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Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self
Abstract
Procrastination is a common and pervasive problem associated with a range of negative outcomes across a variety of life domains that often occurs when people are faced with tasks that are seen as aversive. In this paper, we argue that as a form of self-regulation failure, procrastination has a great deal to do with short-term mood repair and emotion regulation.
Moreover, we contend that a temporal understanding of self and the mood-regulating processes involved in goal pursuit is particularly important in understanding procrastination, because the consequences of procrastination are typically borne by the future self. After summarizing the research on the priority of short-term mood regulation in procrastination, we then draw the connection between the focus on short-term mood repair and the temporal disjunction between present and future selves. We present research that exemplifies these intra-personal processes in understanding temporal notions of self characterized by procrastination, and then link these processes to the negative consequences of procrastination for health and well-being. We conclude with a discussion of possible avenues for future research to provide further insights into how temporal views of the self are linked to the dynamics of mood regulation over time in the context of procrastination.
... Whether viewed as an occasional behaviour or a chronic behavioural tendency, procrastination is a common form of self-regulation failure that is linked to negative outcomes. Procrastination is often defined as the voluntary and unnecessary delay in the start or completion of important and intended tasks despite recognising there will be harmful consequences for oneself and others for doing so [1,2]. Yet, the harms from procrastination are not limited to those involving productivity. ...
... This stress can be from stress-generating thoughts about unnecessary delay [4], and from the personal and social consequences of that delay [18]. However, a temporal mood-regulation perspective on why people procrastinate proposes that the experience of negative emotional states and difficulty in regulating them underly procrastination behaviour [2,19]. From these perspectives, it is clear stress is a negative emotional state that can be both a cause and a consequence of procrastination. ...
... Theory and evidence also suggest stress may be a precursor, and not just a consequence, of procrastination. A temporal mood regulation perspective posits that people procrastinate tasks which elicit negative emotional states as a means of regulating their immediate mood through task avoidance [2,19]. Negative states can arise from the nature of the task when it is inherently aversive or unpleasant (e.g., public speaking), or because the individuals' interaction with the task generates difficult emotions including uncertainty, anxiety, or stress [29,30]. ...
Research over the past two decades has continued to highlight the robust associations between procrastination and stress across multiple populations and contexts. Despite this burgeoning evidence base and theory linking procrastination to higher levels of stress, as well as the reverse, the role of context in this potentially dynamic association has received relatively little attention. In this conceptual review I argue that from a mood regulation perspective of procrastination, stressful contexts necessarily increase risk for procrastination because they deplete coping resources and lower the threshold for tolerating negative emotions. Drawing on insights from coping and emotion regulation theory, the new stress context vulnerability model of procrastination proposes that the risk for procrastination increases in stressful contexts primarily because procrastination is a low-resource means of avoiding aversive and difficult task-related emotions. The new model is then applied to evidence on the primary and secondary sources of stress during the COVID-19 pandemic and how they may have increased vulnerability for procrastination. After discussing potential applications of the new model for understanding how and why risk for procrastination may increase in other stressful contexts, approaches that might mitigate vulnerability for procrastination in high-stress contexts are discussed. Overall, this new stress context vulnerability model underscores the need for taking a more compassionate view of the antecedents and factors that may increase the risk for procrastination.
... Когда человек сталкивается с задачей, которая рассматривается как неприятная, трудная или скучная, он испытывает отрицательные эмоции (Solomon & Rothblum, 1984). В таких обстоятельствах прокрастинатор пытается как можно скорее избавиться от этих эмоций, избегая задачу и занимаясь чем-то отвлеченным (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). ...
... Похоже, что люди откладывают выполнение своих задач из-за отсутствия доступа к адаптивным стратегиям регулирования эмоций и, как следствие, сбоя в саморегулировании (Fernie, McKenzie, Nikčevič, Caselli, & Spada, 2016;Steel & Klingsieck, 2016). Прокрастинация способствует кратковременному избавлению от негативных эмоций, но не имеет долговременных эффектов (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Откладывание целей или задач вызывает в будущем большое количество негативных эмоций, таких как чувство вины и беспокойства, и способствует еще большему откладыванию дел в долгосрочной перспективе (Mohammadi Bytamar, Saed, & Khakpoor, 2020). ...
... По мнению Sirois & Pychyl (2013), срыв выполнения академической работы чаще всего происходит, когда студенты сталкиваются с задачей, которая воспринимается ими как неприятная (скучная, разочаровывающая, бессмысленная). Таким образом, воспринимаемые задачи и приводят к неприятным ощущениям или негативному настроению. ...
В статье авторы рассматривают академическую прокрастинацию как серьезную проблему студентов высших учебных заведений, которая негативно сказывается на их психологическом состоянии и на результатах учебной деятельности. Актуальность исследования заключается в распространенности проблемы. В исследованиях на данную тему отмечается, что очень большой процент студентов подвержен академической прокрастинации. Новизна исследования заключается в комплексном изучении у студентов гуманитарного профиля проявлений и причин академической прокрастинации и связанных с ней эмоциональных состояний. Исследование проводилось с помощью авторской анкеты-опросника на выборке студентов гуманитарных специальностей (в количестве 128 человек) в декабре 2020 года. В результате были получены и проанализированы данные по нескольким направлениям: 1) проявления прокрастинации; 2) причины прокрастинации; 3) эмоциональные состояния, сопровождающие прокрастинацию; 4) последствия для учебного процесса; 5) пути преодоления состояния прокрастинации. Было выявлено, что академическая прокрастинация проявляется у респондентов прежде всего в откладывании выполнения учебных заданий и подготовки к экзаменам. Наиболее частыми причинами такого откладывания респонденты назвали трудоемкость и сложность задачи, а также вид задания: чаще всего откладывают письменные задания. Эмоциональный аспект академической прокрастинации обычно характеризуется у респондентов тревогой и чувством вины. Приступать к выполнению задания студентов чаще всего побуждают две причины: тревога о негативных последствиях того, что работа не будет сдана в срок, и желание поскорее избавиться от задачи, которая вызывает напряжение, оставаясь невыполненной. Также было проанализировано влияние академической прокрастинации на учебный процесс. Оказалось, что более трети опрошенных хотя бы несколько раз пропускали занятия по причине несделанного задания. Таким образом, академическая прокрастинация является фактором, который значительно осложняет учебную деятельность студентов вузов.
... That is, negative affective states precede procrastination. When individuals experience negative emotions during the goal-directed process, they are more likely to succumb to procrastination to avoid task engagement and to seek immediate mood repair (Baumeister et al., 2007;Sirois, 2016;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Therefore, apart from motivational beliefs and learning strategy use, emotion is proposed as another important activator of procrastination. ...
... Given the unique nature of online learning environments with a larger degree of flexibility and freedom accompa-nied by distractions and fewer regulatory cues from instructors and peers (Jaggars, 2014;Kalman et al., 2020), procrastination becomes a common challenge for students who transition from traditional classrooms to online courses (Usher et al., 2021). Recently, scholars have proposed that individuals' unnecessary delay does not merely result from a lack of goal setting and time management; rather, procrastination is the outcome of emotions (Sirois, 2016;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). When individuals experience negative feelings during the goal-directed process, they resort to procrastination as a way to avoid task engagement and "a strategy to avoid this negative mood" (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013, p. 117). ...
... Second, the recent development in theory on procrastination has pointed out the role of emotion as an important antecedent. Particularly, procrastination mainly stems from negative emotions experienced during the goa-directed process (Baumeister et al., 2007;Sirois, 2016;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Prior studies have also shown that academic procrastination is more strongly correlated with negative emotions than positive emotions in remote settings (Henderikx et al., 2019;Rahimi & Vallerand, 2021). ...
Academic procrastination refers to individuals' unnecessary postponement of their coursework and is harmful for academic performance. When situated in self‐placed and remote learning environments, students' tendency to procrastinate increases. Therefore, understanding why students procrastinate and identifying who is more likely to delay unnecessarily in online learning environments is an important area to study. The goal of this study was to respond to this call by examining the structural relations between conscientiousness, prior online learning experience, achievement emotions and academic procrastination in online learning environments using structural equation modelling. In particular, two main facets of conscientiousness—proactive and inhibitive—were examined in order to understand which facet was more responsible for procrastination, how each facet was related to procrastination and to determine which facet of conscientiousness should be the primary target for intervention in future experimental research. A total of 746 students from 49 secondary and postsecondary schools participated in the current study. The results showed that the proactive aspect of conscientiousness was negatively related to academic procrastination through the pathway of enjoyment. The inhibitive aspect of conscientiousness was negatively related to academic procrastination through the pathways of negative emotions. Although prior online learning experience did not have a significant and direct association with academic procrastination, it was indirectly related to students' tendency to put off coursework through the pathways of enjoyment and negative emotions. Of all the paths, negative emotions had the strongest associations with academic procrastination in online learning environments. The findings of indirect effects suggest that students with low conscientiousness, the inhibitive aspect in particular, and few prior online learning experiences are more likely to procrastinate in online classes possibly owing to the suboptimal emotional experiences aroused during their learning processes. Practitioner notes What is already known about this topic Conscientiousness has a direct association with academic procrastination in in‐person classes. Prior online learning experience has direct associations with students' adaptive regulatory processes in online classes. Achievement emotion is an integral part of online learning. What this paper adds Conscientiousness has a direct association with academic procrastination in online learning environments. Prior online learning experience has no direct associations with academic procrastination in online learning environments. Conscientiousness indirectly relates to academic procrastination through achievement emotions in online learning environments. Prior online learning experience indirectly relates to academic procrastination through achievement emotions in online learning environments. Implications for practice and/or policy Instructors are suggested to pay attention to students with low conscientiousness and few prior online learning experiences since they are more likely to procrastinate in online learning environments. Students' tendency to procrastinate in online learning environments is strongly associated with their emotional experience. What is already known about this topic Conscientiousness has a direct association with academic procrastination in in‐person classes. Prior online learning experience has direct associations with students' adaptive regulatory processes in online classes. Achievement emotion is an integral part of online learning. What this paper adds Conscientiousness has a direct association with academic procrastination in online learning environments. Prior online learning experience has no direct associations with academic procrastination in online learning environments. Conscientiousness indirectly relates to academic procrastination through achievement emotions in online learning environments. Prior online learning experience indirectly relates to academic procrastination through achievement emotions in online learning environments. Implications for practice and/or policy Instructors are suggested to pay attention to students with low conscientiousness and few prior online learning experiences since they are more likely to procrastinate in online learning environments. Students' tendency to procrastinate in online learning environments is strongly associated with their emotional experience.
... Repeated wins of the impulse system seem to be a characteristic of procrastination, as goal-directed behaviors are replaced by non-functional behaviors, resulting in delayed planned work. Second, a model understanding procrastination resulting from dysfunctional emotional regulation has gained considerable momentum (e.g., Sirois and Pychyl, 2013;Sirois and Kitner, 2015). Negative emotion, for example, perceived task aversiveness, is a strong predictor of procrastination (e.g., Steel, 2007). ...
... For example, Duckworth et al. (2016) demonstrated how the individual applies strategies proactively by choosing or changing situations to weaken undesirable impulses and potentiate desirable ones. As procrastinators are present-oriented and less apt to simulate future situations concretely in future episodic thinking (e.g., Sirois and Pychyl, 2013;Rebetez et al., 2016), they may be handicapped in such proactive self-regulative efforts, making this model potentially relevant for procrastination. ...
... We emphasize this characteristic of FA because feelings and cognition probably are central to the understanding of procrastination. For example, if emotional regulation (or misregulation) is important in procrastination (e.g., Sirois and Pychyl, 2013), FA would focus on the relation between procrastinatory behavior (i.e., avoidance or escape behaviors) and the immediate "mood repair" that follow these behaviors. Clearly, behaviors that bring about immediate shifts from negative to positive moods are indeed at risk of being reinforced, indicating a potent mechanism that will increase or maintain the frequency of procrastinatory behaviors. ...
Academic procrastination – habitually delaying work with academic tasks to the extent that the delays become detrimental to performance, wellbeing, and health – represents a substantial personal, systemic, and societal problem. Still, efforts to prevent and reduce it are surprisingly scarce and often offered as treatment regimens rather than preventive efforts. Based on the principles of functional analysis and a broad examination of factors that are important for academic procrastinatory behaviors, this paper aims to describe a strategy for analyzing individual controlling conditions for procrastination and give parallel advice on how to change those controlling conditions. Both are ideographic, allowing for individual and dynamic analyses of factors responsible for instigating and maintaining procrastination, as well as tailor-made remedies that address controlling conditions in preventive and curative efforts to reduce procrastination. Although functional analysis integrates well with important research findings in the procrastination field, this approach suggests new criteria for identifying procrastinatory behaviors and an alternative model for analyzing their control conditions. We conclude that a functional approach may supplement procrastination research and efforts to prevent and alleviate this detrimental habit.
... Research with university students highlights the inverse relationship between academic procrastination and selfregulated learning (e.g., Hong et al., 2021;Howell et al., 2006;Senécal et al., 1995;Wolters, 2003), defined as "an active, constructive process whereby learners set goals for their learning and then attempt to monitor, regulate, and control their cognition, motivation, and behavior, guided and constrained by their goals and the contextual features in the environment" (Pintrich, 2000, p. 453). More specifically, the failure to engage in self-regulated learning has traditionally been considered an antecedent of academic procrastination (Schraw et al., 2007;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013) and evidenced in several previous studies (e.g., Ergulec et al., 2022;Zarrin et al., 2020). For example, self-efficacy for learning and selfregulation strategies (e.g., Wolters, 2003), as well as selfefficacy in applying these strategies (Tan et al., 2008), are the self-regulated learning dimensions that show the greatest relationships with academic delays in several studies with university students (Klassen et al., 2011). ...
... p < .001). Studies conducted with undergraduates also indicate that procrastination is a significant predictor of students' well-being (e.g., Balkis, 2013), showing its direct relationship with academic anxiety and stress (e.g., Balkis & Duru, 2016;Sirois et al., 2013Sirois et al., , 2016Solomon & Rothblum, 1984;Stead et al., 2010;Tice & Baumeister, 1997). The few studies conducted in secondary education yield similar results (e.g., García-Ros et al., 2016;Yaseminejadm et al., 2013), pointing out that the consequences of procrastination are mainly psychological (e.g., anxiety, depressive symptomatology, and learning problems), although they can also be somatic (e.g., physical complaints, skin alterations, intestinal problems), mediated by adolescents' coping strategies and emotional self-regulation (Boekaerts, 2011;Pintrich, 2000). ...
... These results support the idea that procrastination in secondary education is related to students' difficulties with cognitively and motivationally self-regulating their school activity (e.g., Howell & Watson, 2007;Rabin et al., 2011). Additionally, the findings show that procrastination should also be considered a maladaptive emotion regulation strategy used to face negative emotions produced by academic tasks and studying by postponing them in order to avoid the discomfort and anxiety they provoke (e.g., Sirois & Pychyl, 2013, 2016Tice et al., 2001). ...
The main objective of this study was to test a structural theoretical model of the effects of self-regulated learning on academic stress, subjective well-being, and academic achievement in Secondary Education, considering academic procrastination as a mediator. An additional aim was to explore whether these relationships were moderated by gender and educational level. Participants were 728 students in compulsory and post-compulsory secondary education in a large city in Eastern Spain. Path analysis results indicated that the proposed model showed satisfactory fit, with the three dimensions of self-regulated learning significantly predicting the educational outcomes considered, and that procrastination mediated these relationships. Overall, the model is able to predict 9.8% of the variance of academic stress, 23.1% of students wellbeing, and 14% of academic achievement. Moreover, the multi-group routine revealed no moderation effects due to gender, but educational level moderated two relationships, between self-efficacy and academic achievement and between metacognitive strategies and procrastination. Additionally, supplementary models were tested for three specific subjects (Spanish Language, Foreign Language and Mathematics), which showed an improvement in explained variance, being respectively: 29%, 28% and 27%. Results are discussed in light of previous research and in terms of their impact on educational practice.
... Second, there needs to be an intention-action gap (Lay & Schouwenburg, 1993;Steel, 2007). Third, the expectation of negative consequences needs to be accompanied by subjective discomfort, characterized by negative emotions, such as feelings of guilt or worry (Ferrari, 1998;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013;Solomon & Rothblum, 1984). These aspects are genuine for procrastination and can be used to differentiate it clearly from unproblematic, rather strategic forms of delay (e.g., Chowdhury & Pychyl, 2018;Corkin et al., 2011;Klingsieck, 2013;Wieland et al., 2018). ...
... This inner conflict is accompanied by subjective discomfort (Solomon & Rothblum, 1984) and, thus, negative emotions not only during but also before and after a procrastination episode (Grunschel et al., 2013). The mood repair hypothesis conceptualizes procrastination as a dysfunctional attempt to regulate negative emotions (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013;Tice et al., 2001). If an intended task is subjectively perceived as stressful, difficult, or complex , it is more likely to be delayed due to impulse-driven short-term mood regulation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). ...
... The mood repair hypothesis conceptualizes procrastination as a dysfunctional attempt to regulate negative emotions (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013;Tice et al., 2001). If an intended task is subjectively perceived as stressful, difficult, or complex , it is more likely to be delayed due to impulse-driven short-term mood regulation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Individuals avoid the aversive task in order to repair their mood. ...
Procrastination is the irrational delay of an intended task and is common among students. A delay can only be defined as procrastination when it is voluntary, the action was intended but not implemented, and the delay is accompanied by subjective discomfort. Established scales of procrastination cover mainly behavioral aspects but have neglected the emotional aspect. This inaccuracy concerning the construct validity might entail misconceptions of procrastination. Accordingly, we developed and validated the Behavioral and Emotional Academic Procrastination Scale (BEPS), which covers all aspects of the definition of procrastination. The 6-item scale measuring self-reported academic procrastination was tested in three studies. Study 1 ( N = 239) evaluated the psychometric qualities of the BEPS, indicating good item characteristics and internal consistency. Study 2 ( N = 1,441) used confirmatory factor analysis and revealed two correlated factors: one covering the behavioral aspect and the other reflecting the emotional aspect. Measurement invariance was shown through longitudinal and multigroup confirmatory factor analyses. Study 3 ( N = 234) provided evidence for the scale’s convergent validity through correlations with established procrastination scales, self-efficacy, and neuroticism. The BEPS thus economically operationalizes all characteristics of academic procrastination and appears to be a reliable and valid self-report measure.
... Self-regulation strengthens behaviors like the ability to setting goals and pursuing a plan to achieve results, but the lack of it leads to procrastination. This phenomenon can become a reinforced habit by performing short-term, gratifying activities while postponing tasks considered unpleasant (Klassen et al., 2010;Sirois and Pychyl, 2013;Cid, 2015). Zhao, et al., (2019) studied 503 Chinese college students and found that procrastination was negatively correlated with time management disposition and self-control. ...
... Procrastinators who perceive an academic assignment very hard tend to avoid or to postpone the beginning of that task (Denız, Traş, and Aydoğan, 2009); therefore, students with immediate gratification personality can delay the hard academic work, like the dissertation project. This phenomenon can become a reinforced habit by performing short-term, gratifying activities while postponing tasks considered unpleasant (Klassen et al., 2010;Sirois and Pychyl, 2013;Cid, 2015). Some participants fall for more pleasant, and immediate gratification activities. ...
... The cue-based-plan (implementation intention) is a technique to avoid procrastination (Duckworth, 2015;Milkman, 2021;Fogg, 2021;Gollwitzer, 2009) whereas the students link an academic goal to a specific cue (like time or day of the week) so they won't forget to execute the action planned. This phenomenon can become a reinforced habit by performing short-term, gratifying activities while postponing tasks considered unpleasant (Klassen et al., 2010;Sirois and Pychyl, 2013;Cid, 2015). The related verbatim is presented in the next sentences. ...
The purpose of this study is to understand the role of Outsight Theory of Behavior Change (OTBC) and Grit concept, on the phenomena of master degree thesis procrastination, experienced by postgraduate student, in two private universities of La Paz Bolivia. A qualitative phenomenological descriptive proceed was used to achieve this purpose. Fifteen master program students with a pendant thesis for more than a year, described their experiences, believes, emotions and ideas regarding the thesis procrastination. The primary source of data in this study were transcriptions of interviews. Results show that the main obstacles experienced by the student -in the attempt to finish the thesis- were low self-regulation under external obligations, self-confirmation believes of overconfidence and under confidence, and poor time management and poor energy management for been overwhelmed by work.
... It has been reported that approximately 52% (Özer et al., 2009), 70% (Schouwenburg, 2004), and 83% (Klassen & Kuzucu, 2009) of university students experience academic procrastination. Studies seem to agree that academic procrastination is a common type of behavioral procrastination among students (Peixoto et al., 2021;Rosário et al., 2009;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013;Zhao & Elder, 2020). Behavior patterns in this type of procrastination include behaviors such as delaying starting or finishing homework, failing to meet the deadline, avoiding academic tasks, writing term papers , delaying studying for exams to the last minute, and not completing daily and weekly review and reading assignments (Onwuegbuzie, 2004;Senécal et al., 2003;Steel, 2007). ...
... Studies on academic procrastination, which is characterized as deliberate and voluntary procrastination, focus on the causes of this behavior pattern. Studies frequently point to a failure of selfregulation among the factors that cause academic procrastination (Grunschel et al., 2018;Steel & Klingsieck, 2016;Klassen & Kuzucu, 2009;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013;Steel, 2007). ...
To understand the relationship between problematic internet use and academic procrastination, this study constructs a parallel mediation model to examine the impact of university students’ problematic internet usage on their academic procrastination and the mediation effect of academic self-efficacy and self-regulated online learning. A total of 498 students in Turkey were surveyed using the Internet Addiction Scale-Short Version, the Academic Self-Efficacy Scale, the Academic Procrastination Scale, and the Self-Regulated Online Learning Scale. The correlation analysis demonstrated that problematic internet usage was positively correlated with academic procrastination. However, academic self-efficacy and self-regulated online learning were negatively correlated with academic procrastination and problematic internet usage. Further, the parallel mediation analysis showed that internet addiction has a direct predictive effect on students’ academic procrastination and an indirect predictive effect via academic self-efficacy and self-regulated online learning. Specifically, academic self-efficacy and self-regulated online learning were found to be partial mediators and play a buffering role between problematic internet use and academic procrastination.
... Moreover, previous studies on the relationship among negative life events, negative emotions, rumination and procrastination are mostly based on the Western cultural context [3,26]. Considering the potential differences between the Eastern and Western cultural context, this study will take adolescents in the Eastern cultural context as subjects to reveal the mechanisms and conditions in the link between negative life events and procrastination. ...
... Individuals who experience negative emotions may doubt their ability to complete the tasks successfully and believe that any failure means their incompetence [3]. Besides this, procrastination, as quintessential self-regulatory failure, can be considered a dysfunctional strategy of mood-regulation [26]. Individuals who have experienced negative emotions may repair their bad mood by avoiding aversive tasks over a short period of time, which in turn develops into procrastination. ...
Procrastination (the intentional delay of action despite knowing that one will be worse off due to the delay) is a widespread phenomenon with various negative consequences, especially among adolescents. Based on relevant evidence, this study examined the relation between negative life events and adolescents’ procrastination, as well as the underlying mechanisms—specifically, the effects of negative emotions and rumination, as well as the potential gender differences. A total of 780 adolescents (Mage = 12.92 years old; 52.2% females) were recruited to complete a set of questionnaires assessing negative life events, procrastination, depression-anxiety-stress symptoms and rumination. Results showed that negative life events were positively associated with procrastination, and negative emotions significantly mediated the relation; rumination played a moderating role in this mediation model, specifically, both the direct and indirect effects in this mediation model were stronger for adolescents with higher rumination. Besides this, gender differences in this moderated mediation model were also found—the indirect effect of negative emotions was stronger for girls, and this mediating effect could be moderated by rumination only for boys. These results expanded our understanding of how negative life events influence procrastination and when (or for whom) negative life events influence procrastination the most. The findings also have significant implications for the prevention and intervention of adolescents’ procrastination.
... One prominent explanation conceptualizes procrastination as a dysfunctional form of mood regulation with the purpose to escape negative emotions associated with the intended activity by pursuing an alternative activity instead of the intended activity (e.g., Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Indeed, procrastination episodes are preceded by lower positive affect (Sirois & Giguère, 2018), higher negative affect (Pollack & Herres, 2020), or a failure to modify negative affect (e.g., Eckert et al., 2016). ...
... Because procrastination episodes are often preceded by negative task-related affect (Pollack & Herres, 2020;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), consideration of negative affect is important. When a group member's relative ability was low, negative affect was higher in conjunctive group work as compared to individual work; and when a group member's relative ability was high, negative affect was higher in additive group work as compared to individual work. ...
Group work can increase individual effort, performance, and positive affect, if group members perceive their own contribution as indispensable for the group product. A vignette methodology was applied to investigate whether group work may also reduce procrastination. The vignettes described a typical academic assignment, while varying the task structure (individual work vs. conjunctive group work vs. additive group work) and group member ability (high vs. low). For each vignette, student participants (N = 443) provided ratings on their perceived indispensability, procrastination of the assignment, and affect. When group member ability was high, procrastination was lower in additive group work as compared to individual work. When group member ability was low, procrastination was lower in conjunctive group work as compared to both individual work and additive group work. As predicted, perceived indispensability mediated the difference in procrastination between conjunctive and additive group work. Moderation analyses further revealed that the effects were more pronounced for high trait procrastinators. Further, both types of group work led to increases in task-related positive affect as compared to individual work. By demonstrating the relevance of group work as a social factor, the results
should be useful for the extension of existing programs targeting procrastination, and may inspire measures for preventing procrastination by changes in the study environment.
... Cost is individuals' negative appraisals of what is involved in completing a task (Flake et al., 2015). Specifically, emotional cost has been demonstrated to be closely associated with individuals' unnecessary lateness (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Emotional cost refers to a negative affective state such as exhaustion and distress that results from an individual's spending effort in completing tasks (Flake et al., 2015). ...
... A subscale from Flake et al.'s (2015) study was used to assess emotional cost. Although there are multiple aspects of cost, the scale of emotional cost was particularly selected owing to the close association between negative affective states and individuals' irrational postponement (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). The scale is composed of 6 nine-point Likert scale items (1 = completely disagree; 9 = completely agree) and measures students' negative affective state regarding spending effort in completing learning tasks in a course (α = 0.95). ...
... For ancient philosophers such as Aristotle, procrastination is a prototypical case of akrasia, which designates a lack of selfcontrol leading to act against one's best judgment. This perspective is still present in the psychological literature on procrastination, which may be considered as resulting from self-regulation failure or 'weakness of the will' 6,17,18 . ...
... When accounting for now/tomorrow choices within participants, the model suggests that time discounting is not the only factor: procrastination is more likely to occur with less rewarded and more effortful tasks. This is in line with studies that emphasized the failure to regulate emotional responses to task aversiveness as a key determinant of procrastination behavior 6,17,18,22 . However, across participants, these factors were neutralized in the current study by using subjective ratings to adjust the pairing of effort cost and reward value, which may be viewed as emotional responses to task aversiveness and outcome attractivity. ...
Humans procrastinate despite being aware of potential adverse consequences. Yet, the neuro-computational mechanisms underlying procrastination remain poorly understood. Here, we use fMRI during intertemporal choice to inform a computational model that predicts procrastination behavior in independent tests. Procrastination is assessed in the laboratory as the preference for performing an effortful task on the next day as opposed to immediately, and at home as the delay taken in returning completed administrative forms. These procrastination behaviors are respectively modeled as unitary and repeated decisions to postpone a task until the next time step, based on a net expected value that integrates reward and effort attributes, both discounted with delay. The key feature that is associated with procrastination behavior across individuals (both in-lab and at-home) is the extent to which the expected effort cost (signaled by the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex) is attenuated by the delay before task completion. Thus, procrastination might stem from a cognitive bias that would make doing a task later (compared to now) appear as much less effortful but not much less rewarding.
... Individual differences in punishment sensitivity should affect the individual's tendency to procrastinate by affecting the trade-off between negative utility and positive utility [1,3,4]. A high degree of punishment sensitivity results in increased negative emotions associated with a task, and ultimately results in increased procrastination [9][10][11][12]. Other theories of procrastination make similar predictions about the effect of punishment sensitivity on procrastination. ...
... Thus, higher punishment sensitivity results in higher negative utility estimates, and a higher probability that the person will choose to procrastinate. This result can also be interpreted in terms of the short-term mood repair theory [11], which suggests that one who is in a negative mood would tend to delay the task. ...
Procrastination is defined as putting off an intended course of action voluntarily despite the harmful consequences. Previous studies have suggested that procrastination is associated with punishment sensitivity in that high punishment sensitivity results in increased negative utility for task performance. We hypothesized the effects of punishment sensitivity on procrastination would be mediated by a network connecting the caudate nucleus and prefrontal cortex, both of which have been previously associated with self-control and emotional control during procrastination. We employed voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) to examine the neural substrates of punishment sensitivity and its relationship with procrastination (N = 268). The behavioral results indicated a strong positive correlation between measures of punishment sensitivity and procrastination. The VBM analysis revealed that the gray matter (GM) volume of the right caudate was significantly positively correlated with punishment sensitivity. The primary rsFC analysis revealed connectivity between this caudate location and the bilateral middle frontal gyrus (MFG) was significantly negatively correlated with punishment sensitivity. A mediation model indicated punishment sensitivity completely mediated the relation between functional connectivity within a caudate-bilateral MFG network and procrastination. Our results support the theory that those with higher punishment sensitivity have weaker effective emotional self-control supported by the caudate-MFG network, resulting in greater procrastination.
... It can be divided into emotion regulation and behavior regulation. Sirois and Pychyl referred to the process as "short-term mood regulation" [102]. It is an irrational circle. ...
... Using entertainment Internet may result in academic procrastination [90]. Entertainment Internet may tempt students to stay online for instant satisfaction, rather than spending time and energy on learning tasks [102,97]. Frequent Internet use could distract students from learning, especially when they have higher autonomy on digital media [4,49]. ...
... Defined as the voluntary delay of taking action on important, necessary, and intended tasks despite knowing there will be negative consequences for this delay (Ferrari & Tice, 2000;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), procrastination is a ubiquitous and prevalent form of self-regulatory failure that can be a chronic tendency for many individuals. Indeed, research estimates suggest that 50 percent of students and 15-25 percent of adults chronically procrastinate (Ferrari, Díaz-Morales, O'Callaghan, Díaz, & Argumedo, 2007;Steel, 2007). ...
Objectives:
Procrastination is a common form of self-regulation failure that a growing evidence base suggests can confer risk for poor health outcomes, especially when it becomes habitual. However, the proposed linkages of chronic procrastination to health outcomes have not been tested over time or accounted for the contributions of higher-order personality factors linked to both chronic procrastination and health-related outcomes. We addressed these issues by examining the role of chronic procrastination in health outcomes over time in which the hypothesized links of procrastination to health problems operate via stress and health behaviours.
Design:
Three-wave longitudinal study with 1-month intervals.
Methods:
Participants (N = 379) completed measures of trait procrastination at Time 1, and measures of health behaviours, stress and health problems at each time point, in a lab setting.
Results:
Procrastination and the health variables were inter-related in the expected directions across the three assessments. Chronic procrastination was positively associated with stress and negatively with health behaviours at each time point. Path analysis testing a cross-lagged longitudinal mediation model found an indirect relationship operating between procrastination and health problems via stress, after accounting for the contributions of conscientiousness and neuroticism.
Conclusions:
This research extends previous work by demonstrating that the links between chronic procrastination and poor health are accounted for mainly by higher stress, after accounting for other key traits, and that these associations are robust over time. The findings are discussed in terms of the importance of addressing habitual self-regulation failure for improving health.
... Other studies found procrastination to be associated with other unwanted internal experiences: for example, fear of negative evaluation [42] and fear of failure [43]. It has been suggested that individuals may procrastinate to avoid these unwanted experiences, such as fear and anxiety, when confronting aversive tasks [44,45]. ...
Procrastination is prevalent among students, as well as the general population, and has negative impacts on various domains. Several models aimed to understand factors associated with procrastination, with some suggesting that anxiety plays a significant role. Biological factors have been shown to contribute to individual differences in procrastination; however, little attention has been paid to the role of neuroendocrine factors on procrastination. The primary question addressed in the present study is whether neuroendocrine factors (testosterone and cortisol) moderate the association between state anxiety and procrastination. Eighty-eight participants (29 men; 32 women using oral contraceptives; and 27 women not using oral contraceptives and in their luteal phase) were tested for biomarkers and completed questionnaires. Results show that state anxiety is positively correlated with procrastination. Furthermore, testosterone levels moderate the correlation between state anxiety and procrastination. As testosterone levels drop, the positive correlation between state anxiety and procrastination becomes stronger, but when testosterone levels are higher, no significant association between state anxiety and procrastination is found. Cortisol levels do not moderate the relationship between state anxiety and procrastination. The role of neuroendocrine factors for psychological outcomes is discussed.
... Generally speaking, people who tend to procrastinate struggle with adaptive emotion regulation and place less value on the rewards of future outcomes. For example, they seldom use adaptive emotion regulation strategies (Eckert, et al., 2016), and focus more on short-term mood repair instead of long-term goals (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). However, people with high self-control implement goal-congruent behaviours by effectively regulating associated negative feelings and modulating the value of each action. ...
A holiday is a time of rest. However, the abrupt lifting of lockdowns in China made middle schools postpone their final exams to the end of the winter holiday. Chinese middle school students experienced an unprecedented holiday, in which they struggled between procrastinating and sticking to the review plan. This study thus investigated their academic procrastination within this extraordinary context. Prior studies also suggested the correlation among academic procrastination, time attitude and self-control. Therefore, we expected a mediating effect of self-control on the relationship between procrastination and time attitude. Initially, we used a questionnaire survey to obtain students’ self-reported data on procrastination, time attitude and self-control. Then, we implemented a case study to check students’ completion of the review plan in real settings. The results of both the survey and the case study indicated that Chinese middle school students demonstrated a greater tendency for academic procrastination. Additionally, self-control negatively correlated with academic procrastination, and self-control significantly mediated the relationship between academic procrastination and positive time attitudes. This study enriches the existing research with data from a novel situation, and supplies empirical evidence for teaching regulation and intervention.
... As previously stated by Rhodes and Dickau [35], the problem with procrastination is not the lack of good intention but execution. Also, procrastinating might be argued to be a present-oriented act of mood regulation (through the non-execution of behavior), which is then more or less unrelated to future planning [36]. In accordance with this theoretical understanding, a large proportion of the participants in this sample expressed a desire for regular dental attendance in the future, which indicates that an intention to attend regularly is present. ...
Delay of dental care is a problem for dental public health. The present study explored the relationship between procrastination and dental attendance, focusing on delay in seeking dental care. This hypothetical relation was compared to other avoidance-related factors affecting dental attendance. In addition, an inquiry into the reasons for delaying dental care was conducted. Students (n = 164) answered an internet-based questionnaire on socio-demographic factors, dental health, dental attendance, delay of dental care, reasons for the delay, procrastination (IPS), dental anxiety (MDAS), perceived stress (PSS) and oral health self-efficacy (OHSES). The study found no significant relation between procrastination and delay in dental care. However, procrastination was related differently to past, present, and future dental attendance and seemed to relate to oral health behavior. Delay of dental care was associated with higher dental anxiety and lower oral health self-efficacy. The cost of dental care was the most frequently given reason for the delay of dental care. Further research on the delay of dental care and dental attendance is warranted in understanding the behavior, implementing interventions, and improving the utilization of public dental care.
... On the contrary, university nursing students with low mindfulness and less FTP had a poor ability to regulate impulsive emotions and behaviors. Results of the previous study indicated that for procrastinators, low mindfulness may contribute to pessimistic mood and endanger physical health (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013;Sirois & Tosti, 2012). Additionally, FTP was a personal spiritual resource, usually aroused by a person when encountering adversity and the individual also becalmed resilient (Seginer, 2008). ...
Aim:
To explore the relationship between university nursing students' academic procrastination, mindfulness, and future time perspective.
Design:
A cross-sectional study.
Methods:
A total of 343 university nursing students recruited from eight provinces in China have reported procrastination characteristics through fulfilling an online website link. The main instruments involved Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), Zimbardo Time Perspective Scale, and Procrastination Assessment Scale (PASS).
Results:
Participants who self-assessed higher frequency and degree of academic procrastination tended to possess lower future time consciousness, and lower mindfulness. Mindfulness served as a mediation effect between future time perspective and academic procrastination. The study indicates that weakening an individual's procrastination can be alleviated through future time awareness and mindfulness. Concentrating on influencing factors, strengthening nursing student's future time perspective, and practicing mindfulness training could assist educators to decrease students' procrastination intentions and behaviours.
... One of the most commonly used definitions is that procrastination is the irrational, unnecessary, and involuntary postponement of a planned course of action despite the negative consequences that such a delay will eventually have [10,[16][17][18]. It is a behavior that displays the contradiction between the desire to achieve a goal and the lack of persistence in carrying out the necessary steps to achieve it. ...
Academic procrastination is a complex behavior that hampers the cyclical process of selfregulation
in learning, impeding the flow of actions necessary to achieve the goals and sub-goals
that students have set out to attain. It has a high frequency of occurrence and has been linked to
lessened student performance and a decrease in psychological and physical well-being. The objective
of this study is to analyze the psychometric characteristics of a new academic procrastination scale
MAPS-15 (Multidimensional Academic Procrastination Scale) applicable in self-regulated learning
environments through a cross-validation study (exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor
analysis). The sample consisted of 1289 students from a distance/online university, with a wide
age range and sociocultural variability. The students completed self-reported online questionnaires
on two dates: during the university access and adaptation phase and before the first period of
compulsory exams. One-, two- and three-factor structures were tested as well as a second-order
structure. The results support a three-dimensional structure of MAPS-15: core procrastination, a
pure dimension of procrastinating behavior and difficulty in carrying out the action; poor time
management, a dimension related to time organization and perceived control over time; and work
disconnection, a dimension conceptually related to lack of persistence, and work interruptions.
... Cabe, por tanto, evaluar este aspecto en profunidad para poder indagar acerca de los motivos que llevan a los estudiantes a dilatar en el tiempo sus tareas, a pesar de las consecuencias negativas que les suponen este proceso. Resulta evidente que este proceso de procrastinación supone una conducta poco adaptativa e inadecuada, ya que provoca desventajas en el individuo y no le permite desenvolverse de manera eficaz en la sociedad (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Uno de los retos de los investigadores actualmente es el de indagar acerca de las causas por las que los individuos tienden a procrastinar porque, solo de ese modo, se podrán tener indicios sobre la manera más efectiva de intervenir, con la intención de reducir, o incluso eliminar, la dilación de las tareas planificadas, lo que conllevaría, como hemos dicho previamente, a un rendimiento más eficaz a nivel tanto personal como social. ...
La procrastinación es una conducta habitual entre los estudiantes de diferentes niveles académicos que se relaciona con numerosas consecuencias negativas. El objetivo del presente trabajo es estimar la fiabilidad de la Academic Procrastination Scale-Short Form (APS-SF) mediante un meta-análisis de generalización de la fiabilidad. Se realizó una búsqueda sistemática en cinco bases de datos y se revisaron las referencias del artículo original de validación de la APS-SF. La estimación combinada de la fiabilidad de la prueba se realizó mediante un metanálisis de efectos aleatorios sobre 25 muestras independientes pertenecientes a 22 publicaciones. Los alfas de Cronbach se utilizaron como tamaño del efecto y se normalizaron sus distribuciones mediante la transformación de Bonett. La heterogeneidad fue evaluada a través de la Q de Cochran y el estadístico I2. El riesgo de sesgo de publicación se valoró mediante el gráfico de embudo y el test de regresión de Egger. La fiabilidad combinada estimada es de .89 (IC 95% = .87, .90). Los análisis de meta-regresión y ANOVA muestran que la edad es un moderador estadísticamente significativo. No se observa riesgo de sesgo de publicación. Este trabajo muestra como la APS-SF es una herramienta fiable para la medición de la procrastinación académica.
... Procrastination could be a huge threat to academic achievement because of the continuous delay in completing tasks, which in an online environment can be particularly challenging due to less learning interaction, less engagement and less clear behavioural learning in online course platforms (Melgaard et al., 2022). Studies have found that procrastination is linked to negative feelings about learning experiences (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013;Sirois & Pychyl, 2016), perceived ineffectiveness of online teaching, and could be a risk factor for students dropping out (Hong, Lee, & Ye, 2021). Therefore, it could be of relevance to examine the role of motivation and perceived COVID-19 challenges during online learning on students' procrastination. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has caused many changes in educational settings which have been quite demanding. Shifting to online education has resulted in many erratic changes for students, which could have threatened their learning motivation. Therefore, this study examined perceived challenges, learning motivation and academic procrastination during the COVID-19 pandemic among 458 students of public and non-public universities in Albania, and the data were collected through online questionnaires. The findings reveal a strong relationship between academic procrastination, perceived challenges and learning motivation. Furthermore, a multiple linear regression model revealed that academic procrastination was influenced by perceived challenges and motivation. Sociodemographic variables, such as age and gender, were examined. The results are relevant for understanding learning motivational processes and critical variables that influence students’ procrastination, academic achievement and adjustment. Received: 21 October 2022 / Accepted: 29 December 2022 / Published: 5 January 2023
... Self-regulation includes the processes necessary to mobilise cognitive, emotional, and behavioural resources to achieve a desired goal (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996). Procrastination would be a strategy which permits to individuals to repair their negative feelings at the moment (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013;Tice & Bratslavsky, 2000). More precisely, it appears most often when the task is viewed as lacking immediate reward (Schouwenburg & Groenewoud, 2001), or as aversive: i.e., boring, tedious, or difficult (e.g., Blunt & Pychyl, 2000;Lay, 1992). ...
Procrastination could be conceptualized as a self-regulation failure. However, it is still not clear what type of self-regulation processes are precisely underlying the students’ tendency to procrastinate. The main objective of our study was therefore to predict variations in academic procrastination by considering two constructs related to self-regulation: motivational factors (i.e., achievement goals), and learning strategies: deep learning cognitive strategies -Elaboration and Critical thinking-, effort regulation management. The results of an online study on 249 first-year humanities and social sciences French students showed that 30% of the variance in procrastination was predicted positively by avoidance goals and negatively by effort regulation management. The effort regulation management strategy alone contributed to 24% of the variance in procrastination. Furthermore, the results confirmed the negative relationship between academic performance and procrastination tendency. Added together, these results support the conceptualization of procrastination as a self-regulation failure and specially of learning such as effort regulation management. Results are discussed in relation to possible interventions that aim to reduce procrastination in order to promote academic success and students’ well-being.
... In addition, theories about procrastination also suggested that the decision to do a task or not have association with the task aversiveness (S. S. Zhang, Liu, et al., 2019) such that people would procrastinate for short-term mood repair to avoid the instant unpleasant feelings induced by the tasks (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). This study took the task aversiveness into consideration and further proposed that the task aversiveness would decrease after the stimulation. ...
Procrastination, an irrational delay of intended action, has caused harms in many life domains. Although procrastination has a robust link with the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), the causal role of DLPFC in this behavior remains unclear. A recent temporal decision model (TDM) proposed that people pit task aversiveness against outcome value to decide to procrastinate or not. In short, people would procrastinate if task aversiveness has a stronger effect than outcome value. According to the TDM, the DLPFC might reduce procrastination by inhibiting task aversiveness, or amplifying outcome value, or both. The present study tested those possibilities by investigating whether brain stimulation on DLPFC changes procrastination and its underlying mechanism. One hundred and three participants with high procrastination were randomly assigned to receive either active or sham stimulation over the left (active, n = 27; sham, n = 27) or right (active, n = 25; sham, n = 24) DLPFC and rated task aversiveness, outcome value and task-execution willingness toward their self-planned real-life tasks before and after stimulation. We found that active stimulation of the left DLPFC significantly boosted task-execution willingness. This left DLPFC stimulation also changed subjects' evaluation of tasks such that decreasing task aversiveness and increasing outcome value. Causal mediation analyses further revealed that stimulation of the left DLPFC enhances willingness for task completion through increasing outcome value. Overall these results provide the first evidence that neuromodulation of the left DLPFC could improve timely task-execution willingness via increasing the outcome value, which offers new insights for treating individuals with severe or even pathological procrastination. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... Previous research has found that helicopter parenting negatively affects children's development, deteriorates their mental health, and causes anxiety and depression [25]. According to the short-term mood regulation theory, procrastination is a regulatory strategy to cope with anxiety; when individuals are averse to the task they are facing, they develop negative emotions such as anxiety and resort to procrastination as a way of avoiding the task of regulating this short-term negative mood [26]. Therefore, anxiety generated by helicopter parenting may also contribute to procrastination. ...
Background:
The family environment is essential for elementary school children's development. With smartphone penetration into all aspects of people's lives, how parenting affects children's behavior may show new patterns.
Objective:
This study constructed a mediated moderation model, focusing on the mediating role of child self-control and parental phubbing to clarify the relationship between helicopter parenting (over-parenting) and child procrastination and its mechanisms.
Methods:
The Smartphone Addiction Scale for Chinese Adults, Brief Self-Control Scale, Over-Parenting Questionnaire, and Short General Procrastination Scale were employed to investigate 562 elementary school-age children and their parents.
Results:
After data analysis, this study showed the following: (1) helicopter parenting was significantly and positively related to child self-control, child procrastination, and parental smartphone use; (2) child self-control partially mediated the relationship between helicopter parenting and child procrastination; and (3) pathways between helicopter parenting and child self-control were moderated by mother-phubbing behavior.
Conclusion:
These findings inform parents of their roles in family education.
... Notably, problematic users of social networking sites experience more problems with emotion regulation than non-problematic users (Hormes et al., 2014;Spada & Marino, 2017). Procrastination can be viewed as a failure of emotion regulation, which results in an individual's desire to temporarily feel good (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013;Wypych et al., 2018). Procrastination may result from negative emotions, such as fear of failure (Haghbin et al., 2012;Schouwenburg, 1992;Schraw et al., 2007) or discomfort intolerance (Harrington, 2005). ...
The current scientific literature lacks studies on the relationship between problematic internet use (PIU) and procrastination, especially regarding the mediating mechanisms underlying this relationship. The present study examined the association between procrastination and PIU, as well as determining the mediating roles of tolerance for ambiguity, reappraisal, and suppression. The conceptual model was tested using data collected from 434 Iranian college students. The participants completed a number of psychometric scales assessing procrastination, PIU, tolerance for ambiguity, reappraisal, and suppression. Structural equation modeling was used to test the hypothesized model. Results showed that PIU, tolerance for ambiguity, and suppression were positively associated with procrastination, and that there was a negative association between reappraisal and procrastination. Moreover, the mediation analysis indicated that tolerance for ambiguity, reappraisal, and suppression fully mediated the association between PIU and procrastination. However, it is also possible to interpret the results as suggesting that PIU is unimportant as a predictor for procrastination once mediators are controlled for.
... والدظىٍف الللم (Pekrun, Ferenzel, Goetz & Perry, 2007,P.16) . Rebetez et al.,2018 الىعي واهسفاض ) ( Watson,2001 ( والىمالُت ) Rozental and Carlbring,2014) Sirois and Pychyl, 2013;Pychyl and Sirois, 2016 ) . ...
... Listening to my colleagues' stories, I was struck by how often a kind or, more often, a cruel word of feedback would stick with a writer, sometimes shutting down their desire or even their ability to write for days or weeks. I grew curious about why graduate students procrastinate and delay writing and when I learned that procrastination is an emotion management problem rather than a time management problem (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), my colleagues' experiences made sense. I became even more interested in how writing groups seem to support productivity and the emotion regulation necessary to make progress with the multi-year writing project of a dissertation. ...
Building rapport with participants at the outset of an interview is a common goal for researchers. Creating rapport is critical for trustworthiness of interview data and for building a supportive environment for participants. This paper brings the research on memes together with elicitation techniques to present a novel approach to rapport-building in interviews through meme elicitation. Memes provide a focal point for shared attention and their humorous nature offers opportunities for light-hearted segue into deeper emotional discussions. Participants report finding the meme elicitation process an effective icebreaker and a meaningful entry point for discussions. Personal reflections and suggestions for ethically engaging with the process are presented.
... 43 Individuals with high levels of negative affect focus more on short-term goals that benefit them immediately than long-term goals that bring them delayed rewards. 86 More specifically, instead of pursuing the long-term benefits of going to bed on time, they are eager to deal with the current negative affect. Therefore, they may divert their attention to activities that make them feel happy (eg, playing online games, watching videos, and chatting with friends) and delay bedtime. ...
Purpose:
Although bedtime procrastination is prevalent during the COVID-19 pandemic, little is known about the relationship between COVID-19 related emotional stress and bedtime procrastination. Therefore, we investigated the correlation between COVID-19 related emotional stress and bedtime procrastination and examined the mediating role of negative affect and the moderating role of rumination among Chinese college students.
Methods:
A multicenter, cross-sectional, and quantitative research was conducted in China from August 11, 2021, to August 27, 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic. The sampling method used in the study is the convenience sampling method. A total of 913 college students (aged 18-24 years) participated and completed online self-reported questionnaires. Their levels of COVID-19 related emotional stress, negative affect, rumination, and bedtime procrastination were measured by the Coronavirus Stress Measure, the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale, the Ruminative Responses Scale, and the Bedtime Procrastination Scale, respectively. The data were analyzed using Pearson correlations and moderated mediation analysis.
Results:
COVID-19 related emotional stress was positively associated with bedtime procrastination. Meanwhile, the association could be mediated by negative affect (Effect = 0.33, Boot 95% CI = [0.26, 0.39]) and moderated by rumination (Effect = 0.05, Boot 95% CI = [0.03, 0.07]) through its moderation in the link between COVID-19 related emotional stress and negative affect. This indicated that the mediation effect of negative affect was stronger in college students with high levels of rumination than in those with low levels of rumination.
Conclusion:
The findings of this study shed light on a correlation between COVID-19 related emotional stress and bedtime procrastination. Moreover, this study suggests that interventions could be targeted at alleviating negative affect and rumination to reduce the bedtime procrastination of college students with high levels of COVID-19 related emotional stress.
... Blouin-Hudon & Pychyl (2015: 51), for example, point out that research on the role of future selfcontinuity with respect to procrastination suggests that "procrastinators almost exclusively adopt a present-focused perspective and rarely project themselves into the future. Since future self-continuity is important for guiding appropriate emotional responses and daily goal-oriented behaviors, it follows that procrastination might be explained in part by a fragmented relationship between a person's present and future self" (see also Sirois & Pychyl 2013;Jackson et al., 2003;Specter & Ferrari, 2000). In a more philosophical vein, Tappolet (cf. ...
We tend to seek immediate gratification at the expense of long-term reward. In fact, the more distant a reward is from the present moment?the more we tend to discount it. This phenomenon is known as temporal discounting. Engaging in mental time travel plausibly enables subjects to overcome temporal discounting, but it is unclear how, exactly, it does so. In this paper, we develop a framework designed to explain the effects of mental time travel on temporal discounting by showing how the subject?s temporally extended self enables mental time travel to generate appropriate emotions that, in turn, via metacognitive monitoring and control, generate appropriate behaviours. Building on existing approaches we outline an initial framework, involving the concepts of emotion and the temporally extended self, to explain the effects of mental time travel on resisting temptation. We then show that this initial framework has difficulty explaining the effects of mental time travel on a closely related phenomenon, namely, overcoming procrastination. We next argue that, in order to explain these effects, the concept of emotion needs to be refined, and the concept of metacognition needs to be added to the framework: emotions involve an action-readiness component, which, through metacognitive monitoring and control, can enable the subject to resist temptation and overcome procrastination. Finally, we respond to an objection to our account?based on the somatic marker hypothesis?such that metacognition is not necessary to account for the role of emotions in decision-making.
... Because it is such a prevalent and problematic behavior, research on the predictors of procrastination tendencies has important treatment implications. Sirois and Pychyl (2013) proposed that procrastination is an avoidance response to experiencing negative affective states while engaging in or anticipating future unpleasant tasks. In previous research, depressed and anxious moods do in fact lead to procrastination and short-term emotion regulation efforts at the cost of completing necessary tasks (e.g., Baumeister et al., 2007;Constantin et al., 2018). ...
Procrastination is common among college students, involving irrational delay of task completion. Theorists understand procrastination to be an avoidance response to negative emotions. Past research suggests that depression and anxiety predict procrastination. However, only limited research has examined the unique effects of shame and guilt-self-conscious emotions-on procrastination, and no studies have examined potential mechanisms. Depressive rumination, the repetitive and maladaptive thinking about a negative event composed of brooding and reflective pondering, is uniquely predicted by shame-but not guilt-and also predicts greater procrastination. Thus, the current cross-sectional survey study examined (1) whether shame and guilt uniquely predict procrastination and (2) whether depressive rumination mediates those effects in a collegiate sample. Results supported a model wherein brooding and reflective pondering mediate the unique relationship between shame and procrastination. A second model suggested that guilt leads to less procrastination directly but greater procrastination indirectly via increased reflective pondering. Theoretical and clinical implications of the current findings are discussed.
... In conditions where the strength of the impulsive system increases, the reflective system may fail to inhibit and override impulses, whose "activation level exceeds the critical threshold necessary for the execution of selfcontrolled behavior" (Hofmann et al., 2009, p. 165). This capacity to successfully deal with problematic desires that conflict with one's goals is crucial for task completion and procrastination (Sirois and Pychyl, 2013;Pychyl and Sirois, 2016). Indeed, self-control is negatively related to the general procrastination tendency (Wijaya and Tori, 2018). ...
Procrastination is a common phenomenon. With the increasing ubiquity of new media, research has started to investigate the ways in which these technologies are used as alternatives to task engagement. This paper extends the literature by examining procrastinatory uses of social media, instant messaging, and online shopping with respect to boredom proneness, self-control, and impulsivity among German and Turkish samples. Regression analyses revealed that boredom proneness, self-control, and the perseverance facet of impulsivity are especially significant predictors of online procrastination in both samples. The results between the two studies differ in terms of impulsivity. The findings of this paper highlight the thus far understudied role of boredom proneness and various aspects of impulsivity in online procrastination, and demonstrate that social media procrastination, instant messaging procrastination, and shopping procrastination tendencies likely have distinct underlying mechanisms.
... In contrast to time management, procrastination is defined as "the voluntary delay of an intended and necessary and/or [personally] important activity, despite expecting potential negative consequences that outweigh the positive consequences of the delay" (Klingsieck, 2013, p. 26). It is often considered as self-regulatory failure (Kim et al., 2020;Steel, 2007), a maladaptive form of self-regulation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013;Won & Yu, 2018), misregulation (Baumeister et al., 1994), or a misuse of time (Wolters et al., 2017). Procrastination is related to lower academic functioning and achievement (Ferrari, 2004;Kim & Seo, 2013;Park & Sperling, 2012;Steel, 2007;Won & Yu, 2018). ...
This present investigation used a person-centered approach to identifying student profiles based on homework time, time management, and procrastination. Using the data from 541 eighth-grade students, latent profile analysis yielded four distinct profiles: Inefficient Learners, Moderate Learners, Efficient Learners, and Minimalists. In addition, findings indicated that gender predicted profile membership; girls were more likely than boys to be in the Efficient Learners and Moderate Learners than in the Inefficient Learners. The Efficient Learners completed the most homework and attained the highest scores on mathematics achievement. The Minimalists completed the least amount of homework, and the Minimalist and the Inefficient Learners scored the lowest on mathematics achievement. Implications for educational practices and further research are discussed in light of these results.
... This process model proposes two primary causes of procrastination. The first proposed cause-task-induced negative moods-is based on the idea that procrastination is an emotion-regulation process, an idea articulated by Sirois and Pychyl (2013) in their temporal mood-repair theory. Specifically, thoughts of performing an academic task can trigger negative affect ("Ugh, I dread this"), especially if the task is aversive ("I dislike writing papers"). ...
Although academic procrastination is prevalent, few interventions targeting it have been rigorously tested. We propose a novel approach to developing effective classroom interventions for academic procrastination, based on the ideas that changing complex behaviors requires a holistic, multipronged approach and that intervention research must embrace objective measures of procrastination behavior. We illustrate what such intervention efforts may look like by deriving some easily implementable techniques from a simple process model of self-control, which characterizes procrastination as a goal-management failure resulting from a need to repair negative emotion triggered by impending academic tasks.
The current study intended to examine the association between emotion regulation (i.e., cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression) and academic performance in university students. In this correlational study, a sample of 300 (men=119; women=181) university students (BS and MS programs) in the age range of 18-29 years (M=21.45; SD=2.14) was selected randomly from a public sector university in Faisalabad city, Pakistan. The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (Gross & John, 2003) was used to assess emotion regulation whereas the percentages of obtained marks in the last semester/degree program served as the measure of the academic performance of the participants. The results depicted a significant correlation between emotion regulation and academic performance indicating a significant positive association between cognitive reappraisal and academic performance while, a significant negative association between expressive suppression and academic performance in university students. Moreover, cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression were found to be significant predictors of academic performance. Besides the significant implications of this study highlighting the role of relevant policymakers, university authorities, students’ counselors, and mental health professionals, suggestions for future studies are discussed based on the current findings.
Background: Emotion regulation involves the modulation of emotional experiences to facilitate goal attainment. Conversely, emotional difficulties are a pattern of emotional experiences and expressions that interfere with goal-directed behavior. Objectives: Our aim was to determine the relationship between emotional regulation difficulties with procrastination, life satisfaction, and resilience to distress. Methods: The sample consisted of 366 individuals from the general population, with a mean age of 33 years (SD=15) and 62.1% female. Results: Procrastination was positively related to the six emotional distress regulation strategies and negative affect (NA), and negatively related to positive affect (PA). Life satisfaction and distress endurance are negatively related to the identified regulation strategies and NA, and positively related to PA. Procrastination, once NA and PA are controlled is predicted by lack of clarity and lack of goals. Satisfaction with life and resistance to distress are predicted by less lack of strategies. Conclusions: It is concluded that of the sociodemographic variables only age is relevant to procrastination, given that people younger than 21 years score higher on this construct. Procrastination is positively related to the six dimensions of difficulties in emotion regulation, where it is predicted by lack of goals and lack of clarity, however, satisfaction with life and resistance to discomfort by less lack of strategies.
p>The article is aims to clarify the features of relationship between volitional regulation and procrastination. The results of an empirical study obtained on a student sample are presented. The study involved 1-4 years university students of Lomonosov Moscow State University (N=304) from sociology, chemistry and mechanics and mathematics faculties (average age 19.58 years old, st. dev. 1.57). The following techniques were used: the formalized self-rating technique of V.A. Ivannikov, E.V. Aidman, "Action Control Scale" by J. Kuhl in adaptation of S.А. Shapkin, Purpose in life test of Crumbaugh and Maholick in adaptation of D.A. Leontiev and General procrastination scale (C. Lay) in adaptation of O.S. Vindecker and M.V. Ostanina. The results show that students with more developed volitional regulation are less prone to procrastination. There were no significant differences in the indicators of volitional regulation and procrastination between students of different courses and faculties.</p
Aims and rationale
This study aimed to increase understanding of academic procrastination (AP), as well as indicating strategies which might reduce it.
Methods
During phase one, semi-structured interviews were carried out with post-16 students (N=20). Template analysis (TA) was then used to analyse the interview transcripts. General themes were derived which formed the basis of phase two surveys, which were completed by post-16 students (N=343), teachers (N=52), and educational psychologists (EPs, N=43). Quantitative methods, including the Hochberg’s GT2 and the Games-Howell procedure, were then employed to compare the mean responses of each group on the survey items.
Findings and implications
Support for the constructs making up temporal motivation theory (TMT) was found among all three groups of respondents. However, the respondents also agreed with items relating to additional themes which emerged during phase one, such as emotion, and the role of the teacher. Similarly, support for TMT was observed when it came to strategies aimed at tackling procrastination. Again, the role of emotion was highlighted, as were potential issues with designing and implementing an intervention. Nevertheless, strategies were suggested which are outlined in the discussion, and arranged in relation to each of the themes addressed in the surveys.
Limitations
Sample sizes were relatively small, and convenience sampling reduced the likelihood of obtaining a random sample. Template analysis was carried out by one researcher, increasing the likelihood of subjective interpretation.
Conclusion
Temporal motivation theory provides a useful – but not entirely comprehensive – theoretical model for understanding academic procrastination (AP) among post-16 students in the UK. Students, teachers and EPs have useful insights into why AP occurs, and each group believes that practical strategies may help to overcome it.
Purpose
The aim of this paper is to offer insight into procrastination over the past decade using bibliometric analysis to gauge the evolving journey of this concept. Thus, the concept of procrastination is examined in terms of authors, affiliating institutions, countries, citation patterns, bibliometric coupling and co-occurrence analysis.
Design/methodology/approach
For exploring the research work on procrastination, the bibliometric analysis was conducted for co-authorship, co-occurrence of keywords, citation network analysis, most influential authors, document and country wise bibliometric coupling by taking 630 publications between the years 2010–2020 into consideration. Software like VOSviewer and Tableau was used for result analysis. In addition, the content analysis was used for the top research papers amongst the eleven different clusters.
Findings
The study reveals the nature and direction of research over the past decade on procrastination. The most prominent journals, authors, articles, institutions, countries and keywords have been identified. The topic shows an upward trend of research as no consolidation or maturity in the pattern is observed. Frontiers In Psychology had the highest number of publications followed by Personality And Individual Differences. The top three contributors are Sirosis, F.M., Feng, T. and Ferrari, J.R. The country-wise analysis shows the USA leading followed by Germany, China and Canada. UiT The Arctic University of Norway was having the most significant contribution followed by The Ohio State University, DePaul University and Tel Hai Academic College. The most prominent themes and documents are reported. In addition, the content analysis depicted the need to conduct the research work on the certain themes which may usher the researchers towards more conceptual clarity and strategizing.
Originality/value
Sufficient discourse and relevant literature are available about procrastination, bedtime procrastination and academic procrastination and related areas. However, procrastination is becoming a universal issue, especially in the field of human resources and workforce development. This paper attempts to facilitate the policy-makers, regulators, researchers and practitioners to explore allied and less explored areas of procrastination that need future investigation.
Background
Academic procrastination is a complex phenomenon of purposeful delay which university students are well aware of. Furthermore, it has become more important during the Covid-19 pandemic as with computer-based learning. Despite its bad reputation and necessity of self-control in the course of online education, there is a lack of research on academic procrastination among students in Turkey.
Methods
In this study the Turkish version of Tuckman Procrastination Scale (Tv-TPS) was conducted on a sample consisting of 285 medical students from Turkey as a measurement of procrastination and then the relations between their procrastination level, their gender and academic achievements are investigated.
Results
The results indicated a negative correlation between the procrastination level and exam results. Unexpectedly, five questions of the scale appeared to be loaded on a different factor which showed the highest correlation coefficient with the exam results.
Conclusions
Apart from the relations between procrastination and academic achievement, these findings implied that the population and new environmental factors can be an important indicator for the determination of procrastination.
Procrastination is a form of self-regulation failure that can have significant negative consequences for individuals. Research evidence indicates that mindfulness can be beneficial for self-regulation, and also procrastination is associated with low levels of mindfulness. Therefore, the current study tested the effectiveness of mindfulness training in reducing procrastination among students. Thirty-six procrastinating students were screened using the cluster sampling method and the multidimensional scale of academic procrastination. Participants were randomly assigned to either mindfulness training or wait-list control groups. Questionnaires related to procrastination were used to collect data at the beginning and end of the study. The mindfulness intervention was performed in eight 90-min weekly sessions for the training group to compare it with a wait-list control group. Analyses of covariance and follow-up comparisons between the mindfulness training and the wait-list control groups pre-and 1-week post-intervention revealed large effect sizes, with the mindfulness training group showing higher scores on self-regulation and mindfulness scales. They also reduced procrastination behavior and showed lower scores on negative emotions and perceived negative consequences. Our results indicate that mindfulness training may be an effective strategy to help students improve their self-regulation and reduce procrastination.
Procrastination is regarded as a prevalent problematic behavior that impairs people’s physical and mental health. Although previous studies have indicated that trait rumination is robustly positively correlated with procrastination, it remains unknown about the neural substrates underlying the relationship between trait rumination and procrastination. To address this issue, we used voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) approaches to explore the neural basis of the relationship between trait rumination and procrastination. Our behavior results found that trait rumination was significantly positively correlated to procrastination, while the VBM analysis showed that trait rumination was negatively correlated with gray matter volume of the insula. Furthermore, the RSFC results revealed a negative association of the left insula-lmSFG (left medial superior frontal gyrus) functional connectivity with trait rumination. More importantly, the mediation analysis showed that trait rumination could completely mediate the relationship between left insula-lmSFG functional connectivity and procrastination. These results suggest that the left insula-lmSFG functional connectivity involved in emotion regulation modulates the association between trait rumination and procrastination, which provides neural evidence for the relationship between trait rumination and procrastination.
As a transdiagnostic vulnerability factor, low distress tolerance predicts a wide variety of psychopathology. The current article extends past research, which has typically adopted an individual-differences approach, by articulating a social-cognitive theory of momentary distress tolerance. This new model intentionally separates actions taken to remain engaged with distress (i.e., tolerance) from avoidance/escape actions associated with intolerance, and highlights willingness to experience distress as central to tolerance. In addition, self-efficacy for tolerating distress is highlighted as a central predictor of the tolerance/intolerance process, influenced by distress intensity and momentary psychological resources (e.g., hunger, tiredness, degree of life stressors, social support). Finally, the model also explains how repeated experiences of distress tolerance and/or intolerance coalesce into a global self-perception indicative of individual differences in distress tolerance. Reasons why the proposed model has the potential to overcome current challenges in distress tolerance research are reviewed, and future directions for both research and clinical practice are highlighted.
The aim of the study was to investigate the predictive value of adaptive and maladaptive dimensions of perfectionism for academic procrastination in university students and the possible moderating role of different dimensions of academic hardiness. The total sample was consisted of 966 undergraduate students from various departments. They were asked to answer three self-reported questionnaires as regards their perfectionism, procrastination, and hardiness in academic settings. The results showed that adaptive perfectionism is a negative predictor of academic procrastination, while the maladaptive perfectionism is a positive predictor. Two of the three dimensions of academic hardiness, namely commitment and challenge, were found to be significant moderators of the relation between maladaptive perfectionism and academic procrastination, while control was a significant moderator of the relationship between adaptive perfectionism and students’ academic procrastination. The results indicate that finding the academic tasks as highly challenging and being highly committed to personal accomplishment seems to play a moderating role by leading to higher procrastination only for those who feel a high discrepancy between their personal standards and their accomplishments. Having, though, high personal standards and a high level of control seems to reduce academic procrastination.
Bedtime procrastination is defined as the volitional delay of going to bed, without any external circumstances causing the delay, and is associated with inadequate sleep. Alleviating bedtime procrastination is an important target for interventions promoting adequate sleep, yet the correlates of bedtime procrastination are poorly understood. This study examined (1) correlates of bedtime procrastination, and (2) strength and direction of the association between bedtime procrastination and sleep outcomes. Six databases (CINAHL, EMBASE, PsychINFO, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science) were searched from inception to September 2021 against pre-determined eligibility criteria. Forty-four studies were included (GRADE = low). Meta-analysis revealed that bedtime procrastination had a moderate negative association with self-control (z = −0.39; CI: −0.45, −0.29) and a moderate positive association with evening chronotype (z = 0.43; CI: 0.32, 0.48). Furthermore, bedtime procrastination was moderately negatively associated with sleep duration (z = −0.31; CI: −0.37, −0.24), sleep quality (z = −0.35; CI: −0.42, −0.27) and moderately positively associated with daytime fatigue (z = 0.32; CI: 0.25, 0.38). Further high-quality studies are needed to identify causal relationships between bedtime procrastination and correlates, as well as bedtime procrastination and sleep. Future work will guide the development of interventions targeting bedtime procrastination for improved sleep outcomes.
Study registration
PROSPERO registration number CRD42021248891.
Temporary school lockdowns and physical distancing practices due to the Covid‐19 pandemic have led to the risk of problematic social media use (PSU) in students who need to socialize. The effect of PSU on students' academic commitment and the mechanisms that moderate this effect spark interest in researchers. For this reason, the present study sought answers to the following two research questions: (a) Whether PSU positively predicts academic procrastination (AP), (b) Whether this relation is moderated by self‐control and gender. Employing the additive multiple moderation model, the study was carried out with 370 Turkish middle school students (female: 65.1%, Mage: 12.82). The findings indicate that PSU positively affects AP. The positive effect of PSU on AP is higher in boys than in girls. Self‐control acts as a buffering moderator in the positive effect of PSU on AP. As students' self‐control levels increase, the positive effect of PSU on AP weakens. Self‐control plays a greater role as a buffering moderator in girls than in boys. Regarding the context of middle school students' PSU and AP, the results extend the literature, which states that boys tend to act more impulsively. Also, this study adds new empirical evidence to the literature regarding the importance of high levels of self‐control in minimizing the negative effects of PSU, which has become more common among middle school students after the Covid‐19 pandemic, on AP.
This study investigates the relationship among defense styles and learning through academic procrastination and psychological well-being. The sample comprises 628 social science students from a Greek university. Path analysis is used to explore associations and interactions among the variables. The results show that academic procrastination and psychological well-being mediate the relationship between defense styles and approaches to learning, indicating the expected direct and indirect effects. Defense styles are directly related to approaches to learning. Mature defense styles are associated with learning through psychological well-being in a positive way, and immature defense styles are associated with learning through academic procrastination in a negative way. This study supports the current line of research in associations between defense styles and learning and the importance of linking mental health variables with learning.
Procrastination refers to an irrationally delay for intended courses of action despite of anticipating a negative consequence due to this delay. Previous studies tried to reveal the neural substrates of procrastination in terms of connectome-based biomarkers. Based on this, we proposed a unified triple brain network model for procrastination and pinpointed out what challenges we are facing in understanding neural mechanism of procrastination. Specifically, based on neuroanatomical features, the unified triple brain network model proposed that connectome-based underpinning of procrastination could be ascribed to the abnormalities of self-control network (i.e., dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, DLPFC), emotion-regulation network (i.e., orbital frontal cortex, OFC), and episodic prospection network (i.e., para-hippocampus cortex, PHC). Moreover, based on the brain functional features, procrastination had been attributed to disruptive neural circuits on FPN (frontoparietal network)-SCN (subcortical network) and FPN-SAN (salience network), which led us to hypothesize the crucial roles of interplay between these networks on procrastination in unified triple brain network model. Despite of these findings, poor interpretability and computational model limited further understanding for procrastination from theoretical and neural perspectives. On balance, the current study provided an overview to show current progress on the connectome-based biomarkers for procrastination, and proposed the integrative neurocognitive model of procrastination.
In Sample 1, 46 procrastinators compared with 52 nonprocrastinators claimed lower self-esteem, greater public self-consciousness and social anxiety, and a stronger tendency toward self-handicapping. In Sample 2, 48 procrastinators compared with 54 nonprocrastinators reported a weaker tendency toward seeking self-identity information but a stronger tendency toward a diffuse-identity style, yet there were no significant differences in verbal and abstract thinking abilities. Further research must provide evidence for persistent procrastination as a personality disorder that includes anxiety, avoidance, and a fear of evaluation of ability.
When an attractive action opportunity has been forgone, individuals tend to decline a substantially less attractive current opportunity in the same action domain, even though, in an absolute sense, it still has positive value. The hypothesis that continued inaction (inaction inertia) occurs in the service of avoiding anticipated regret was tested. In Experiments 1 and 2, when repeated contact with the forgone opportunity (and, hence, the experience of regret) was made unavoidable the tendency toward subsequent inaction decreased. The inaction inertia effect was also reduced when avoidance costs were increased (Experiment 3) or when the initial reason for avoidance was removed (Experiment 4). Experiment 4 included a thought-listing task that provided direct evidence for the role of regret in producing inaction inertia.
For five consecutive days, participants listed daily tasks they intended to complete. Recall of listed tasks served as the primary dependent variable. Characteristics of the task, including whether or not the task was actually completed, did not, in general, predict recall. The one exception was that the rated importance of the task to one's family did increase the likelihood of recall. Individual differences in avoidant procrastination were negatively related to the likelihood of recalling listed tasks. Avoidant procrastination also was related (positively) to false positive rates, the degree to which individuals "recalled" tasks that they had not listed the previous day. These findings suggest that procrastinators may have general cognitive processing strategies that are different from non-procrastinators. However, further research is needed to explore the information processing abilities of people who delay completing tasks.
An 18-item Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory was developed in Study 1 and related to trait procrastination and negative affect. The research participants were 208 university students. Procrastinatory cognitions were found to mediate trait procrastination-negative affect relations. In Study 2,66 university students completed the Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory in terms of anticipated ruminations over the next three weeks (Time 1), and in terms of past ruminations experienced in that period, three weeks later at Time 2. The two assessments of procrastinatory cognitions demonstrated high stability. Trait procrastination was positively associated with procrastinatory cognitions at Time 1 and Time 2. Cognitions were related to self-reported dilatory behavior and to negative affect obtained at Time 2. The usefulness of the Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory was discussed and suggestions for future research were made.
The role of autonomous self-regulation as a predictor of academic procrastination was assessed. French-Canadian students from a junior college (N = 498) completed the Academic Motivation Scale as well as an academic procrastination scale and other measures (anxiety, self-esteem, and depression) that have been found to be related to fear of failure. Correlation results indicated that students with intrinsic reasons for pursuing academic tasks procrastinated less than those with less autonomous reasons (external regulation and amotivation). Regression results indicated that the measures of depression, self-esteem, and anxiety accounted for 14% of the variance in academic procrastination, whereas the self-regulation variables accounted for 25%. These results support the notion that procrastination is a motivational problem that involves more than poor time management skills or trait laziness.
Procrastination is variously described as harmful, innocuous, or even beneficial. Two longitudinal studies examined procrastination among students. Procrastinators reported lower stress and less illness than nonprocrastinators early in the semester, but they reported higher stress and more illness late in the term, and overall they were sicker. Procrastinators also received lower grades on all assignments. Procrastination thus appears to be a self-defeating behavior pattern marked by short-term benefits and long-term costs.
Three studies examined the motivational implications of thinking about how things could have been worse. It was hypothesized that when these downward counterfactuals yield negative affect, through consideration of the possibility of a negative outcome, motivation to change and improve would be increased (the wake-up call). When downward counterfactuals yield positive affect, through diminishing the impact of a potentially negative outcome, motivation to change and improve should be reduced (the Pangloss effect). Results from three studies supported these hypotheses. Studies 1 and 2 showed that a manipulation of the counterfactual made about an investment influenced decisions toward that investment. Study 3 showed that students’ academic motivation was influenced by a manipulation of the type of downward counterfactual they made after an exam and that affect mediated the relationship between the counterfactual and motivation.
Counterfactual thinking involves the imagination of non-factual alternatives to reality. We investigated the spontaneous generation of both upward counterfactuals, which improve on reality, and downward counterfactuals, which worsen reality. All subjects gained $5 playing a computer-simulated blackjack game. However, this outcome was framed to be perceived as either a win, a neutral event, or a loss. "Loss" frames produced more upward and fewer downward counterfactuals than did either "win" or "neutral" frames, but the overall prevalence of counterfactual thinking did not vary with outcome valence. In addition, subjects who expected to play the game again made more upward counterfactuals and were less satisfied with the outcome than were subjects who did not expect to play again. However, once subjects saw the cards from which they could have selected had they "hit" again (two winning cards and two losing cards), all subjects generated primarily upward counterfactuals and showed a corresponding decrease in satisfaction. These results implicate both cognitive and motivational factors in the generation of counterfactuals and tell us something about the functional value of counterfactual thinking: downward counterfactuals provide comfort; upward counterfactuals prepare one for the future.
Because procrastination concerns a person’s ability to meet deadlines, temporal dimension is clearly important to this personality construct. In the present study, the characteristic profile of arousal and avoidant motives of procrastinators were related to past, present, and future time conceptions. Participants (140 women, 135 men; mean age=49.4, SD=5.55) completed measures of arousal and avoidance procrastination, and time orientation. Results indicated that avoidant procrastination was associated negatively with present-fatalistic time orientation, and arousal procrastination was associated positively with present-hedonist and negatively with future time orientations. The variance accounted for by time orientations was modest, yet provides further evidence that there are distinct motives for chronic procrastination.
Although previous research has demonstrated that procrastinators experience high levels of stress, less is known about the internal sources of stress associated with this behavioural style. This study is the first to investigate low self-compassion as a source of procrastinators’ self-generated stress. Across four samples (145 undergraduates, 339, undergraduates, 190 undergraduates, and 94 community adults) trait procrastination was associated with low self-compassion and high stress. A meta-analysis of these effects revealed a moderately strong negative association of procrastination with self-compassion. In all four samples bootstrapping tests found that low self-compassion explained the stress associated with procrastination. These findings suggest that low self-compassion is a source of stress for procrastinators and interventions that promote self-compassion may be beneficial for these individuals.
Research into why individuals do or do not engage in important health behaviors is often
approached from the perspective of expectancy-value theories of motivation. Such theories
suggest that the motivation to engage in a behavior is regulated by the outcome expectancies for
the behavior and the value of the outcome. However, the relationship of expectancies and values
to stable individual differences known to affect motivation are often overlooked. In this chapter
the links between procrastination, a behavioral style known to be linked to poor health behaviors,
and household safety behaviors were examined using an expectancy-value theory (EVT)
framework. Adults (n = 254) recruited from the community and the Internet completed selfreport
measures of procrastination, health self-efficacy, household safety behaviors, previous
experiences with household accidents, and questions about the importance of keeping their
homes free from potential accidents. Despite the fact that chronic procrastinators were more
likely to have experienced a household accident that could have been prevented, procrastination
was negatively related to the performance of household safety behaviors. Procrastination was
also negatively related to health-self-efficacy and household safety value. Hierarchical
regression testing the EVT variables found support for the predictive value of both outcome
expectancies (self-efficacy) and value, but not their product, in explaining household safety
behaviors after controlling for procrastination. Separate path analyses tested whether selfefficacy
and valuing household safety mediated the relationship between procrastination and
household safety behaviors. Safety value and self-efficacy each partially mediated the
procrastination-household safety behaviour relationship after controlling for procrastination.
These findings suggest that EVT may be useful for explaining motivations for household safety
behaviors in general, and may also provide insight into the lack of motivation for these behaviors
demonstrated by procrastinators.
Initial investigations into the links between procrastination and health in student samples implicated stress-related and behavioural pathways. However, it is unknown if these relations are the same for com-munity-dwelling adults, or if alternative measures of procrastination and health behaviors will yield the same results. To replicate and extend previous findings 254 adults recruited from the community and the Internet completed self-report measures of procrastination, health, stress, wellness and household safety behaviours. Consistent with previous work, procrastination was associated with higher stress, more acute health problems, and the practice of fewer wellness behaviours. Procrastinators also reported fewer house-hold safety behaviours, and less frequent dental and medical check-ups. The structural equation modeling analyses revealed that stress fully mediated the procrastination–health relationship, but health behaviours did not when the combined effect with stress was considered. These findings suggest that in addition to hin-dering a variety of health-related behaviours, procrastination may confer additional risk for increased stress, and consequently more health problems.
In this study, we extend previous work documenting links between procrastination, stress, and physical health by examining the potential role of mindfulness in explaining the high stress and poor health reported by procrastina-tors. A sample of 339 students (81% female) completed an on-line survey that included measures of trait procrastination, mindfulness, perceived stress, and per-ceived health. Univariate analyses revealed that procrastination was associated with low mindfulness, high stress, and poor perceived health. Structural equation mod-elling was used to test the role of mindfulness in explaining the links between procrastination and stress, and between procrastination and perceived health. The overall measurement model indicated a good fit to the data. Tests of the nested mediation models revealed that the effects of procrastination on stress and health were mediated by mindfulness, and bootstrapping analyses confirmed the signifi-cance of these effects. Our findings are consistent with previous research and theory on the salutatory effects of mindfulness for health and well-being and indicate that for procrastinators, low mindfulness may be a risk factor for poor emotional and physical well-being. This paper is based in part on data collected for Natalia Tosti's (2010) honours thesis.
Guided by the conceptual framework of the consumer decision-making model, the present study compared the factors associated with initial and long-term use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) providers. A survey was completed by 239 people recruited from the offices of physicians and CAM practitioners. Conventional medicine clients (n = 54), new or infrequent clients (n = 73), and established CAM clients (n = 112) were compared to identify the decision factors for initial and long-term CAM use. Consistent with the components of this model, we found support for the roles of external influences (age, social recommendations), decision process factors (symptom severity, egalitarian provider preference), and post-decision factors (dissatisfaction with conventional care) depending on whether the pattern of CAM use was new or infrequent or established. Overall, this study provides preliminary support for the utility of the consumer decision-making model as an integrative framework for understanding the roles of correlates of CAM use.
The purpose of this study was to examine the benefits associated with complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) treatments from the patients' perspective using a whole systems research approach as a guiding framework. We conducted five focus groups of six to eight participants each, with users of CAM recruited through experienced CAM providers and clinics. Eligible participants were aged 21 or older, had used CAM in the last 12 months, and believed the treatment to be beneficial. The focus group discussions were digitally recorded, transcribed, and analyzed through a quali-tative content analysis. Responses were inductively coded for common themes, and then placed into broader conceptual categories reflecting the CAM outcome domains suggested by Verhoef and colleagues. Participants described physical health benefits including symptom relief and improved function, and positive psychological benefits such as improved coping and resilience. Social health benefits that arose from the positive aspects of the patient-practitioner relationship were also reported, including support and advocacy. In addition, participants identified empowerment, increased hope and spiritual growth as results of receiving CAM treatments. A new behavioral health outcome domain emerged as partici-pants reported that CAM use had fostered behavioral changes such as increased exercise, smoking cessation and improv-ing their diets. These patient-reported benefits of CAM treatment are consistent with the outcome model proposed by Verhoef and col-leagues, and extend this model by identifying a new outcome domain—behavioral health outcome. The findings provide insight and direction for the development of outcome and process measures to evaluate CAM treatment effects.
When an attractive action opportunity has been forgone, individuals tend to decline a substantially less attractive current opportunity in the same action domain, even though, in an absolute sense, it still has positive value. The hypothesis that continued inaction (inaction inertia) occurs in the service of avoiding anticipated regret was tested. In Experiments 1 and 2, when repeated contact with the forgone opportunity (and, hence, the experience of regret) was made unavoidable, the tendency toward subsequent inaction decreased. The inaction inertia effect was also reduced when avoidance costs were increased (Experiment 3) or when the initial reason for avoidance was removed (Experiment 4). Experiment 4 included a thought-listing task that provided direct evidence for the role of regret in producing inaction inertia. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Introduces the concept of possible selves (PSs) to complement current conceptions of self-knowledge. PSs represent individuals' ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming, and thus provide a conceptual link beteen cognition and motivation. PSs are the cognitive components of hopes, fears, goals, and threats; they give the specific self-relevant form, meaning, organization, and direction to these dynamics. It is suggested that PSs function as incentives for future behavior and to provide an evaluative and interpretive context for the current view of self. The nature and function of PSs and their role in addressing several persistent problems (e.g., the stability and malleability of the self, the unity of the self, self-distortion, the relationship between the self-concept and behavior) are discussed. (143 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Counterfactual thoughts ("might-have-been" reconstructions of past outcomes) may serve an affective function (feeling better) and a preparative function (future improvement). Three studies showed that counterfactuals varying in their direction and structure may differentially serve these 2 functions. Direction influenced affect such that downward (vs upward) counterfactuals caused more positive affect. Direction influenced intentions such that upward (vs downward) counterfactuals heightened intentions to perform success-facilitating behaviors. Both direction and structure influenced performance on an anagram task such that upward and additive (vs downward and subtractive) counterfactuals engendered greater improvement. These findings suggest that people can strategically use downward counterfactuals to make themselves feel better and upward and additive counterfactuals to improve performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the frequency of 342 college students' procrastination on academic tasks and the reasons for procrastination behavior. A high percentage of Ss reported problems with procrastination on several specific academic tasks. Self-reported procrastination was positively correlated with the number of self-paced quizzes Ss took late in the semester and with participation in an experimental session offered late in the semester. A factor analysis of the reasons for procrastination Ss listed in a procrastination assessment scale indicated that the factors Fear of Failure and Aversiveness of the Task accounted for most of the variance. A small but very homogeneous group of Ss endorsed items on the Fear of Failure factor that correlated significantly with self-report measures of depression, irrational cognitions, low self-esteem, delayed study behavior, anxiety, and lack of assertion. A larger and relatively heterogeneous group of Ss reported procrastinating as a result of aversiveness of the task. The Aversiveness of the Task factor correlated significantly with depression, irrational cognitions, low self-esteem, and delayed study behavior. Results indicate that procrastination is not solely a deficit in study habits or time management, but involves a complex interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and affective components. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies used the self-concordance model of healthy goal striving (K. M. Sheldon & A. J. Elliot, 1999) to examine the motivational processes by which people can increase their level of well-being during a period of time and then maintain the gain or perhaps increase it even further during the next period of time. In Study I, entering freshmen with self-concordant motivation better attained their 1st-semester goals, which in turn predicted increased adjustment and greater self-concordance for the next semester's goals. Increased self-concordance in turn predicted even better goal attainment during the 2nd semester, which led to further increases in adjustment and to higher levels of ego development by the end of the year. Study 2 replicated the basic model in a 2-week study of short-term goals set in the laboratory. Limits of the model and implications for the question of how (and whether) happiness may be increased are discussed.
An 18-item Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory was developed in Study 1 and related to trait procrastination and negative affect. The research participants were 208 university students. Procrastinatory cognitions were found to mediate trait procrastination-negative affect relations. In Study 2,66 university students completed the Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory in terms of anticipated ruminations over the next three weeks (Time 1), and in terms of past ruminations experienced in that period, three weeks later at Time 2. The two assessments of procrastinatory cognitions demonstrated high stability. Trait procrastination was positively associated with procrastinatory cognitions at Time 1 and Time 2. Cognitions were related to self-reported dilatory behavior and to negative affect obtained at Time 2. The usefulness of the Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory was discussed and suggestions for future research were made.
Most research concerning chronic procrastination has focused on the cognitive and behavioral aspects of delay in starting or completing tasks. The primary goal of the current study was to clarify the relationship of chronic procrastination with affective experiences of shame and guilt. In the present study, 86 undergraduates (34 male, 52 female) completed two measures of chronic procrastination as well as measures of shame, guilt, perfectionism, self-esteem, fear of negative evaluation, and conscientiousness. Correlational analyses demonstrated that shame-proneness was related to procrastination tendencies, whereas guilt-proneness was not. In addition, using hierarchical regression, shame was found to be a moderator between chronic procrastination and perfectionism, particularly socially-prescribed perfectionism. Overall, the results suggest that affect plays an important role in understanding the complex dynamics of chronic procrastination.
Counterfactuals are mental representations of alternatives to the past and produce consequences that are both beneficial and aversive to the individual. These apparently contradictory effects are integrated into a functionalist model of counterfactual thinking. The author reviews research in support of the assertions that (a) counterfactual thinking is activated automatically in response to negative affect, (b) the content of counterfactuals targets particularly likely causes of misfortune, (c) counterfactuals produce negative affective consequences through a contrast-effect mechanism and positive inferential consequences through a causal-inference mechanism, and (d) the net effect of counterfactual thinking is beneficial.
This research evaluated assumptions of self-regulation and specious rewards explanations of procrastination which postulate that a reduced focus on the future among procrastinators is due to their increased focus on current concerns and immediate rewards. In Study 1, 147 college undergraduates completed self-report measures of procrastination and past, present and future time perspectives. Consistent with these theories, high levels of procrastination were predicted by a reduced focus on the future. However, contrary to assumptions of these models, procrastination was also predicted by high levels of fatalism, rather than hedonism, about the present and negative attitudes about the past. This pattern of findings was replicated in Study 2 (n = 160), after controlling for level of current negative affect. Low levels of structured, subjectively meaningful use of time also contributed to procrastination, beyond the impact of negative affect or perceptions of the past, present, and future. Together, findings suggest that explanations invoking failures in self-regulation or preoccupations with specious rewards to account for procrastinators' reduced focus on setting and carrying out future goals require modification. © 2003 Individual Differences Research Group. All rights reserved.
What does the apparent lack of concern for one's future, which is involved in many cases of procrastination, entail with respect to our conception of personal identity? One claim that is prominent in the debate is that the fact that we normally have a special concern for our future selves is a problem for psychological continuity theories (such as those of Derek Parfit). On the basis of a detailed account of the various kinds of procrastination and of the ways imprudent procrastination involves harm to future selves, this chapter argues that procrastinators often impose an uncompensated burden on their future selves, something that is best explained by a lack of concern for their future selves. The lesson that follows is that the objections to psychological continuity theories based on the idea of a special concern for our future selves are in serious trouble.
Procrastination is defined typically as an irrational tendency to delay tasks that should be completed (Lay, 1986). Procrastination is believed to be associated with several cognitive, behavioral, and affective correlates and is regarded as a “dysfunction of important human abilities” in routine tasks and critical life tasks (Milgram, Sroloff, & Rosenbaum, 1988, p. 210). The extent of the dysfunction is reflected by estimates indicating that at least 25% of students suffer from severe levels of procrastination (see Hill, Hill, Chabot, & Barrall, 1978; McCown, Johnson, & Petzel, 1989b). Given the potential importance of the procrastination construct, it is perhaps not surprising that it is a topic that has been discussed at length by clinicians and by counselors (e.g., Burka & Yuen, 1983; Ellis & Knaus, 1977; Rarer, 1983).
The design and evaluation of questionnaires—and of other written and oral materials—is a challenging endeavor, fraught with potential pitfalls. Cognitive Interviewing: A Tool for Improving Questionnaire Design describes a means of systematically developing survey questions through investigations that intensively probe the thought processes of individuals who are presented with those inquiries. The work provides general guidance about questionnaire design, development, and pre-testing sequence, with an emphasis on the cognitive interview. In particular, the book gives detailed instructions about the use of verbal probing techniques, and how one can elicit additional information from subjects about their thinking and about the manner in which they react to tested questions. These tools help researchers discover how well their questions are working, where they are failing, and determine what they can do to rectify the wide variety of problems that may surface while working with questionnaires.
It is believed that the quality of social relationships determines a person's resistance to infection - this is the hypothesis of this chapter. On the one hand, healthy interaction with others and strong ties both facilitate a drive to be concerned about oneself, tolerate effective regulation of emotional reactions, and provide back-up during difficult situations. While on the other hand, laboratory experiments and epidemiological research have discovered that stressful circumstances with significant others and unexpected transitory events inhibit the production of cellular components for immunity functions; hence, increasing the risk of acquiring upper respiratory ailments. In addition, low involvement in society or isolation accompanies a high risk of early death, which is comparable to the high mortality rate caused by persistent smoking. Although much of the literature, along with the study in this chapter, agrees on the positive effect of social relationships to susceptibility to the common cold, there are certain factors such as lifestyle and genes that can possibly account for the same outcomes.
Consideration of counterfactual alternatives to negative outcomes, particularly when the counterfactuals change those outcomes, has repeatedly been shown to intensify regret and judgments of blame. Two studies examined the influence of the relevance of the counterfactual to future behavior on Ss' judgments of regret and self-blame after a negative outcome. Results indicated that a dispositional tendency to consider the future consequences of current behavior can ameliorate the negative affect caused by thinking about how a negative outcome could have been avoided. Results also suggested that this amelioration is particularly likely to occur when Ss are induced to focus on the future. These findings are discussed in terms of understanding the positive functions counterfactuals may serve, particularly with respect to the determination of future behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Although relevant nomothetically-based personality literature has made great advances in recent years correlating traits to measures of procrastination, little is known about the specific irrational beliefs of procrastinators, especially when they are actively avoiding tasks or situations. Based on theories from Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), it was hypothesized that compared to non-procrastinators, college student academic procrastinators would show greater self depreciation, greater other depreciation, greater life condition depreciation, and a lower frustration tolerance. Academic procrastination was operationally defined by quartile distributions on two self- report measures and three classroom-based assignments. Procrastinators and non-procrastinating students were given instructions to write approximately 500 words about their thoughts and feelings while they were in the process of actively putting off a specific, real event. While actually procrastinating, students logged on to a web site and made text entries describing what was going through their minds. Data were analyzed with the Psychiatric Content and Diagnosis Program Version 3 (PCAD 3; Gottschalk and Bechtel in Psychiatric content and diagnosis: the PCAD 3. GB Software, Brighton, MI, 2007). Procrastinators and non-procrastinators differed on relevant PCAD scales, supporting the hypotheses derived from REBT theory. Treatment implications and directions for future research are discussed.
The present paper examines the nature of procrastination-related auto-matic thoughts by examining the correlates of the Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory (PCI). The PCI was administered along with numerous other measures to three samples of students (two undergraduate samples and one graduate student sample). Analyses confirmed that the PCI is associated with elevated levels of neuroticism and low levels of conscientiousness but is a unique predictor of distress over and above the variance attributable to these broad personality traits. The PCI was associated significantly with negative automatic thoughts in general as well as automatic thoughts reflecting the need to be perfect. Tests of achievement goal orientation showed that students with high scores on the PCI are focused on per-formance avoidance goals. Elevated levels of procrastinatory cognitions among graduate students were associated with apprehension about writing, graduate student stress, low self-actualization, and feelings of being an impostor. Overall, the find-ings suggest that the experience of frequent procrastination-related thoughts con-tributes uniquely to increased levels of psychological distress and stress. Our findings point to the potential utility of incorporating an emphasis on procrastination cognitions when conducting assessments and when implementing cognitive-behavioral interventions focused on procrastination-related themes.
Procrastination has been viewed both as a single trait dimension and as a complex trait composed of several component antecedents. The aim of this study was to investigate some of the antecedents of procrastination (fear of failure, aversiveness of task, risk taking, rebellion against control, dependency, and difficulty making decisions) in terms of the five factors of personality (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Openness and Conscientiousness). The participants consisted of 349 university students who completed the Revised NEO Personality Inventory and the Procrastination Assessment Scale for students. Total procrastination was related to both the low conscientiousness facets (competence, order, dutifulness, achievement striving, self-discipline, deliberation) and the neuroticism facets (anxiety, depression, self-consciousness, impulsiveness, vulnerability). When the procrastination antecedents were considered, task aversiveness had a strong relationship to both low conscientiousness and neuroticism. Fear of failure, difficulty making decisions, and dependency had a smaller relationship to several of the conscientiousness and neuroticism facets. In addition, risk-taking was negatively related to agreeableness and the fantasy facet of openness to experience was related to total procrastination.
Introduces the concept of possible selves (PSs) to complement current conceptions of self-knowledge. PSs represent individuals' ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming, and thus provide a conceptual link beteen cognition and motivation. PSs are the cognitive components of hopes, fears, goals, and threats; they give the specific self-relevant form, meaning, organization, and direction to these dynamics. It is suggested that PSs function as incentives for future behavior and to provide an evaluative and interpretive context for the current view of self. The nature and function of PSs and their role in addressing several persistent problems (e.g., the stability and malleability of the self, the unity of the self, self-distortion, the relationship between the self-concept and behavior) are discussed. (143 ref)