Academic procrastination involves individuals voluntarily delaying study-related tasks despite anticipating negative consequences (Steel & Klingsieck, 2016). Theoretically, although this behavior can be attributed to various factors, procrastination can be understood as a result of unsuccessful regulation of negative emotions (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Accordingly, the role that negative emotions play concerning academic procrastination has received extensive research attention amidst inconsistent findings (Behnagh & Ferrari, 2022). In contrast, research on the role of positive emotions concerning academic procrastination is lacking although they can equally play key role concerning procrastination (Pollack & Herres, 2020; Rahimi et al., 2023). Furthermore, even though emotions are considered as both antecedents and consequences of academic procrastination (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), empirical studies to explore possible reciprocal relationships between emotions and procrastination are lacking (Behnagh & Ferrari, 2022). Yet, these insights taken together are essential not only to understand the complex mechanisms underlying the procrastination-emotion relationship but also to drive tailored prevention and intervention programs to reduce academic procrastination.
The current dissertation, consisting of three empirical studies, aimed to illuminate the procrastination-emotion research by concurrently investigating the relationship between academic procrastination and both negative (anxiety) and positive (hope) achievement emotions from trait and state perspectives. To begin with, Study 1 explored co-occurrence of exam-related anxiety and hope at the intraindividual level in relation to state procrastination using data from N = 93 students who participated in an experience sampling procedure for 10 days prior to a given relevant end-of-semester exam. The results showed that not only do exam-related anxiety and hope co-occur but also, they interact in relation to state procrastination. Further analyses showed no significant relationships between the exam-related emotions and mere observed delay. To deepen understanding of the intraindividual interplay of exam-related anxiety and hope in relation to the differentiated dimensions of trait academic procrastination (i.e., behavioral and emotional; Bobe et al., 2022), Study 2 took a person-centered approach and analyzed two cross-sectional data (Nstudy 2a = 265, Nstudy2b = 468). Latent profile analyses (LPA) identified three profiles stable across both studies—High Anxiety–Low Hope, Low Anxiety–High Hope and Moderate Anxiety–Moderate Hope— and two study-specific profiles —Low Anxiety–Moderate Hope (Study 2a) and High Anxiety–Moderate Hope (Study 2b). Overall, students belonging to the anxiety-dominated profiles reported significantly higher, whereas those belonging to the hope-dominated profiles reported lower scores on both behavioral and emotional dimensions of trait academic procrastination. Finally, Study 3 examined reciprocal associations between trait academic procrastination on one hand and learning-related anxiety and hope on the other hand in a three-wave online longitudinal study over one semester. A latent cross-lagged panel analyses with N = 789 university students showed negative reciprocal relationship between trait academic procrastination and learning-related hope whereas the expected positive reciprocal relationship between trait academic procrastination and learning-related anxiety was not supported.
In summary, the findings of this dissertation reveal a dynamic intraindividual interplay between negative and positive achievement emotions in relation to academic procrastination, thereby underscoring the significance of simultaneously examining both negative and positive emotions in understanding procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Although negative emotions appear as risk factors for procrastination, their relationship with procrastination remains nuanced and requires further research (cf. Behnagh & Ferrari, 2022). The dissertation stands out for providing first insights into the role of positive emotions as potential protective factors against procrastination (Tice et al., 2004). Moreover, the studies in this dissertation do not only exude major strength from the use of trait- and state-based measurement approaches but also reinforces the critical call to conceptualize and assess academic procrastination as a multifaceted construct to achieve a holistic understanding (Wieland et al., 2018).
Theoretically, the findings of this dissertation generate a novel perspective of viewing the emotional causes and consequences of procrastination through a dynamic intraindividual interplay of both negative and positive emotions. Practically, the results imply that prevention and interventions to reduce academic procrastination should address opportunities for adaptive regulation of emotions. Efforts should not only go into adaptive ways of coping with negative emotions but also simultaneously boosting positive emotions to reduce academic procrastination. Overall, the research articles in this dissertation complement and extend previous research as differentiated insights into the mechanisms by which academic procrastination and both negative and positive achievement emotions are related could be gained.