son preference and economic migration [153][154][155] . Son preference, access to sex-selective abortion, female infanticide, and neglect of female health contribute to differential child mortality, and results in an excess of males during crucial reproductive years (Fig. 2c). ...
Converging lines of inquiry from across the social and biological sciences target the adult sex ratio (ASR; the proportion of males in the adult population) as a fundamental population-level determinant of behavior. The ASR, which indicates the relative number of potential mates to competitors in a population, frames the selective arena for competition, mate choice, and social interactions. Here we review a growing literature, focusing on methodological developments that sharpen knowledge of the demographic variables underlying ASR variation, experiments that enhance understanding of the consequences of ASR imbalance across societies, and phylogenetic analyses that provide novel insights into social evolution. We additionally highlight areas where research advances are expected to make accelerating contributions across the social sciences, evolutionary biology, and biodiversity conservation. A detailed Review across animal and human societies provides insight on the causes and consequences of adult sex ratio skew.
... Falling CSRs and SRBs, notwithstanding the overall gender development Kumari & Goli, 2021), compels us to explore the factors working behind it. If not addressed, the sex-ratio imbalance will have alarming consequences on the marriage and family-building process, violence against women, and overall human development Dyson, 2012;South, Trent, & Bose, 2014;Kaur 2020;Filser, Barclay, Beckley, Uggla, & Schnettler, 2021). ...
... Numerous scholars (Agnihotri, 1997;Bardhan, 1974;Croll, 2000;Dyson, 2012;Jayachandran, 2015;Miller, 1981) have argued that "work is worth" and that low female labor force participation results in low status and devaluation of female children in households. Agnihotri (1997) argues that workforce participation makes women more economically valuable and hence "resulting in a more equitable allocation of survival inputs in their favor" (Agnihotri, 1997, p. 76). ...
Much of the literature on sex ratio imbalances in India has focused on the North–South divide or exclusively on the North-western states of India. In this paper, we draw on ethnographic research on the erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir, where the child sex ratio (0–6 years) plummeted in the 2011 census. We study two villages in the Hindu dominated district of Jammu and two in largely Buddhist Leh (in Ladakh) to understand how the gender preference for children is shaped in this culturally heterogeneous state. Our findings reiterate the importance of context in understanding sex ratio patterns and gender preferences for children, especially in the wake of declining fertility, which in some regions has led to intensified discrimination against girl children. We examine features such as the organization of kinship and marriage structures that entail diverse forms of post-marital residence, old-age support, workforce participation, household division of labor and political participation in the four villages. By engaging in detailed comparison, we propose that when underlying reasons for the devaluation of women in general, and daughters in particular, are absent (as in case of the Leh villages), the availability of sex-selective technologies does not have an adverse effect on demographic outcomes.
... Falling CSRs and SRBs, notwithstanding the overall gender development Kumari & Goli, 2021), compels us to explore the factors working behind it. If not addressed, the sex-ratio imbalance will have alarming consequences on the marriage and family-building process, violence against women, and overall human development Dyson, 2012;South, Trent, & Bose, 2014;Kaur 2020;Filser, Barclay, Beckley, Uggla, & Schnettler, 2021). ...
In multi-level and multi-layered foundations of gendered approaches for understanding the kinship system, son preferences, and male-skewed child sex ratios in India; patriarchy, and patrilineality have received greater attention than patrilocality. To fill this gap, in this study, we construct a measure of patrilocality and examine its association with skewed child sex ratios. We hypothesize that households practice sex selection and daughter discrimination because of patrilocal norms that dictate the later life co-residence between parents and sons. Our findings reveal that the child sex ratio, the sex ratio at birth, and the sex ratio at last birth are positively correlated with the patrilocality rates across states and districts of India. The relationship holds across the multiple robustness checks. Findings, although not surprising, emerge from the robust empirical analyses at a time when child sex ratios continue to worsen in India, notwithstanding the country’s socio-economic progress. We conclude that in the absence of strong social security measures and lack of preference for old-age homes amidst the accepted practice of patrilocality coupled with increasing lower fertility norms, the dependency on sons will continue and further lead to the continuation of sex selection in India.
... In particular, sex ratio at birth may reflect aspects of gender relations. Though skewed sex ratios can occur because of migration, violence and unbalanced death rates, sex ratio can also vary due to cultural practices such as sex selective abortions based on preferences for sons [65]. Some prior work has hypothesized that in places where women are scarce, women may have less structural power overall, and may be unable to fulfil their mate preferences even when they hold mating market power [18]. ...
A wide range of literature connects sex ratio and mating
behaviours in non-human animals. However, research
examining sex ratio and human mating is limited in
scope. Prior work has examined the relationship between
sex ratio and desire for short-term, uncommitted mating
as well as outcomes such as marriage and divorce rates.
Less empirical attention has been directed towards the
relationship between sex ratio and mate preferences,
despite the importance of mate preferences in the human
mating literature. To address this gap, we examined sex
ratio’s relationship to the variation in preferences for attractiveness,
resources, kindness, intelligence and health in a
long-term mate across 45 countries (n = 14 487). We predicted
that mate preferences would vary according to
relative power of choice on the mating market, with
increased power derived from having relatively few competitors
and numerous potential mates. We found that
each sex tended to report more demanding preferences
for attractiveness and resources where the opposite sex
was abundant, compared to where the opposite sex was scarce. This pattern dovetails with those found for mating
strategies in humans and mate preferences across species,
highlighting the importance of sex ratio for understanding
variation in human mate preferences.
... International migration is limited when seen in the context of the size of India's population. 5 There are specific states in India, like Kerala, that are sensitive to international migration but this factor is less significant in other states. In contrast, the adverse gender sex ratio at birth is, arguably, the most critical of the three components of changes in the population sex ratio. ...
The recognition of women as a heterogenous group extends gender inequality from the perspective of relative status of men and women to inequalities across women. Considering extreme variability in women's subordination and altering gender relations, she can also experience inequalities over time making it a case of Intrapersonal inequalities. It becomes crucial for Indian woman who by virtue of deep-rooted patriarchal norms experiences different phases of gender relations throughout her life. This paper is an attempt to capture intrapersonal inequalities across various stages of life through mortality pattern and age specific sex ratios. Using empirical data from two rounds of Census of India-2001 and 2011 and Statistical Registration system, the study discovers a pattern of age specific sex ratio that is strongly correlated with mortality rates. The differential pattern of mortality rates is evidence of extreme and sustained form of gender discrimination which becomes more persuasive when the pattern is seen in the context of the nature of patriarchy. Consequently, the study identified seven stages of patriarchy in the life of an Indian woman which creates ethically unacceptable differences over time for her make it a case of intrapersonal inequalities.
... Since the eighteenth century, scientists have been interested in the secondary sex ratio: the ratio of boys to girls at birth (Dyson 2012). The proper functioning of the monogamous marriage market, with a low rate of final singleness, has largely depended on maintaining an equilibrium between the sexes in the long term (e.g. ...
At the beginning of the twentieth century in South Africa, the sex ratio for black children under five years was one of the lowest ever recorded. Sex ratios also differed markedly by racial group. Those for white children remained almost invariable, with more boys than girls, while black children had a clear majority of girls, a situation that the literature has almost completely overlooked. The reasons are still not completely clear. Although sex ratios at birth show more births of boys than girls, boys’ mortality was higher than girls’ mortality. Why boys’ mortality was so high and why, as a consequence, the twentieth-century under-five sex ratio for black children was so skewed towards girls, a ratio much lower, for example, than the sex ratios of pre-industrial European countries, remains unanswered. We suggest several possible explanations. The most likely explanation, we argue, was a preference for girls.
... In particular, sex ratio at birth may reflect aspects of gender relations. Though skewed sex ratios can occur because of migration, violence and unbalanced death rates, sex ratio can also vary due to cultural practices such as sex selective abortions based on preferences for sons [65]. Some prior work has hypothesized that in places where women are scarce, women may have less structural power overall, and may be unable to fulfil their mate preferences even when they hold mating market power [18]. ...
A wide range of literature connects sex ratio and mating behaviours in non-human animals. However, research examining sex ratio and human mating is limited in scope. Prior work has examined the relationship between sex ratio and desire for short-term, uncommitted mating as well as outcomes such as marriage and divorce rates. Less empirical attention has been directed towards the relationship between sex ratio and mate preferences, despite the importance of mate preferences in the human mating literature. To address this gap, we examined sex ratio's relationship to the variation in preferences for attractiveness , resources, kindness, intelligence and health in a long-term mate across 45 countries (n = 14 487). We predicted that mate preferences would vary according to relative power of choice on the mating market, with increased power derived from having relatively few competitors and numerous potential mates. We found that each sex tended to report more demanding preferences for attractiveness and resources where the opposite sex was abundant, compared to where the opposite sex was royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb Proc. R. Soc. B 288: 20211115 2 Downloaded from https://royalsocietypublishing.org/ on 21 July 2021 scarce. This pattern dovetails with those found for mating strategies in humans and mate preferences across species, highlighting the importance of sex ratio for understanding variation in human mate preferences.
... Although theory shows that sexual reproduction is evolutionary stable when both sexes are equally present (Fisher, 1930), skewed sex ratios are often observed in nature. Pathogeninduced interference in populations can help explain unbalanced sex ratios (Dyson, 2012;Engelstädter & Hurst, 2009;Klein & Flanagan, 2016;Lynch et al., 2018;Masri et al., 2013;Morran et al., 2011). ...
Mating dynamics follow from natural selection on mate choice and individuals maximizing their reproductive success. Mate discrimination reveals itself by a plethora of behaviors and morphological characteristics, each of which can be affected by pathogens. A key question is how pathogens affect mate choice and outcrossing behavior. Here we investigated the effect of Orsay virus on the mating dynamics of the androdiecious (male and hermaphrodite) nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. We tested genetically distinct strains and found that viral susceptibility differed between sexes in a genotype‐dependent manner with males of reference strain N2 being more resistant than hermaphrodites. Males displayed a constitutively higher expression of Intracellular Pathogen Response (IPR) genes, whereas the antiviral RNAi response did not have increased activity in males. Subsequent monitoring of sex ratios over ten generations revealed that viral presence can change mating dynamics in isogenic populations. Sexual attraction assays showed that males preferred mating with uninfected rather than infected hermaphrodites. Together our results illustrate for the first time that viral infection can significantly affect male mating choice and suggest altered mating dynamics as a novel cause benefitting outcrossing under pathogenic stress conditions in C. elegans.
... Falling CSRs and SRBs, notwithstanding the overall gender development Kumari & Goli, 2021), compels us to explore the factors working behind it. If not addressed, the sex-ratio imbalance will have alarming consequences on the marriage and family-building process, violence against women, and overall human development Dyson, 2012;South, Trent, & Bose, 2014;Kaur 2020;Filser, Barclay, Beckley, Uggla, & Schnettler, 2021). ...
... In particular, sex ratio at birth may reflect aspects of gender relations. Though skewed sex ratios can occur because of migration, violence and unbalanced death rates, sex ratio can also vary due to cultural practices such as sex selective abortions based on preferences for sons [65]. Some prior work has hypothesized that in places where women are scarce, women may have less structural power overall, and may be unable to fulfil their mate preferences even when they hold mating market power [18]. ...
A wide range of literature connects sex ratio and mating behaviours in non-human animals. However, research examining sex ratio and human mating is limited in scope. Prior work has examined the relationship between sex ratio and desire for short-term, uncommitted mating as well as outcomes such as marriage and divorce rates. Less empirical attention has been directed towards the relationship between sex ratio and mate preferences, despite the importance of mate preferences in the human mating literature. To address this gap, we examined sex ratio's relationship to the variation in preferences for attractiveness , resources, kindness, intelligence and health in a long-term mate across 45 countries (n = 14 487). We predicted that mate preferences would vary according to relative power of choice on the mating market, with increased power derived from having relatively few competitors and numerous potential mates. We found that each sex tended to report more demanding preferences for attractiveness and resources where the opposite sex was abundant, compared to where the opposite sex was scarce. This pattern dovetails with those found for mating strategies in humans and mate preferences across species, highlighting the importance of sex ratio for understanding variation in human mate preferences.
... Here the minimum considered are 0.51 for the proportion of boys among the last children and 105 for the sex ratio of the youngest age-group. These minimums are considered to be biologically normal and are derived from global estimates (Bongaarts, 2013;Dyson, 2012). Note that all the proportions below these values are set to these defined minimum values. ...
While existing indices of gender equality measure the role of women’s status and position, they inadequately contextualize the broader construct of patriarchy, a social system that underlies many gender inequitable practices. An index capturing patriarchy may afford increased understanding of this social system, and may serve to complement other gender equality indices. This paper involves the development and testing of a novel composite measure, the India Patriarchy Index, to quantify the social and ideological construct of patriarchy using empirical data on family structure and gender roles. Using data from India’s National Family Health Survey, we develop an India Patriarchy Index to measure gendered social positioning in families based on sex by age, patrilocality, sex ratio imbalance among offspring, and gendered economic roles. Psychometric testing demonstrates good internal reliability and construct validity of this index, with validity indicated by its association with three gender equality indices used in India. Spatial and temporal analyses further indicate much state-level variation in India Patriarchy Index scores as well as slow change on this indicator over time, based on time trend analyses from 1992–93 to 2015–16. Results demonstrate the utility of the India Patriarchy Index to measure and track gender equality progress in India.
... Under normal circumstances, SRB varies between 103 and 106 male births per 100 female births (United Nations Secretariat 1998;Visaria 1971), with the estimated global average value being 105 male births per 100 female births (Bongaarts 2013;Dyson 2012). However, recent data from India's SRS indicate a SRB of 111 males per 100 females in 2015, with levels over the last 10 years varying between 110 and 112 (Office of the Registrar General of India 2016). ...
Previous research on sex ratio at birth (SRB) in India has largely relied on macro‐analysis of census data that do not contain the breadth of factors needed to explain patterns in SRB. Additionally, no previous research has examined the differentiation of factors associated with SRB across birth orders, a key determinant in societies affected by son preference. This study aims to fill these gaps using micro‐data related to 553,461 births occurring between 2005 and 2016 collected as part of the 2015–2016 National Family Health Survey. Analyses used multivariable logistic regressions stratified by birth order to examine associations with SRB at the national level. The SRB at birth order 1 was outside the biological normal limit, and generally increased with birth order. First births in households with wealth in the middle and richest quintiles, with mothers who desired a higher ideal number of sons than daughters, and in lower fertility communities had a higher probability of being male. Most SRB correlates were visible at birth orders 3 or higher. Programs and policies designed to address India's male‐skewed SRB must consider the diverse factors that influence SRB, particularly for higher order births.
... Predictions of increased violence in male-skewed populations emphasize that a male oversupply diminishes men's prospects to find a partner, increasing male-male mating competition (Dyson, 2012;Hesketh & Xing, 2006;Hudson & Den Boer, 2004;Hvistendahl, 2011). Propositions of this notion that male abundance exacerbates male tendencies towards violence build on sexual selection and parental investment theory (Bateman, 1948;Darwin, 1871;Trivers, 1972). ...
There is widespread concern in both the popular and academic literature that a surplus of men in a population intensifies mating competition between men, particularly unpartnered men, resulting in increased violence towards both men and women. Recent contributions challenge this perspective and argue that male mating competition and levels of violence will be higher when sex ratios are female-skewed. Existing empirical evidence remains inconclusive. We argue that this empirical ambiguity results from analyses of aggregate-level data, which put inferences at risk of ecological fallacies. Our analysis circumvents such problems by using individual-level, longitudinal demographic register and police data for the Stockholm metropolitan area, Sweden (1990–2003, n = 758,498). These data allow us to investigate the association between municipality-level sex ratios and violent offending (homicide, assault, threat, and sexual crimes) while adjusting for sociodemographic factors. Results suggest that aggregated offending rates are negatively associated with male-skewed sex ratios, whereas individual-level violent offending correlates positively with male-skews. We find that the more-men-more-violence association holds particularly for male violence against other men, but is insignificant for violence against women. Moreover, the association is significant among childless men, but not among fathers. However, robustness checks question the causality of these associations. Female violent offending is positively, albeit due to a low number of cases, insignificantly associated with male-skews. Moreover, both male and female non-violent offending is higher in male-skewed municipalities. We discuss the implications with regard to the theoretical debate and problems of unobserved heterogeneity in the sex ratio literature.
... They also receive more immediate medical attention and hospital check-ups with trained practitioners in the event of an illness, as the money and time spent on a son's health are considered a worthy investment for the future. The consequences of imbalanced gender ratios in South Asia are immense and sinister and unaccounted for by the government; they include: (i) the sustenance of patriarchy, (ii) fewer women to marry and reproduce and thus a greater burden on existing women to produce multiple children, and (iii) an increase in crime, drug use, and deviant sexual behaviour due to an increase in younger men (Dyson 2012). ...
Displacement and climate change are significant challenges facing South Asia due to political mismanagement, ethnic conflict, natural disasters, and environmental degradation. More than 10.3 million South Asian women are currently displaced or affected by climate change. The term feminization of displacement has become associated with South Asian women, as they have been facing great consequences to health, both physical and emotional, due to displacement and climate change. In this chapter, we discuss the health vulnerabilities of displaced and climate-affected women in detail. We also identify women with greater health risks during and after disaster and displacement, including those who: (i) are uneducated, live in women-only households, and do not own assets, (ii) have never worked and have no skill for formal employment, (iii) live in temporary shelters or face evacuation delays, (iv) face violence and are forced to marry, and (v) are forced to assume added care roles as recovery agents. This chapter also includes a summary which classifies the health impacts on women caused by environmental alterations due to displacement and climate change. Important recommendations are provided for critical health reforms and extended health policy in the region for displaced and climate-affected women.
... They also receive more immediate medical attention and hospital check-ups with trained practitioners in the event of an illness, as the money and time spent on a son's health are considered a worthy investment for the future. The consequences of imbalanced gender ratios in South Asia are immense and sinister and unaccounted for by the government; they include: (i) the sustenance of patriarchy, (ii) fewer women to marry and reproduce and thus a greater burden on existing women to produce multiple children, and (iii) an increase in crime, drug use, and deviant sexual behaviour due to an increase in younger men (Dyson 2012). ...
Globally, mental distress in women is higher compared to men, and yet in South Asia there is extreme neglect for service care and awareness related to mental health. This chapter discusses three critical areas of: the social factors that place South Asian women at increased risk of mental health challenges at different life stages, the social barriers that prevent access to mental healthcare services, and the socioeconomic costs of neglecting women’s mental health. Country-wise assessment of mental health problems is investigated through a literature review in order to understand specific and comparative problems for South Asia. We also present primary data regarding perceptions of women primary healthcare physicians regarding mental health of South Asian women. Through thematic analysis we have been able to identify medical problems coexisting with mental health problems and socio-structural barriers to improved women’s mental healthcare in South Asia. Finally, we are able to recommend necessary improvements for mental health support, including: (i) extensive integration of mental healthcare services at federal and provincial level; (ii) provision of trained specialists and nonspecialist mental healthcare providers within the community at primary level; (iii) immediate relief for women who cannot escape emotional abuse, like daycare centers, halfway homes, sheltered workshops, and temporary-stay facilities; (iv) formal monitoring for the function and efficacy of private and NGO mental health programs; and (v) reducing stigma against mental health and improving awareness and support through systematic government schemes, media literacy, and small participatory programs, religious psychology, and community-based interventions combining women, men, and families.
... Specifically, only-children are more typically males, living in urban settings, with more highly educated parents who have more upper level careers, and higher family economic levels. Demographers have indicated that a sex ratio bias, which skews towards a greater male to female ratio, has existed for many years, especially in Asian countries (Dyson, 2012;Grech, 2015) where Confucius culture and its male preference is popular. Further, the fact that the OCP in China is more strictly enforced in urban than in rural areas could contribute to this imbalance. ...
Since the implementation of the One-Child Police in China in 1979, great concern has been raised about the physical and psychological development of “only-children.” Some researchers believe that only-children may have difficulty with social skills, which include communication ability, because they would lack early sibling interactions. The aim of the present study was to explore the communication ability of only-children compared to children raised with siblings. We administered the self-developed Interpersonal Communication Ability Assessment Scale, which had been previously validated and refined, to 1,376 medical students in China. Results showed that when considering communication ability on its own, there were slight differences found between only-children and non-only-children. However, this difference was no longer significant when other independent variables were included in a hierarchical linear regression. This might be due to the fact that only-children have more highly educated parents, with more high-status careers, and greater family income that might provide greater social and educational opportunities, which might then increase communication abilities.
... 2 We use the term reserve to encompass both Statistics Canada's definitions "Indian reserves" and "Indian Settlements." 3 While Gerber (1984) has proposed that gender ratios on reserves are both a cause and a result of differential rates of migration, they do not provide gender ratio distributions for reserves. 4 Dyson (2012) also proposes several causes for unbalanced gender ratios including son preference, differential mortality of men and women at older age groups, and sex-specific labor market migration. ...
First Nations women and men migrate off (and on) First Nations reserves at different rates and at different ages, and these differential flows may result in gender imbalances on reserves. We document significant gender imbalances in favor of men and show that nearly 50% of First Nations reserves have male-female gender ratios greater than 1.5 compared with only 5% of non-reserve communities. Divergence in gender ratios on reserves begins around the ages of 15 to 19 and persists well into late adulthood. We examine how this gender imbalance varies by age, geographic location, and economic environment.
... The proportion of the population that is urban, like urban growth, can affect violent conflict (Cincotta, Engelman, and Anastasion 2003;Gizewski and Homer-Dixon 1995;Goldstone 2002;Wirth 1938). A sex ratio with higher proportions of men can affect marriage markets and can increase undesirable behaviours, and it is considered a risk factor for conflict (den Boer and Hudson 2004;Cincotta 2004;Dyson 2012;Hesketh and Xing 2006). A youth sex ratio is measured as the proportion of 15-24-year-old males to 15-24-yearold females in the urban sector. ...
BACKGROUND Sub-Saharan Africa has experienced relatively high population growth, which raises concerns about the potential contribution of large young cohorts, termed 'youth bulges', to unrest. Youth bulges, under the right circumstances, can expand productivity and boost economic growth, but they have also been found to enable civil war, corruption, and democracy collapse, especially where resources are scarce. OBJECTIVE This paper considers youth bulges characterised by high proportions of rural-urban migrants and examines their effects on the likelihood of social conflict in urban sub-Saharan Africa between 1990 and 2013. METHODS United Nations data on urban and rural populations by age and sex is combined with the Social Conflict Analysis Database to create a cross-section time series dataset. Negative binomial models are used to examine the relationship between youth bulges and conflict using country level fixed effects. RESULTS The study finds that a migrant-based youth bulge does not increase the likelihood of urban social conflict in sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, female youth bulges, often neglected when studying conflict, are found to increase the likelihood of conflict. CONCLUSIONS The overall disassociation between young rural-urban migrants and social conflict is encouraging. All the same, women were found to play a role in conflict, and women should therefore be considered in future studies. CONTRIBUTION This article characterises the composition of youth bulges - an important factor that has previously been ignored - by examining whether youth bulges composed largely of rural-urban migrants are more likely to increase the likelihood of conflict in urban sub-Saharan Africa.
... Around the world, many countries historically have had high sex ratios at the zero-four age group, with the extreme cases being Indian and Chinese societies (Cavalli-Sforza and Bodmer 1971;Das Gupta and Mari Bhat 1997;Dyson 2012;Gupta 2017). Sub-Saharan countries, however, were di¤erent. ...
WORKING PAPER 804. https://econrsa.org/system/files/publications/working_papers/working_paper_804.pdf
At the beginning of the twentieth century the sex ratio for South Africans di⁄ered markedly according to racial group. Those for white South Africans remained almost invariable, with more boys than girls, while black South Africans had a clear majority of girls, a situation that the literature has almost completely overlooked. This high proportion of black girls was also present in most sub-Saharan countries. The reasons are still not completely clear. Sex ratios at birth show more births of boys than girls. Boysmortality was higher than girlsmortality. But that does not explain why the twentieth-century black sex ratio was much lower than the sex ratios of pre-industrial European countries. We test several possible complementary explanations. The anomaly was caused, we argue, by a combination of higher mortality of boys and a preference for girls.
... Known for their seafaring skills across the whole of West Africa, Kru migrated to Freetown to work in the flourishing trading business, although they were also appreciated as domestics (Galli, 2019;Frost, 2002). Most of them would only relocate temporarily, prone to return to their country of origin to settle down permanently (Dyson, 2012;Frost, 1999, 26-32). ...
The colony of Sierra Leone was characterized by an unusually heterogeneous population made up of immigrants. The diverse population and the dynamics that led to its creation constitute a valuable case study for mating theories. This article examines the determinants of marriage patterns in early nineteenth-century urban Sierra Leone relying on census data. The degree to which marriage-market constraints and preferences influenced marriage patterns is studied. The results of this study suggest that marriage-market constraints contributed to explaining marriage patterns. However, even in a newly founded and multicultural context as that of urban Sierra Leone, social homogamy based on ascribed characteristics was the most prevalent marriage arrangement, in spite of the disruption of kin relations caused by slavery and migration
... As mentioned above, gender imbalances can lead to negative societal consequences and our measures may be useful in identifying the relationship between these ratios and existing conditions in First Nations communities in Canada. Since males tend to be born at higher rates than females and thus there are more males than females at young ages (Dyson, 2012), and the Status First Nations population is substantially younger than the Canadian population on average, we would expect the Status First Nations gender ratio to be higher than Canadian average. To illustrate how the gender ratio varies by age, we calculate the average gender ratio in 5-year age groups averaged over the Census years 2001Census years , 2006 and 2011 for all of Canada and Status First Nations (Figure 3). ...
We propose an accessible and repeatable method for calculating rates of institutionalization and homelessness by age and gender among Status First Nations in Canada. We calculate this measure by combining Census and administrative data-a method that could be estimated fairly easily over time. We estimate extremely high rates of institutionalization and homelessness, especially among young Status men. We estimate that, averaged over 2001 and 2006, 12% of the Status male population was either institutionalized or homeless. We show that this high rate of institutionalization and homelessness results in a distortion in the male-female gender ratio, which may have long-run implications for the continued legal existence of Status First Nations in Canada.
... Researchers have known for centuries that the human sex ratio at birth is slightly male-biased (i.e., the ratio is slightly greater than 1.00) and becomes more balanced during adulthood because of higher male mortality rates (Arbuthnott, 1710;Campbell, 2001;Oksuzyan, Juel, Vaupel, & Christensen, 2008). However, adult sex ratios can also become skewed by factors such as war, migration, political policy (e.g., China's "one-child" policy), and even radiation exposure (Dyson, 2012;Hesketh & Xing, 2006;Scherb, Kusmierz, Sigler, & Voigt, 2016;Zhou & Hesketh, 2017). ...
Visual exposure to unbalanced sex ratios influences perceived facial attractiveness for opposite-sex faces. When opposite-sex faces are scarce they are rated as more attractive than when they are plentiful. The current work examines a vocal-auditory analog of this effect. Participants were assigned to either a high or low opposite-sex vocal exposure condition and reported summary statistics by estimating the percentage of male and female voices in an array of simultaneous talkers. Participants then rated the attractiveness of individual opposite-sex voices. Those in the low opposite-sex exposure condition rated subsequent individual voices of the opposite sex as significantly more attractive than those who were in the high opposite-sex exposure condition. The findings demonstrate that a core visuo-perceptual aspect of mate selection preference also occurs in the auditory domain. The results are consistent with the idea that the attractiveness of opposite-sex partners is an honest signal of fitness and involves multimodal processes that are quickly modulated by the perceived availability of opposite-sex partners in a local environment.
... Previous studies on living arrangements of the older adults have shown that they prefer living specifically with sons [58,59]. This also partially explains the societal norms and pressures surrounding the preference for sons in India [60]. Older adults in this study had various level of autonomy when they had to use resources for themselves. ...
In transnational families, it is often the older adults who are left-behind or choose to stay behind. Currently the population aged 60 years and older in India constitutes over 7 percent of the total population (1.25 billion) and is projected to triple in the next four decades. In the past family has been the major source of support in later life. One of the consequences of increased mobility is the decreasing role of family in care provision. The Indian middle-class norms on higher education, which stressed on engineering and medicine, have resulted in professionally educated children leaving the parental home to seek work and thus family life in other geographical locations. In this paper we examine how transregional and transnational mobilities and the resulting absences impact the lives of older adults. We draw upon 37 in-depth interviews conducted in Dharwad district of Karnataka, India. The results show that older adults employ two strategies of rationalizing absence and compensating absence of migrant children. These strategies reflect the resilience of the older adults to make sense of this trans-local family life, that in a previous generation they were not aware of.
... Interestingly, we find much stronger an implication of high immigration on the sex composition than on the age structures. High immigration may lead to skewed sex ratios (Dyson 2012) and influence the actual reproductive potential if the sex balance is not achieved among the people of childbearing age. Imbalanced sex ratios may even lead to additional migration if religion is an essential characteristic for the marriage partner, intermarriage is rare and ties to the home communities remain strong. ...
Scientific knowledge on a population’s religious composition is essential to understand the challenges faced by societies today. It arises in opposition to speculations about the actual size of religious groups that have been increasingly present in the public discourse in Europe for many years. This is particularly the case in Austria where the flows of refugees and migrants coming from the Middle East and Afghanistan have intensified since 2011 and culminated in 2015. These sparked a debate on the actual size of the Muslim population in Austria. This study fills the gap by presenting estimates of the religious composition for 2016 and projections until 2046 based on several scenarios related to the three major forces affecting the religious composition: migration (including asylum seekers), differential fertility and secularisation. The projections demonstrate that religious diversity is bound to increase, mostly through immigration and fertility. We further focus on the role and implications of international migration on the age and sex composition within the six religious groups: Roman Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox, Muslims, other religions and unaffiliated. We find that the volume and composition of international migrants can maintain youthful age compositions in minority religions—Muslims and Orthodox. Sustained immigration leads to slower ageing but does not stop or reverse the process. The disparity between older majority and younger minority religious groups will further increase the cultural generation gap.
Beginning with a brief overview of the treatment gaps in child and adolescent psychiatric disorders in India, Chapter 4 of this edited volume i.e., Mental Health Issues and Challenges of Children in Karnataka, explains the heightened vulnerability of children in adversity, and the (unmet) developmental and mental health needs in preschool, school and child care institutions, which necessitate investment in mental health support and services in these spaces inhabited by children in adversity. Further, mental health services set up by the state (at district-level), in terms of their gaps and functionality, necessitating further investment in state health services by way of human resource development and skill enhancement in child mental health are highlighted. The authors highlight India’s low prioritization of child development and mental health services in policy and practice, and consequently, low prioritization of financial and human resource investments to meet the critical mental health needs in children and adolescents, both from the short and long term perspectives. The reasons for this lack of prioritization range from the need to meet the basic needs of child survival (nutrition and health); to perceptions that meeting children’s physical and material needs (in terms of food, clothing, shelter, health care) are of the utmost importance and doing so is sufficient; or that mental and psychological well-being automatically follow from children’s material needs being met.
Thus, the authors advocate the need for the country at large, and Karnataka in particular, to invest more intensively in facilities, infrastructure, human resources and services that would enhance child and adolescent development and mental health. As a policy guidance, (a) the investment needs for physical infrastructure and facilities, and services enabling child development and mental health including for staff are distinguished by state-supported pre-schools
or Anganwadis, Government (aided) schools and State Child Care institutions and (b) integration of child health services at primary and secondary level are emphasised for providing access.
Amartya Sen first used the phrase ‘missing women’ to describe a survival disadvantage for women exposed to extreme gender discrimination in son-preference countries. In 1989 he estimated that, despite a biological survival advantage for females, there were 100 million fewer women in Asia and north Africa than expected. He blamed corrosive gender discrimination restricting the resources needed for survival. This systematic review examined demographic evidence on the impacts of profound gender discrimination on the survival of girls and women in son-preference countries. Thirty-four included studies provided consistent evidence of lower-than-expected female survival in 15 societies. Male-to-female sex ratios rose particularly in China and India between the 1980s and 2010s, despite general improvements in female mortality. High sex ratios in South Korea, however, returned to biologically normal levels. The number of ‘missing women’ rose steadily from 61 million in 1970 to 126 million in 2010 and was predicted to continue to rise until 2035. The number of ‘missing women’ in the world increased in relative and absolute terms between 1980 and 2020. Profound discrimination reduces female survival at every stage of life. Future research is needed to understand the complete pathways and mechanisms leading to poorer survival and the major policy drivers of these trends to devise the best possible ways of preventing the tragedy of ‘missing women’.
Discrimination towards females – a trait of regional demography so far deemed unique to Asian countries – has inspired historians to revisit demographic series to look for instances of gender imbalances within Europe. In this paper, we show why a proper appreciation of Europe’s experience of gender discrimination in the past may help us to understand the future of contemporary sex selection throughout Asia. We stress in particular how the demographic discrimination of females appeared to have vanished during the 20th century from all areas where it was reported earlier. We examine the main factors that may explain the gradual disappearance of the ‘missing girls’ from Europe. We finally discuss the best ways to identify the potential micro- or macro-mechanisms accounting for the transformations observed in Europe, using, in particular, the distinct trajectories of countries in Southeastern Europe.
In the past 20 years, Political Science research has increasingly focused on urban and local politics. We systematically review this literature and find that smaller cities are disproportionally underrepresented, particularly outside the United States. Smaller cities exhibit economic, social, and political patterns that differ from those in large metropolitan areas. Using administrative data and existing research, we show how cities of different sizes vary in their demographic characteristics; citizens’ preferences; resources and capacity; intergovernmental relationships; and electoral politics. These patterns indicate the potential to update existing theories in Political Science, including those about gender and political participation, second-order elections, and intergovernmental relationships. We suggest that scholars consider how smaller cities might differ from larger cities and include smaller municipalities in their case study research. We also highlight political issues unique to small cities as new areas of inquiry.
It is well established that son preference is the crucial driver for sex ratio imbalance, and that there are risks stemming from such imbalance. Whether risks associated with a gender-imbalanced society may alter son preference will be explored in this study, which has so far received scant scholarly attention. Using data from the Consequences of Gender Imbalance Survey conducted in 2018, exploiting structural equation modelling, this paper shows that risk perception of gender imbalance has a significant and negative effect on stated son preference; however, entrenched traditional norms underpinning the institution of son preference, measured as gender role attitudes and the value of sons, are reinforced by risk perception. The effect of risk perception on weakening stated son preference is suppressed by gender role attitudes and the value of sons which are still upholding stated son preference. Overall, the effects of risk perception and social norms are additive, influencing stated son preference simultaneously, but traditional norms act as counteracting forces. This study makes an important step toward shedding light on both continuity and change in son preference in gender-imbalanced rural China, and offers new perspectives for future research.
We study the effects of local gender imbalance on corporate risk-taking. We find that firms in areas with a higher local male–female ratio have higher stock return volatilities, leverage ratios and capital expenditure, and less corporate hedging. Consequently, such firms face higher loan spreads, more collateral requirements and capital expenditure restrictions, and have more covenant violations. We address endogeneity concerns by using two instrumental variables for the local male-female ratio: the local prostate cancer and breast cancer mortality rates. We further show that local gender imbalance captures local residents’ risk preferences, which influence corporate policies via both local investor and employee channels.
This study explores the short-term relationships between sex ratio at birth and late fetal mortality in Italy from 1910 to 2016. As the leading scholars’ attention traditionally focused on long-term trends and variations in the sex ratios at birth among different populations, less interest regarded short-term fluctuations as they were mainly seen as an effect of random variability. We detrended the national series of males proportion among live births and stillbirths by their medium-term component to consider the annual deviations from a normal trend. After controlling for fertility tendencies and wars effects, regression models seem to show the effects of stillbirth on the proportion of male newborns. A sensitivity analysis was also carried out to assess the effects of the perinatal deaths on the proportion of males at birth, combining stillbirths and early neonatal losses to control the possible misspecification between stillborn infants and early neonatal deaths. The significance of late fetal mortality reflects the mortality excess among male fetuses during the intrauterine life, showing evidence for the in utero hypothesis selection.
Within populations, adult sex ratios influence population growth and extinction risk, mating behaviors and parental care. Additionally, sex ratio adjustment can have pronounced effects on individual fitness. Accordingly, it is important that we understand how often, and why, offspring sex ratios deviate from parity. In Drosophila melanogaster, females appear to improve their fitness by producing fewer sons when paired with older males. However, facultative sex ratio adjustment in D. melanogaster is controversial, and our understanding of how sex ratio skew affects fitness is hampered by pronounced sexual conflict in this species. Additionally, it is unclear if maternal age or quality interact with paternal age to influence offspring sex ratios. Here, we test whether offspring sex ratios vary as a function of maternal quality, and maternal and paternal age in Drosophila simulans, a sister species of D. melanogaster that lacks overt sexual conflict. We find that offspring sex ratios are slightly male biased overall, but constant across the female life-course, and independent of female quality, or paternal age. To really understand if, how and when females skew offspring sex ratios, we need studies linking offspring sex ratios to male and female phenotypes that are predicted to shift optimal investment in sons and daughters.
One of the most neglected, yet basic premises of political sociology is the recognition that politicians and public officials are socially accountable for the provision of adequate, efficient, and equitable health services for different women’s groups. We try in this chapter to highlight how the sociology of politics helps us to identify that public health policy is instrumental in closing the social gaps of health inequality. The role of the state becomes more important especially in conservative and traditional milieus like South Asia where regressive cultural forces prevent women from maintaining optimal health or seeking health recovery. Without state responsibility for health policy and social policy management for the women of South Asia, there is little possibility for diverse women groups in the region to attain holistic health quality of lives. We first discuss the key areas that influence women’s structural support for health in South Asia, including political representation, government budgets, government licensing and regulation, skewed population ratios, and poverty and health financing. Second, we present significant recommendations for women’s health policy reform at the state level for South Asian countries, covering the areas of (i) public healthcare services, (ii) equity in access, (iii) participation of women across state structures, (iv) wider social policies and security net for women, (v) specific health policies for women, (vi) state licensing and regulation, (vii) public health laws, and (viii) government health budget.
The sex ratio question has been an area of growing interest in population dynamics, especially in developing countries with respect to the issue of missing women, but few studies have examined this in sub-Saharan Africa. Both at birth and in the general population, sex ratios follow an expected demographic pattern in the absence of the interference of historical events affecting either males or females in a population. In Zambia, an unexpected demographic pattern of sex ratios is exhibited in census and survey data. This study used data from censuses and surveys conducted from 1969 to 2014 to examine variations in sex ratios in the Zambian population. It was found that sex ratio imbalances were largely due to data deficiencies due to age misreporting and under-enumeration. A consistent under-enumeration of young adult males in the 20–34 years age group was found. A systematic pattern of high sex ratios, above 100, for ages 40+ was found, represented by synthetic cohorts traceable from the 1969 census, progressing to the 2000 census and phased out in the 2010 census. Extremely high adult male mortality was found in 2010 in the 35–59 years age group, primarily attributable to HIV/AIDS. Understanding the demographic pattern of sex ratios in a population is relevant for policies to improve the quality of data collection systems, and socioeconomic development planning, for the young age group population, which is prone under-enumeration.
The article deals with the trends of population ageing in the Republic of Azerbaijan. The author considers the stages of change of population size and age structure in the 20th and the 21st centuries as a result of historical evolution of birth rate and death rate. Based on the analysis of fertility trends and life expectancy, it is shown that the decline in fertility has so far been the most important factor in the population ageing, whereas the decline in the mortality in older ages is only beginning to contribute to this process. It is emphasized that anomalies in the sex ratio at birth lead to accelerated ageing of the population. The gradual ageing and reduction of the share of the working-age population, as well as the growth of the dependency ratio and the exhaustion of the potential of the first demographic dividend, are also analysed in the paper.
This article investigates the effects of firstborn sex on intimate partner violence (IPV) in India, taking into account heterogeneity across state sex ratios and maternal education. In states with masculine sex ratios of first births, firstborn daughters are found to elevate the risk and severity of IPV. The effects of firstborn daughters on sexual IPV are particularly pronounced among uneducated women in these states. These findings suggest that amid son preference at low birth orders, the sex of firstborn children can contribute to violence against mothers, providing new insights into the household reproduction of gender discrimination and violence.
The Government of India launched a nationwide programme to save and educate the girl child, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (B3P), by stringent prohibition of sex-selective abortion, enforcement of Preconception and Prenatal Diagnostic Technique (PC-PNDT) and Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Acts, and social mobilization. We undertook this study to assess the effectiveness of intervention in Haryana state to improve sex ratio at birth (SRB). The monthly data on SRB (represented as girls per 1000 boys) were collected from civil registration system for the entire state of Haryana to evaluate the impact of B3P programme. The segmented time-series regression analysis was used to estimate the change in SRB after B3P programme. In this process, the seasonal auto regressive integrated moving average model was used to control the seasonality, autocorrelation and secular trend imbibed in the data before calculating the estimate of change in slope using regression equation. Overall, the sex ratio at birth in Haryana increased from 827 girls per 1000 boys in January 2005 to 900 girls per 1000 boys in September 2016. The estimates from segmented time-series regression analysis show that there was an insignificant change in SRB of -0.012 units before the intervention. Post slope was estimated to be 1.684, which suggested an increase in SRB of 1.696 [(confidence interval: 0.23, 3.15), P = 0.025] in terms of the difference between pre- and post-slope. This indicates a statistically significant increase of SRB by 1.696 per month attributable to B3P programme. B3P programme has resulted in an improvement of SRB in Haryana.
Southeast and South Asia are home to one-third of the world's population. Their great economic and cultural diversity makes generalization about family patterns and trends hazardous. We review literature on trends in fertility, marriage, divorce, and living arrangements in the past half century. The explanations for these trends focus on structural and ideological changes related to socioeconomic development; cultural factors including kinship system, religion, and ethnicity; and public policies. While the impact of rapid modernization and related ideational changes are evident, there are also changes - or a lack thereof - that cannot be explained by development and may be attributable to historical and cultural factors that have shaped family norms in the region. The following trends are evident: (a) fertility is declining and age at marriage is rising, although teenage and arranged marriages remain common in South Asia, (b) a majority of the elderly continue to live with or are supported by their children, and (c) divorce and out-of-wedlock childbearing remain relatively rare.
This work explores the connections between gender inequality, HIV/AIDS and women's health in the world of work in South Africa. These connections are located within a context of significant reversals in development, specifically declining life expectancy and premature mortality for South Africans — particularly for women. By relying on the existing literature and interviews with 33 key informants, the paper examines the extent to which South African workplaces are recognising women's social and biological vulnerability to HIV. In particular, the paper considers the potential role of the workplace in responding to growing evidence that links gender and health by establishing targeted HIV/AIDS interventions. The findings suggest that the vast majority of company representatives do not recognise women's social and biological vulnerability and related social norms vis-à-vis HIV and AIDS. Importantly, most workplaces are not initiating programmes that specifically address women's or men's health. The author briefly identifies factors that may help explain the current state of knowledge and practice in the realm of HIV and women's health in the workplace, and puts forward suggestions for future research.
fertility decline and the net manifestation of sex bias, as well as evidence that this bias has increased in India. We begin by considering two countervailing ways in which fertility decline could affect the excess mortality of girls, that is mortality over and above that which would be expected given a normal sex ratio of deaths.' A fall in the proportion of higher-order births tends to reduce excess child mortality of girls, whilst increased mortality at any given birth order increases it. We use empirical examples to show the independent and combined effects of these factors on sex differences in survival. We continue by estimating the additional number of girls who went 'missing' between 1981 and 1991 as a result of increase in the excess mortality of girls, and the extent to which this increase can be attributed to sex-selective abortion or unreported infanticide, as opposed to excess mortality after birth. Finally, we examine whether regional patterns in sex bias have changed, in view of sharp regional differentials in the pace of fertility decline.
The apparently inexorable rise in the proportion of "missing girls" in much of East and South Asia has attracted much attention among researchers and policymakers. An encouraging trend was suggested by the case of South Korea, where child sex ratios (males to females under age 5) were the highest in Asia but peaked in the mid-1990s and normalized thereafter. Using census data, we examine whether similar trends have begun to manifest themselves in the two most populous countries of this region, China and India. The data indicate that child sex ratios are peaking in these countries, and in many subnational regions are beginning to trend toward lower, more normal values. This suggests that, with continuing economic and social development and vigorous public policy efforts to reduce son preference, the "missing girls" phenomenon could eventually disappear in Asia. Copyright (c) 2009 The Population Council, Inc..
In China in recent years, male live births have exceeded those of females by amounts far greater than those that occur naturally
in human populations, a trend with significant demographic consequences. The resulting imbalance in the first-marriage market
is estimated to be about 1 million males per year after 2010. These "excess" males were not easily accommodated in models
with substantial changes in first-marriage patterns. The current sex ratio at birth has little effect on a couple's probability
of having at least one son, so future increases in the sex ratio may well occur, especially given increasing access to sex-selective
abortion.
The contribution that alcohol has made to the large fluctuations in mortality in Russia in recent years is now widely recognized. An association between heavy drinking and Russia is part of popular culture. But what is the reality? This paper reviews the evidence on historical patterns of consumption in Russia, highlighting the difficulties of obtaining valid statistics during the Soviet period (1917-1991). It notes how the state, at various times, encouraged alcohol sales. By the early 1980s, the social cost of heavy drinking was becoming apparent. This led, in 1985, to the imposition of the wide-ranging and initially highly effective anti-alcohol campaign by Mikhail Gorbachev. The features of this campaign and of its subsequent collapse are described. In the 1990s, consumption of alcohol increased rapidly. There has, however, been a recent reduction in alcohol-related deaths. It is concluded that heavy drinking is not an inevitable feature of Russian life and that, as the state has done much to create the present problem, it also has a role to play in resolving it.
The Russian mortality crisis of the early 1990s attracted considerable attention, but information on possible covariates of mortality is lacking, and concerns have been raised about the validity of official mortality data. To help elucidate the determinants of mortality, we examined whether indirect demographic techniques could be used to study mortality in countries such as the Russian Federation, where mortality data are inadequate, using input data independent from official vital statistics.
A national sample of the population was interviewed (n = 1600, response rate = 67%). Participants who had ever been married (82% of the sample) were asked about the date of birth and vital status of their first spouse. Spousal mortality was then estimated indirectly for the 531 men and 710 women for whom valid data were available.
The estimated risk of death between the ages of 35-69 years was 57% for male spouses and 17% for female spouses. Corresponding figures derived from national data for 1990 were 52% and 25% for the Russian Federation, and 31% and 20% for the United Kingdom. According to spouses' reports, 38% of their husbands died from cardiovascular disease, 22% from cancer, and 14% from injuries and accidents. Mortality of male spouses was inversely related to the education level of their wives, and the age-adjusted hazard ratios for death from all causes, compared to primary education, were 0.77 for secondary education and 0.57 for university education (trend P = 0.03). Mortality was also inversely related to ownership of household items, but not to size of settlement, pride in Russia, membership in the Soviet Communist Party, nationality or self-assessed social status.
Although the indirect estimates were imprecise (partly owing to the small population size of the study), and mortality in women was probably underestimated (owing to many factors, including poorer reporting by males and high male mortality), our results are nevertheless consistent with the mortality pattern observed in official mortality data. The indirect technique thus appears to be a useful tool to study the determinants of mortality in the Russian Federation and other populations, where reliable or sufficiently extensive data are not available.
The expected ratio of male to female births is generally believed to be 1.05, also described as the male proportion of 0.515.
We describe trends in sex ratio at birth and in fetal deaths in the United States, in African Americans and in whites, and in Japan, two industrial countries with well-characterized health data infrastructures, and we speculate about possible explanations.
Public health records from national statistical agencies were assembled to create information on sex ratio at birth and in fetal deaths in the United States (1970-2002) and Japan (1970-1999), using SPSS.
Sex ratio at birth has declined significantly in Japan and in U.S. whites, but not for African Americans, for whom sex ratio remains significantly lower than that of whites. The male proportion of fetal death has increased overall in Japan and in the United States.
Sex ratio declines are equivalent to a shift from male to female births of 135,000 white males in the United States and 127,000 males in Japan. Known and hypothesized risk factors for reduced sex ratio at birth and in fetal deaths cannot account fully for recent trends or racial or national differences. Whether avoidable environmental or other factors--such as widespread exposure to metalloestrogens or other known or suspected endocrine-disrupting materials, changes in parental age, obesity, assisted reproduction, or nutrition--may account for some of these patterns is a matter that merits serious concern.
Since 1990, studies have documented the widespread growth of immigrant populations in American communities not known as common destinations in the past. One recent analysis of the changing geography of Mexican immigrants described shifts from traditional destinations in California and Texas to new states such as Colorado, Utah, and Nevada, and to new cities such as New York City, Phoenix, Las Vegas, and Denver (Durand, Massey, and Charvet 2000). Other studies illustrate the breadth of the foreign-born population's geographic dispersion over the past fifteen years, with new destinations as varied as Dalton, Georgia, a small town well known for its carpet production (Engstrom 2001; Hernández-León and Zúñiga 2000); Garden City, Kansas, and Storm Lake, Iowa, where meatpacking employers sought low-wage workers (Grey 1999; Stull, Broadway, and Erickson 1992); and Houma and Morgan City in southern Louisiana, where semiskilled employment opportunities in the oil and gas industry proliferated (Donato, Bankston, and Robinson 2001; Donato, Stainback, and Bankston 2005).
Amartya Sen started a debate about gender bias in mortality by estimating the number of "missing women," which refers to the number of females of any age who have presumably died as a result of discriminatory treatment. Depending on the assumptions made, the combined estimates for countries exhibiting the presence of such gender bias varied between 60 and 107 million. As new population data have become available for these countries, this article examines whether the number of "missing women" has changed in the past decade. The combined estimate of the number of missing women has risen in absolute terms but has fallen slightly in relation to overall population. Considerable improvement is evident in West Asia, North Africa, and parts of South Asia, while only small improvements have occurred in India and a deterioration took place in China. Analyses of the underlying causes of gender bias in mortality suggest that improvements are largely related to improved female education and employment opportunities and rising overall incomes, while deterioration is mostly attributable to the rising incidence of sex-selective abortions.
As countries with great wealth, low populations, and labor shortages, the Gulf states rely heavily on imported labor to fuel the development process. They do not allow migrants to become citizens. This article examines the social, economic, and political effects of this strategy of development by exploring the role of Indians, who, with Pakistanis, form the largest group of migrants to the Gulf states. The apparent impermanence of migration to the Gulf states (reflected in receiving and sending country policies and in the migrants' attitudes and behavior) is illusory, it is argued. Such fundamental structural changes have taken place in the economies and labor markets of the region that non-nationals are an enduring part of the labor force.
This study examines the behavioral antecedents to the higher female than male mortality from shortly after birth through the childbearing ages in a rural area of Bangladesh. A framework is presented in which the intermediate variables through which sex-biased attitudes and practices might operate to affect health, nutrition, and mortality are postulated. The malnutrition rate was found to be substantially higher among female children than among male children. In-depth dietary surveys showed that males consistently consumed more calories and proteins than females at all ages, even when nutrient requirements due to varying body weight, pregnancy, lactation, and activity levels were considered. Although child infection rates were similar between sexes, utilization of health care services at a free treatment unit showed marked male preferences. Implications for policy formulation and program implementation are discussed in the conclusion.
Increased life expectancy and widening sex differentials in mortality in modern society are producing changes in the population distribution by age and sex that have wide implications for the relations between men and women. The changes give rise to a surplus of males at young ages and a large surplus of females at old ages. Because men customarily marry women younger than themselves, female surpluses among the older unmarried population are extremely large. Policy measures to reverse the age gap at marriage are implausible. Instead, social responses to the situation take the form of unconscious adaptations in sex roles, including a lessening of the importance of marriage for women and efforts to eliminate any sex-based division of labor.
Recent evidence from East Asia suggests that parents use prenatal sex testing to selectively abort female fetuses, a practice manifested in rising sex ratios (males per females) at birth. Many observers have condemned prenatal sex testing, arguing that it results in discriminatory abortion against females. However, observers have neglected the dynamics between this new prenatal discrimination and traditional postnatal discrimination against young daughters. If the option of sex-selective abortion implies that daughters carried to term are more likely to be wanted, postnatal discrimination might decline. Evidence from East Asia is used to investigate this "substitution" hypothesis. In societies where excess daughter mortality existed in the 1970s, rises in the sex ratio at birth in the 1980s tended to be associated with declines in excess daughter mortality. This preliminary support for the substitution hypothesis suggests that judging the morality of sex-selective abortion requires prior consideration of the prevalence and relative evils of both prenatal and postnatal discrimination.
An attempt is made to summarize the chief generalizations that can be drawn from available evidence on world mortality developments during the last hundred years. Past and prospective trends are compared for three broad groups of populations or approximately those in the West, Eastern and Southern Europe, and Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Two major points of emphasis are that the usual methods of comparing regional changes can usefully be supplemented by other approaches, and that the mortality history of Western nations may prove a highly unsatisfactory guide to future trends elsewhere. The study is based on a nearly complete compilation of the national life tables on record.
International Security 26.4 (2002) 5-38
International security and stability rest in large measure on the internal security of nations. Analysts have long examined factors such as arms transfers and ethnic violence in this regard, but the list now includes variables that were not traditionally viewed as related to national security. Unemployment rates, water tables and river flows, infant mortality, migration patterns, infectious disease epidemiology, and a whole host of other variables that tap into the general stability of a society are now understood to affect security. To understand the long-term security dynamics of a region, one must inquire into what Thomas Homer-Dixon and others have termed the "environmental security" of the nations therein.
Our own research is surely located in that field of inquiry, yet we contemplate a variable that has been by and large neglected even by scholars of environmental security. One overlooked wellspring of insecurity, we argue, is exaggerated gender inequality. Security scholarship is theoretically and empirically impoverished to the extent that it fails to inquire into the relationship between violence against women and violence within and between societies. We believe that our research demonstrates that the long-term security trajectory of a region is affected by this relationship.
Admittedly, there is probably no society in which women do not experience some gender inequality, meaning subordinate status or inferior treatment inpolitical, legal, social, or economic matters. Indeed, what would constitute aperfect society between men and women is a controversial topic with which we are not concerned here. However, exaggerated gender inequality is hard to miss: We define it to be present when, because of gender, one child isallowed to live while another is actively or passively killed. Offspring sex selection, almost universally used to favor male offspring, indicates that the life of a female in the society is not only not valued but actually despised. There can be no greater evidence of the extremely unequal and subordinate status of women in a society than the presence of prevalent offspring sex selection therein.
If violence against women within a society bears any relationship to violence within and between societies, then it should be possible to see that relationship at work in societies where violence against women is exaggerated—that is, where offspring sex selection is prevalent. Specifically, internal instability is heightened in nations displaying exaggerated gender inequality, leading to an altered security calculus for the state. Possibilities of meaningful democracy and peaceful foreign policy are diminished as a result.
We first quantify the scale on which sex ratios are being altered in Asia, then estimate the number of resulting surplus young adult males currently present in Asia's two largest states, China and India, as well as projected to the year 2020. Next, we discuss behavioral syndromes associated with surplus young adult male groups, and investigate the role of such groups in instability and violence within and between societies in several historical cases. Finally, we ask whether these same phenomena are beginning to be seen in China and India today, and raise broader issues of governance and foreign policy in high sex-ratio societies.
The practice of offspring sex selection can be found in a large variety of historical cultures from all continents. In virtually all cases, the selection was in favor of male infants. Here we concentrate on the modern incidence of offspring sex selection and seek to quantify its scale.
Two statistics set the stage for our discussion: the birth sex ratio and the overall sex ratio. Normal birth sex ratios range between 105 and 107 male births per 100 female births. This normal range holds across racial groups, though there may be some parental age-related or diet-related variations within such groups. The overall sex ratio (i.e., the sex ratio across all ages) tends toward 1:1 or less, reflecting a combination of increased female mortality from childbearing, but longer female life span.
Ansley Coale suggests that the sex ratio for a stationary population (as determined by Western model life tables) is between 97.9 and 100.3 males per 100 females. (In the remainder of the article, the ratio...
This paper serves as an introduction to the three substantive papers in this themed section on the impact of migration on the well-being of the 'left behind' in Asia. In the light of recent migration trends such as the 'feminization' of migration and 'brain-drain' of health workers in the region, the paper provides a brief review of the existing scholarly literature on the vulnerability of different groups of the 'left behind', particularly women, children and the elderly. It argues that a multi-dimensional approach is needed, taking into consideration not only the economic impact of remittances but also factors such as social networks and gender effects.
In recent years the sex ratios of births derived from major national surveys of China have been rising, reaching 111 males per 100 females in 1986-87. Compared with the normal level of approximately 106, this implies that annually over half a million female infants are missing, or just over 2% of all births. There are three possible explanations for these findings. The first is infanticide, the traditional method of disposing of unwanted births in feudal China and common in many premodern societies. Second, the difference could be the result of abortions carried out after parents gained access to technologies to determine the gender of the fetus. The third explanation is that the finding is the result of faulty statistical reporting: the missing female infants could have been safely born, and still living at home, but are now concealed by parents attempting to circumvent the national "one-child' family planning policy in their quest for a son. All three explanations imply important challenges to the health, safety, and welfare of girls and women in China. -Author
Data from the Demographic and Health Surveys indicate that girls in many developing countries have higher mortality in childhood relative to boys than would be expected given the experience of European-origin populations at similar levels of mortality. This mortality disadvantage is particularly large between the ages of 1 and 5, and in the countries of the Middle East. Surprisingly, girls show no disadvantage for a number of health status indicators. They are reported to suffer less often from respiratory and diaorrheal infections, are less likely to be stunted or wasted, and are as likely as boys to be immunized. Only in use of health services do girls show lower rates than boys. Most of the health status indicators are uncorrelated with the female mortality disadvantage, though high immunization levels relative to boys are associated with low mortality disadvantages. The association with immunization remains significant even when educational differences are controlled. -Authors
The ratio of males to females in a population is determined by the ratio of male to female births, the ratio of male to female net migrants and the ratio of male to female deaths. In almost all populations the ratio of male to female births is about 1.06; when health care and nutrition for both sexes are about the same, this male majority at birth is erased by male mortality at every age higher than female. In the past in China, South Asia, and West Asia, the greater female resistance to death is offset by poorer nutrition and inferior health care, resulting in an elevated masculinity of the population. In this note the ratio of males to females that would have been produced in the absence of traditionally based differential treatment of the sexes is estimated for selected populations. The total number of females missing because of inferior care is about 60 million. -Author
This note summarizes conclusions reached at a recent international conference that considered the causes and policy implications of the upsurge of mortality in Russia following the collapse of the communist regime in 1989. The mortality crisis is genuine, not a case of ''Glasnost in statistics.'' There is Little evidence to support the popular perception that the crisis is due to environmental deterioration or the collapse of medical services. These problems are real but they do not account for the rise in mortality. Rather, the crisis is the manifestation of economic, social, and political pathologies in Russian society. The responsible causes are probably a combination of historical and contemporary forces: catch-up effects from previous lifestyle risks and deferred deaths from the successful anti-alcohol campaign in the late 1980s; and current turmoil characterized by economic impoverishment, widening social inequality, and the breakdown of political institutions. Russia does not and did not conform to the standard model of ''health transition'' distilled from Western experience. Although there are some signs that the crisis may be abating, its future course remains uncertain.
In this paper the assumption is questioned that it is the intra-household distribution of food which is an important cause of the observed sex differences in childhood mortality in much of South Asia. An analysis of data from a recent field study as well as a fresh look at information from secondary sources, leads to the conclusion that, at present, the causal link from malnutrition to mortality is ambiguous at best. Other possible real-world determinants of sex differences in mortality are examined and it is found that differential utilisation of modern health care is probably an important such determinant. Finally some of the socio-economic influences on sex discrimination in health care are examined and a case is presented for increasing women's employment outside the home.
"Security demographics" has become a new subfield of Security Studies in recent years, as scholars have begun to envision the security implications of long-term demographic change. This subfield provides important new insight into the problem of population, social stability and conflict, but our research suggests that an additional demographic factor must be taken into account when assessing social stability and security of a state—that of sex ratios. What are the security implications for a population whose males, particularly those of the young adult population, significantly outnumber females? China and India, as well as several other Asian states, are currently undergoing various demographic transitions, one of the most important being the increasingly high sex ratios of young segments of these populations. We argue that internal instability is heightened in nations displaying the high level of exaggerated gender inequality indicated by high sex ratios, leading to an altered security calculus for the state. Possibilities of meaningful democracy and peaceful foreign policy are diminished as a result. The high sex ratios in China and India in particular have implications for the long-term security of these nations and the Asian region more broadly.
Demographers, as early as Malthus, have assumed that in traditional China the positive check, mortality, was largely beyond human control. This paper re-examines the role of the positive check in late imperial China through an analysis of an historical source of unprecedented demographic detail and accuracy: the genealogy of the Qing (1644–1911) imperial lineage. Basing ourselves on our calculations on the infant, child, and young adult mortality of 33,000 lineage members born in Beijing between 1700 and 1840, we conclude that during the late eighteenth century, many lineage couples regularly used infanticide to control the number and sex of their infants. At the same time, they also took advantage of innovations in paediatric care to protect the children they decided to keep. Although these results derive from an elite population, they, nevertheless, call into question our understanding of the operation of the positive check in late imperial China's demographic system, suggesting a much larger potential role for individual agency than was previously thought.
While the impact of remittances upon the economic conditions of the sending communities has received much attention, the effects of international migration on women's position in society among the left-behind have not been adequately explored. This paper examines the changes in the left-behind women's position at the family level as a result of the migration of adult men overseas. Data came from a demographic surveillance system covering 70 villages in Bangladesh. All migrant families having at least one male member working abroad for more than six months were identified in the study villages in 1996. A comparable number of non-migrant families were selected at random from the same villages to yield a total sample of 1030 families. In-depth interviews were conducted with adult women of the sample families. Findings reveal that the overseas migration of adult males has a significant positive association with women's decision-making capacity and education of girls in the migrant families. The remittances as well as the influence of secular values have reduced the practice of dowry in marriages. Multivariate analysis suggests not only that remittances have increased the financial capacity of the migrant families, but also that secular influences from overseas might have modified the position of women when the role of other socio-economic factors is controlled. The study concludes that the overseas migration of adult men can create a context for change of the women's position in traditional communities. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
We model the equilibrium sex ratio when parents can choose the sex of their child. With intrinsic son preference, sex selection results in a male-biased sex ratio. This is inefficient due to a marriage market congestion externality. Medical innovations that facilitate selection aggravate the inefficiency. If son preference arises endogenously, due to population growth causing an excess supply of women on the marriage market, selection may improve welfare. Empirically, sex selection causes an excess of males and reduces welfare in China. In most parts of India, cohort sizes are growing, implying an excess supply of women. (JEL J12, J13, J16, O15, P23)
We offer evidence of gender selection within the United States. Analysis of comprehensive birth data shows unusually high boy-birth percentages after 1980 among later children (most notably third and fourth children) born to Chinese and Asian Indian mothers. Based upon linked data from California, Asian Indian mothers are found to be significantly more likely to have a terminated pregnancy and to give birth to a boy when they have previously only given birth to girls. The observed boy-birth percentages are consistent with over 2,000 "missing" Chinese and Indian girls in the United States between 1991 and 2004. (JEL J11, J16)
Widowhood causes four problems: how to replace the functions of the dead spouse and those of the dead parent? who should inherit the property of the dead spouse/ parent? and, where should the surviving family live? Typical solutions to these problems are related to demographic characteristics of developing and developed countries.
One way to assess the magnitude of women's survival disadvantage in parts of the developing world is to estimate the number of “missing women” that died as a result of excess female mortality. Sen and Coale provided two such estimates of “missing women.” This paper compares and evaluates these two estimates and suggests modifications to arrive at a closer approximation of the size of women's survival disadvantage. The number and regional distribution of “missing women” implied by these modified calculations is supported by other available demographic and economic data on gender discrimination.
This introductory text considers the debates over relationships between population, natural resources and development. Themes are explored with the use of theoretical models as well as empirical and quantiative material and specific case studies. The case studies represent a cross-section diverse geographical regions, making the text suitable for an international readership. Demographic measures and principles are explained clearly in boxes, assuming no prior knowledge. A historical approach is taken, looking at examples from Malthusian population theory to contemporary thinking on population and environmental issues. The political economy of famine and health and fertility, and of birth control are discussed in some depth. Ultimately, the interrelationships between population change and urbanization and industrialization in the developing world are explored.
Mortality in the Soviet Union improved rapidly in the years immediately following World War II, so that in the mid-1960s life
expectancies in countries such as Russia and Ukraine were similar to those of the United States. However, this improvement
was not sustained; levels of adult mortality in the former Soviet Union today are similar to those found 50 years ago, and
they are now well below those of Western industrialized counties. The deterioration was temporarily reversed during Gorbachev’s
short-lived anti-alcohol campaign of the mid-1980s, but adult mortality increased sharply following the collapse of the Soviet
Union around 1990; since then, mortality has varied greatly. Mortality of working-age men in Russia is particularly high,
with some of the highest mortality differences between men and women in the world. A number of reasons are responsible for
these trends, including a range of negative macro-level political, institutional, and economic factors, as well as individual-level
ones, such as smoking and poor diet. However, alcohol plays a particularly significant role, with the long-standing tradition
of binge drinking of vodka being heavily implicated in the high excess risks of deaths from circulatory system diseases and
external causes (accidents and violence) in Russia.
While a number of studies have examined gender preferences for children by studying behavioral measures, such as skewed sex ratios, sex imbalance in infant mortality, and sibling size/order; attitudinal measures have been analyzed less systematically. Using 50 Demographic and Health Surveys conducted between 2000 and 2008, this paper seeks to advance our understanding of gender preferences in developing countries by examining attitudinal measures cross-nationally. This study's findings show that, while balance preference is the most common type of preference in the vast majority of countries, countries/regions vary in the prevalence of son and daughter preferences. A preference for sons is not always found; and, indeed, a preference for daughters is shown to prevail in many societies.
This article adopts a comparative perspective to review the recent increase in the sex ratio at birth (SRB) across Asia. It first describes and compares the most recent birth statistics in Asia in order to identify commonalities in the gradual rise of SRBs observed from Armenia to South Korea. This comparison provides the basis for identifying specific transition patterns in the changes in SRBs. Their recent rise is then interpreted in a social and historical framework borrowed from fertility decline and based on three preconditions: access to sex-selection technology, preference for male births, and pressure from low fertility. On a broader plane, the process of growing imbalances in the sex composition of the population gives rise to a tragedy of the commons. This article indicates the factors that appear most likely to trigger a turnaround in this transitional demographic situation and to facilitate a return to biologically normal sex ratios in the future. Copyright (c) 2009 The Population Council, Inc..
Oster (2005) argued that parents with Hepatitis B (HBV) have more sons, which explained Asia's "missing women". Lin and Luoh (2008) show no relationship between gender and mother's HBV. We test for a relationship between paternal HBV and son share and find none.
The preference for sons has deep social, economic, and cultural roots in many East and South Asian societies. Historically, son preference has resulted in unusually high death rates for female infants and girls. Over the past 30 years, the introduction of prenatal screening technologies combined with widespread access to abortion has made possible the selective abortion of female fetuses. Resulting gender imbalances have led to concerns that a shortage of women will make it difficult for men to find wives. The Chinese, Indian, and South Korean governments have responded by making prenatal screening for sex identification illegal. China and India have also launched campaigns to improve attitudes toward girl children, and both countries offer small allowances to some parents of girls. Experience in South Korea indicates that sex-selective abortion peaks and then declines with social and economic modernization. Population projections and survey data suggest that falling fertility and women's reluctance to marry have a much larger effect than sex-selective abortion on the availability of women in the marriage market. Additional titles in the AsiaPacific Issues series
In many Asian countries the ratio of male to female population is higher than in the West: as high as 1.07 in China and India, and even higher in Pakistan. A number of authors (most notably Amartya Sen) have suggested that this imbalance reflects excess female mortality and have argued that as many as 100 million women are "missing." This paper proposes an explanation for some of the observed overrepresentation of men: the hepatitis B virus. I present new evidence, consistent with an existing scientific literature, that carriers of the hepatitis B virus have offspring sex ratios around 1.50 boys for each girl. This evidence includes both cross-country analyses and a natural experiment based on recent vaccination campaigns. Hepatitis B is common in many Asian countries, especially China, where some 10–15 percent of the population is infected. Using data on prevalence of the virus by country and estimates of the effect of hepatitis on the sex ratio, I argue that hepatitis B can account for about 45 percent of the "missing women": around 75 percent in China, between 20 and 50 percent in Egypt and western Asia, and under 20 percent in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Nepal.
This paper reviews evidence concerning genetic factors that influence sex differences in human mortality, with attention to the interactions between genetic and environmental factors. Some widely quoted earlier conclusions, for example, that males have consistently higher fetal mortality than females, are not supported by current evidence. For example, for late fetal mortality, males had higher rates than females in earlier historical data, but not in recent data for several advanced industrial countries. This reflects a changing balance between an inherently greater female vulnerability for one major type of late fetal mortality and inherently greater male vulnerability for several other types of late fetal mortality that have declined in importance as health care has improved.
This paper seeks to explain the dearth of females in the population of China in cohorts born from the late 1930s to the present. We demonstrate that in virtually all cohorts, the shortage of females in comparison with males is revealed when the cohort is first enumerated in a census. Subsequently it barely changes, an indication that female losses occur very early in life. Using the high-quality data from the censuses and fertility surveys in China, we show that many of the births of the girls missing in the censuses were not reported in the surveys because they died very young. The incidence of excess early female mortality (probably infanticide) declined precipitously in the Communist period, but not to zero. The recent escalation in the proportion of young females missing in China has been caused largely by rapidly escalating sex-selective abortion.
Chinese demographers are warning that the nation's social fabric could unravel under pressure from an increasingly skewed sex ratio in newborns. According to figures published this month in state run Chinese media, 116.86 boys are born for every 100 girls in China. The numbers mark a worsening of a trend that began more than 20 years ago but that officials have only recently begun to face.
Data from the 2000 census showed wide regional differences in the ratio. Normal ratios of between 102 and 106 boys per …
"This study uses a new source of data to assess trends and patterns of female migration from Mexico. Data were collected from migrants interviewed in ten Mexican communities from 1987 through 1990, as well as from outmigrants from those communities who were later located in the United States. The first part of the analysis examines changes in migrant behavior throughout the 1980s by estimating trends in the probability of first-time and repeat migration and by assessing the impact of the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) on these trends.... The study then considers the determinants of female Mexican-U.S. migration by examining whether and how women's recent moves reflect their personal characteristics, the resources in their households, or a process of family reunification." This paper was originally presented at the 1992 Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America.
Data from a 1998 migration survey in Hubei province are used to examine gender differences in the determinants of temporary labor migration from a multi-level perspective. The authors find that community level factors play a key role in temporary labor migration; models omitting community level variables are poor in predicting temporary labor migration. Significant gender differences exist in determinants of temporary labor migration. For men, temporary labor migration is mainly a response to community level factors; individual or household characteristics have little predictive power. For women, by contrast, temporary labor migration is predominantly determined by individual characteristics; community level factors are not as important.
This study analyzes the distribution of sex ratio at birth in African populations using data collected in birth histories in sample demographic surveys (Demographic and Health Surveys and World Fertility Surveys). The average sex ratio from 56 surveys, totaling 1.130 million births, was 1.033 (95% CI, 1.029-1.037), significantly different from the world average of 1.055. The distribution of sex ratios across surveys was found to be heterogeneous, and different from what could have been expected from random fluctuations due to sample size. Three subsets were identified: a subset with lower sex ratios, primarily in countries of eastern and southern Africa of Bantu populations (1.010), a subset with average sex ratios (1.035), and a subset of countries with higher sex ratios, in particular Nigeria and Ethiopia (1.070). Further analysis revealed that African populations are as diverse as other populations, with sex ratios ranging from low values (below 1.00) to high values (above 1.08). Results are discussed in light of independent data sources and in comparison with other human populations.
Reduction in female mortality has been counterbalanced by sex selective abortions
The concept of “missing women,” which was presented in an editorial I wrote in this journal 11 years ago, refers to the terrible deficit of women in substantial parts of Asia and north Africa, which arises from sex bias in relative care.1 The numbers are very large indeed. For example, using as the standard for comparison the female:male ratio of 1.022 observed in sub—Saharan Africa (since women in that region receive less biased treatment), I found the number of missing women in China to be 44m, in India 37m, and so on, with a total that easily exceeded 100m worldwide,a decade or so ago. Others used different methods and got somewhat different numbers—but all very large (for example, Stephan Klasen's sophisticated demographic model yielded 89m for the countries in question).2
How have things moved more recently? At one level they have not changed much. The ratio of women to men in the total population, while changing slowly (getting a little worse in China and a little better in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and west Asia), has not altered radically in any of these countries. Even though the total numbers of missing women have continued to grow (Klasen's 89m is now 93m for the same countries and 101m for the …
Human rights norms and standards can be applied to health issues as an analytical tool and as a framework to identify and shape interventions to reduce the impact of ill-health and improve the lives of individuals and populations. This article discusses how migration, health status, gender-based discrimination and access to education have an impact on HIV/STI vulnerability among rural women from migrant communities in Nepal. It is based on data from a clinic-based HIV/STI prevalence study with 900 women aged 15-49 from two rural communities in Kailali district, Western Nepal, and existing legal and policy data. Existing efforts to address HIV/STI vulnerability and risk in this population focus primarily on risk-taking behaviour and risk-generating situations, and largely fail to address contextual issues that create and facilitate risky behaviour and situations. Respecting, protecting and fulfilling the rights of individuals can reduce vulnerability to HIV/STI infection. Greater emphasis must be given to addressing the gender discrimination embedded in Nepalese culture, the acute lack of access to health care and education in rural areas, and the precarious economic, legal and social circumstances facing many migrants and their families.
In the absence of manipulation, both the sex ratio at birth and the population sex ratio are remarkably constant in human populations. Small alterations do occur naturally; for example, a small excess of male births has been reported to occur during and after war. The tradition of son preference, however, has distorted these natural sex ratios in large parts of Asia and North Africa. This son preference is manifest in sex-selective abortion and in discrimination in care practices for girls, both of which lead to higher female mortality. Differential gender mortality has been a documented problem for decades and led to reports in the early 1990s of 100 million "missing women" across the developing world. Since that time, improved health care and conditions for women have resulted in reductions in female mortality, but these advances have now been offset by a huge increase in the use of sex-selective abortion, which became available in the mid-1980s. Largely as a result of this practice, there are now an estimated 80 million missing females in India and China alone. The large cohorts of "surplus" males now reaching adulthood are predominantly of low socioeconomic class, and concerns have been expressed that their lack of marriageability, and consequent marginalization in society, may lead to antisocial behavior and violence, threatening societal stability and security. Measures to reduce sex selection must include strict enforcement of existing legislation, the ensuring of equal rights for women, and public awareness campaigns about the dangers of gender imbalance.