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Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self

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Abstract

Procrastination is a common and pervasive problem associated with a range of negative outcomes across a variety of life domains that often occurs when people are faced with tasks that are seen as aversive. In this paper, we argue that as a form of self-regulation failure, procrastination has a great deal to do with short-term mood repair and emotion regulation. Moreover, we contend that a temporal understanding of self and the mood-regulating processes involved in goal pursuit is particularly important in understanding procrastination, because the consequences of procrastination are typically borne by the future self. After summarizing the research on the priority of short-term mood regulation in procrastination, we then draw the connection between the focus on short-term mood repair and the temporal disjunction between present and future selves. We present research that exemplifies these intra-personal processes in understanding temporal notions of self characterized by procrastination, and then link these processes to the negative consequences of procrastination for health and well-being. We conclude with a discussion of possible avenues for future research to provide further insights into how temporal views of the self are linked to the dynamics of mood regulation over time in the context of procrastination.

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... Internally, psychological aspects such as selfregulation and self-efficacy play a pivotal role. Students with weaker self-regulation skills may struggle to initiate and sustain focused work on academic tasks, succumbing to the allure of procrastination (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Similarly, low self-efficacy, the belief in one's ability to accomplish tasks, can lead to procrastination when students doubt their competence to complete assignments successfully (W äschle et al., 2014(W äschle et al., , Przepiorka, et al., 2019. ...
... Procrastination can also be seen as a way to handle short-term negative feelings linked to tasks, often replaced by engaging in more enjoyable activities (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Task aversiveness, characterized by low autonomy, significance, boredom, and difficulty, strongly triggers procrastination (Steel, 2007). ...
... Task aversiveness, characterized by feelings of frustration, boredom, resentment, and a sense of low autonom y and significance, is tightly linked to academic procrastination (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000;Milgram et al., 1988;Steel, 2007). When students perceive tasks as aversive, they are more prone to postpone engaging with them, as procrastination becomes a strategy to avoid negative emotions (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Research has shown that aversive conditions often drive avoidance or escape behaviours, prom oting passivity and procrastination (Veale, 2008). ...
... According to the temporal motivation theory, procrastination is a result of the interplay between an individual's perception of the task and an individual's perception of the time available to complete the task (Yan & Zhang, 2022). The arousal-regulation model views procrastination as a self-regulatory failure resulting from an individual's inability to manage negative emotions (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). ...
... The association between procrastination behaviors and cognitive engagement is, however, not entirely straightforward. Other situational factors such as cognitive absorption in other tasks (Sirois, 2014), mood as well as more stable individual differences in anxiety (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013) and depression (Fernie et al., 2017) appear to influence the association between procrastination behaviors and cognitive engagement. In some instances, students who tend to actively procrastinate may use taskoriented coping strategies effectively, and although demonstrating behaviors associated with traditional procrastination, are in fact efficiently prioritizing competing time constraints (Seo, 2013). ...
... procrastination patterns and adopt effective coping strategies (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Educators, too, can benefit from this research by gaining insights into the various factors contributing to student procrastination and tailoring their teaching methods and interventions accordingly (Steel, 2007). ...
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Procrastination in academic contexts is thought to have a negative effect on students’ learning and performance. This research sought to provide a comprehensive multimethod and multimodal validation of a self-report measure of procrastination, revealing its intricate associations with behavioral indicators of procrastination, engagement, and learning. A sample of 566 high school Advanced Placement Statistics students (Mage = 16.68 years) in the midwestern United States participated in the investigation. We used multiple methods and multiple traits to evaluate convergent and discriminant validity evidence. To gather evidence of convergent validity, we examined associations between self-reported procrastination and actual procrastination behavior extracted from log data using survival analysis. Students were much more likely to not submit assignments on time when self-reported academic procrastination was high. This trend persisted across all assignments, underscoring the robust link between self-reported procrastination and delayed completion. The results also highlighted strong significant negative correlations between self-reported academic procrastination and self-reported affective, behavioral, and cognitive engagement. To examine predictive validity, we also examined the association between self-reported academic procrastination and key learning outcomes. While self-reported procrastination was not significantly associated with students’ Advanced Placement exam scores, it was significantly and negatively associated with students’ final class grades. Students with greater self-reported procrastination tended to have lower class grades, consistent with prior work linking procrastination to suboptimal learning outcomes. These findings could inform educational interventions that reduce procrastination tendencies, enhance student engagement, and ultimately, academic success.
... Damasio, 1996). It manifests itself in feelings such as regret, shame, guilt, worry, and anxiety (Giguère, Sirois, & Vaswani, 2016;Sirois & Giguère, 2018;Sirois & Kitner, 2015;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013 see Sirois, 2016 for a summary). Additionally, procrastination can result in negative consequences relating to (academic) achievement (e.g., Kim & Seo 2015), health, and well-being (cf. . ...
... Anderson, 2016). Another prominent theoretical perspective is the mood-repair hypothesis of procrastination which states that individuals attempt to regulate negative emotions related to an aversive task by procrastinating that exact task Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Be it the dispositional, the motivational-volitional, the clinical, or the situational perspective from which procrastination is explained, they all understand procrastination as a selfregulation failure (Klingsieck, 2013). ...
... The link between procrastination and ineffective regulation of affect in the face of aversive tasks is quite complex because procrastination is in itself a dysfunctional moodregulation strategy (cf. mood-repair hypothesis; Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Studies show that procrastinating an aversive task changes affect for the better in the short-run but it augments negative affect in the long-run due to a bundle of negative feelings such as regret, shame, guilt, worry, and anxiety which succeed a procrastination episode (cf. ...
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There is ample theoretical and empirical support for the idea that both conscious and unconscious volitional processes, predecisional and postdecisional aspects, and the aspect of having or not having self-access play a role in procrastination episodes. The unconscious volitional processes, predecisional aspects, and the aspect of self-access are yet rather under-researched. If they are considered, however, procrastination can be understood on an even deeper level and treated more sustainably. Moreover, considering these aspects opens up a humanistic perspective on procrastination episodes, thereby, putting procrastination and procrastination interventions in the bigger picture of self-actualization, self-alienation, and self-growth.
... skipping gym schedules) before ZPTI-C and CERQ. The descriptions were given to emerge the participants in a specific goal pursuit context, which was considered as a major stage during the generation of procrastination [11]. Participants were thanked and compensated after their surveys were submitted. ...
... This is consistent with earlier studies' findings, which showed that past goal failures were linked to negative feelings including worry and anxiety [40,41], or even shame [42] and guilt [43]. According to Sirois and Pychyl's [11] theory, procrastination might be caused by unpleasant emotions brought on by how we see the past. Therefore, the finding bolsters support for the TMR model. ...
... This result aligns with previous research where individuals would regret [17] or even self-blame [52] more when they delayed their plans. As the TMR model proposed, such negative emotions would thus lead to more severe procrastination [11]. ...
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The recent affect-regulation (AR) model emphasizes the relevance of context and the diversity of AR strategies, which deepens our understanding of emotional processes. This study, conducted with 228 Chinese undergraduates, aims to support the AR model by investigating the connection between cognitive emotion regulation (CER) and procrastination, as suggested by the temporal mood regulation (TMR) model. The findings discovered a positive correlation between past negative (PN) time perspective and procrastination. Acceptance showed no significant correlation with procrastination, while refocus on planning exhibited a weak negative correlation. Surprisingly, PN acted as a suppressor in the relationship between CER strategies and procrastination. This study highlights the diverse impact of CER strategies on procrastination, providing support for both the AR and TMR models.
... Furthermore, even though emotions are considered as both antecedents and consequences of academic procrastination (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), empirical studies to explore possible reciprocal relationships between emotions and procrastination are lacking (Behnagh & Ferrari, 2022). Yet, these insights taken together are essential not only to understand the complex mechanisms underlying the procrastination-emotion relationship but also to drive tailored prevention and intervention programs to reduce academic procrastination. ...
... vi Zusammenfassung Akademische Prokrastination beinhaltet, dass Individuen freiwillig studienbezogene Aufgaben aufschieben, obwohl sie negative Konsequenzen durch den Aufschub erwarten (Steel & Klingsieck, 2016). Auch wenn dieses Verhalten auf verschiedene Faktoren zurückgeführt werden kann, lässt sich Prokrastination als Ergebnis einer erfolglosen Regulation negativer Emotionen verstehen (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Entsprechend wurde die Rolle negativer Emotionen in Bezug auf akademische Prokrastination umfangreich in Forschungsarbeiten untersucht, trotz inkonsistenter Befunde (Behnagh & Ferrari, 2022). ...
... On the other hand, self-regulation failure can be characterized by misregulation, where individuals favor downregulating for instance experienced or anticipated negative emotions over the necessary actions needed for goal achievement (Balkis & Duru, 2016;Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996). Thus, academic procrastination is seen as a failure on the part of students to effectively regulate their cognitions, behaviors, and emotions to act on their intentions in order to fulfil their set goals (i.e., intention-action gap; Steel, 2007;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). ...
Thesis
Academic procrastination involves individuals voluntarily delaying study-related tasks despite anticipating negative consequences (Steel & Klingsieck, 2016). Theoretically, although this behavior can be attributed to various factors, procrastination can be understood as a result of unsuccessful regulation of negative emotions (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Accordingly, the role that negative emotions play concerning academic procrastination has received extensive research attention amidst inconsistent findings (Behnagh & Ferrari, 2022). In contrast, research on the role of positive emotions concerning academic procrastination is lacking although they can equally play key role concerning procrastination (Pollack & Herres, 2020; Rahimi et al., 2023). Furthermore, even though emotions are considered as both antecedents and consequences of academic procrastination (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), empirical studies to explore possible reciprocal relationships between emotions and procrastination are lacking (Behnagh & Ferrari, 2022). Yet, these insights taken together are essential not only to understand the complex mechanisms underlying the procrastination-emotion relationship but also to drive tailored prevention and intervention programs to reduce academic procrastination. The current dissertation, consisting of three empirical studies, aimed to illuminate the procrastination-emotion research by concurrently investigating the relationship between academic procrastination and both negative (anxiety) and positive (hope) achievement emotions from trait and state perspectives. To begin with, Study 1 explored co-occurrence of exam-related anxiety and hope at the intraindividual level in relation to state procrastination using data from N = 93 students who participated in an experience sampling procedure for 10 days prior to a given relevant end-of-semester exam. The results showed that not only do exam-related anxiety and hope co-occur but also, they interact in relation to state procrastination. Further analyses showed no significant relationships between the exam-related emotions and mere observed delay. To deepen understanding of the intraindividual interplay of exam-related anxiety and hope in relation to the differentiated dimensions of trait academic procrastination (i.e., behavioral and emotional; Bobe et al., 2022), Study 2 took a person-centered approach and analyzed two cross-sectional data (Nstudy 2a = 265, Nstudy2b = 468). Latent profile analyses (LPA) identified three profiles stable across both studies—High Anxiety–Low Hope, Low Anxiety–High Hope and Moderate Anxiety–Moderate Hope— and two study-specific profiles —Low Anxiety–Moderate Hope (Study 2a) and High Anxiety–Moderate Hope (Study 2b). Overall, students belonging to the anxiety-dominated profiles reported significantly higher, whereas those belonging to the hope-dominated profiles reported lower scores on both behavioral and emotional dimensions of trait academic procrastination. Finally, Study 3 examined reciprocal associations between trait academic procrastination on one hand and learning-related anxiety and hope on the other hand in a three-wave online longitudinal study over one semester. A latent cross-lagged panel analyses with N = 789 university students showed negative reciprocal relationship between trait academic procrastination and learning-related hope whereas the expected positive reciprocal relationship between trait academic procrastination and learning-related anxiety was not supported. In summary, the findings of this dissertation reveal a dynamic intraindividual interplay between negative and positive achievement emotions in relation to academic procrastination, thereby underscoring the significance of simultaneously examining both negative and positive emotions in understanding procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Although negative emotions appear as risk factors for procrastination, their relationship with procrastination remains nuanced and requires further research (cf. Behnagh & Ferrari, 2022). The dissertation stands out for providing first insights into the role of positive emotions as potential protective factors against procrastination (Tice et al., 2004). Moreover, the studies in this dissertation do not only exude major strength from the use of trait- and state-based measurement approaches but also reinforces the critical call to conceptualize and assess academic procrastination as a multifaceted construct to achieve a holistic understanding (Wieland et al., 2018). Theoretically, the findings of this dissertation generate a novel perspective of viewing the emotional causes and consequences of procrastination through a dynamic intraindividual interplay of both negative and positive emotions. Practically, the results imply that prevention and interventions to reduce academic procrastination should address opportunities for adaptive regulation of emotions. Efforts should not only go into adaptive ways of coping with negative emotions but also simultaneously boosting positive emotions to reduce academic procrastination. Overall, the research articles in this dissertation complement and extend previous research as differentiated insights into the mechanisms by which academic procrastination and both negative and positive achievement emotions are related could be gained.
... When under stress, people lose motivation to complete their tasks and prefer to finish them until the last minute (Tice & Baumeister, 1997). People who are in a negative mood would like to feel better; therefore, they utilize task avoidance as a coping strategy (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). An experimental study performed by Tice et al. (2001) showed that a low mood could lead to more hours spent procrastinating to regain a pleasant mood. ...
... Some previous studies reported that negative mood and perceived stress may lead to procrastination (Gong et al., 2021;Tice et al., 2001;To et al., 2021). When people are in a bad mood, they may put off completing necessary tasks and instead engage in activities that they find more enjoyable to repair their mood (Gong et al., 2021;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). For instance, college students may procrastinate their F I G U R E 1 Mediation model of study variables. ...
... Tice et al. (2001) discovered that procrastination was most intense when people were in a negative mood, considered their mood could be enhanced, and the alternative solutions (procrastinating) seemed quite exciting. In sum, procrastination is a type of avoidant and defensive response to existing or expected adverse emotional states (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). ...
Article
Stress is an omnipresent psychological force impacting many aspects of life. Although a moderate amount of stress is attributed to better performance, an excessive amount of stress can inhibit executive functioning abilities. Adolescents encounter numerous stressors that they must overcome. Self-control, according to the ego depletion theory, has limited source and can diminish when individuals are overwhelmed. In this study, we collected data from 616 adolescents to ascertain the impact of stress on self-control and procrastination. Specifically, we aimed to see if increased stress would decrease self-control, which, in turn, would increase procrastination. The mediation analysis supported the above hypothesis, and the model explained 39% of the variance in procrastination scores. 61.30% of this relationship was explained by the indirect effect (i.e., stress increases procrastination through reduced self-control). Our results support the existence of the debated ego-depletion theory in the context of procrastination and self-control. K E Y W O R D S adolescence, ego depletion, procrastination, self-control, stress Practitioner Points • Stress negatively affects self-control. • Self-control is negatively correlated with procrastination. • Self-control is a partial mediator between stress and procrastionation.
... This ability can help adolescents self-adjustment and motivate them to persevere through difficult tasks (Millonado Valdez & Daep Datu, 2021). Short-term mood regulation theory (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013) also states that when people face a nasty task and failed to regulate the bad feelings, they prefer to procrastinate their long-term goals in exchange for feeling good for a while. As a result, adolescents with high levels of basic psychological needs are better able to regulate their emotions and thus persist in their long-term goals. ...
... Specifically, a high lever of mindfulness may amplify faith, respect and acceptance that adolescents perceive from mindful parenting, making it easier for adolescents to develop their autonomy and competence needs (Emery et al., 2016;Roemer et al., 2015). This amplify may also make adolescents feel warm from parents, to be merciful to themselves and relieve their negative emotions (Moreira & Canavarro, 2018: Roemer et al., 2015, thus continuing their long-term goals (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). ...
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The concept of “grit” is one of the most commonly mentioned and praised positive mental qualities in daily life. Although previous research has shown a strong relationship between adolescent grit and parenting styles, there is a gap in the relationship between mindful parenting and adolescent grit. This study hypothesises that mindful parenting may be a beneficial environment in the development of adolescent grit, and that this direct effect may be influenced by changes in the level of adolescent personality traits, for example, basic psychological needs and mindfulness. To test these hypotheses, a total of 804 adolescents from Hubei Province, China completed questionnaires on mindful parenting, basic psychological needs, mindfulness, and grit. The results indicated that mindful parenting positively predicts adolescents grit, mediated by basic psychological needs. The study also found the associations between mindful parenting and adolescent grit and basic psychological needs can both be moderated by mindfulness in senior high school. The effects of mindful parenting on adolescents grit and basic psychological needs were stronger for a high lever of mindfulness compared to a low lever of mindfulness. These findings not only provide new parenting ideas for developing grit in adolescents, but also highlight the significant impact of individual personality traits on adolescent grit.
... For instance, individuals who experience high levels of anxiety and low levels of hope might tend to delay academic tasks often as means to deal with unpleasant emotions (cf. Sirois & Pychyl, 2013;Tice et al., 2001) and experience high subjective discomfort due to guilt, shame, and bad feelings associated with unnecessary delays (Pychyl et al., 2000;Wohl et al., 2010). It is also possible that individuals experiencing high anxiety and low hope tend to delay frequently but experience low subjective discomfort if they consider delays as strategic (Chowdhury & Pychyl, 2018;Klingsieck, 2013) or perceive relief accruing from avoiding unpleasant tasks as superseding negative ...
... Furthermore, our study extends the understanding of procrastination as an emotion regulation strategy. Consistent with the mood-repair hypothesis (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), when negative emotions dominate an individual's emotional experience, the tendency to procrastinate may increase. Conversely, the urge to procrastinate may decrease when positive emotions prevail (Fredrickson, 2005;Tice et al., 2004). ...
Article
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Although achievement situations trigger multiple emotions and learners experience both negative and positive emotions simultaneously, procrastination research typically examines isolated relationships between specific emotions and procrastination. The potential interplay of negative and positive emotions regarding procrastination is often overlooked, although this perspective can shed light on their dynamic relationships. Moreover, past studies primarily address the behavioral aspect of procrastination (delay) while overlooking its emotional facet (subjective discomfort), albeit this differentiation could enhance understanding of procrastination and its correlates. The present study explores the understudied interplay of the two most frequently experienced negative (anxiety) and positive (hope) exam-related emotions regarding students’ procrastination tendencies with differentiated behavioral and emotional dimensions. The study analyzes cross-sectional data from two independent studies (Nstudy1 = 266, Nstudy2 = 468) conducted in Germany among university students. Latent profile analyses (LPA) reveal three similar profiles across both studies—High Anxiety–Low Hope, Low Anxiety–High Hope and Moderate Anxiety–Moderate Hope— and two study-specific profiles namely, Low Anxiety–Moderate Hope (Study 1) and High Anxiety–Moderate Hope (Study 2). Females compared to males are more likely to belong to the anxiety-dominated profiles. Overall, students in anxiety-dominated profiles report higher scores whereas students in hope-dominated profiles report lower scores on both behavioral and emotional dimensions of academic procrastination. This study advances an integrated approach that incorporates the combined effects of both negative and positive emotions concerning procrastination. Findings further inform research efforts towards identifying risk and protective emotional factors to develop tailored intervention against academic procrastination.
... Although procrastination is often considered in terms of its negative impact on productivity, research demonstrating the harmful effects of procrastination for health and well-being continues to grow. Defined as the voluntary and unnecessary delay of an intended task despite knowing that there will be negative effects for oneself and others for doing so [1,2], procrastination is a prevalent and pernicious issue that is linked to significant health issues, including poor health behaviours, higher stress, poor sleep, acute health problems [3][4][5][6][7][8][9] and even hypertension and cardiovascular disease [10]. According to the procrastination-health model [5,7], chronic procrastination confers risk for poor physical health-related outcomes due to the heightened stress and poor health behaviours associated with habitually procrastinating. ...
... Recent theoretical developments further implicate stress in the initiation and maintenance of procrastination through its contextual effects. Drawing on mood regulation perspectives of procrastination [2,26], the stress context vulnerability model of procrastination [14] posits that high-stress contexts provide insights into when people may be more likely to procrastinate. From this perspective, the difficulties in mood regulation that underscore procrastination will be particularly salient when an individual is dealing with contexts that create a backdrop of stress. ...
Article
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Objectives: Evidence linking chronic procrastination to a range of poor health outcomes and trajectories continues to build. Yet, much of this research has been conducted in academic contexts or in non-student samples. Despite theory indicating that high-stress contexts increase vulnerability for procrastination, the pathways linking chronic procrastination to health outcomes proposed by the procrastination–health model have not been examined in a high stress environment. Accordingly, we tested the contribution of procrastination to health in nurses and whether social support was a protective factor. Design: Pre-registered cross-sectional study using a random sample of nurses recruited from the membership of a regional nursing association, supplemented by nurses and nurse trainees recruited from online nursing associations, conferences and forums. Methods: Nurses and nurse trainees (N = 597) completed measures of chronic procrastination, stress, health behaviours, social support and self-rated health. Results: Chronic procrastination was associated with perceived stress, health behaviours, self-rated health and social support in the expected directions. Consistent with the procrastination–health model, structural equation modelling revealed significant indirect effects linking chronic procrastination to poor self-rated health through higher stress and fewer health behaviours. Contrary to our hypotheses, social support did not moderate these pathways. Conclusions: This study is the first to demonstrate the relevance of procrastination for health in high-stress, non-academic contexts and to find support for both the stress and behavioural pathways linking procrastination to poor health outcomes. Findings further highlight the importance of addressing chronic procrastination as a vulnerability factor for poor health in nurses.
... Academic procrastination is considered a failure of self-regulation in which students intentionally delay the completion of academic tasks even though they are aware of the negative consequences (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013;Steel, 2007). According to expectancy-value theory (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000), temporal motivation theory (Steel & Konig, 2006), and time-oriented two-dimensional theory (Strunk et al., 2013), self-efficacy as a motivational factor influences procrastination behavior. ...
... However, even when students have high expectations of success, impulsivity, distraction, and low self-control can lead to academic procrastination. According to the Short-Term Mood Repair Theory (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), students may use procrastination as a strategy to regulate their emotions. The theory recommends that students engage in activities that are compatible with their current mood instead of working on academic tasks. ...
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Recent studies have shown that several psychological factors commonly found in students are associated with academic procrastination. In this study, the effects of rational decision-making and intrinsic motivation on the mechanisms of academic procrastination in college students were investigated. In this context, data were collected from 689 (383 male and 306 female) students enrolled in physical education and sports at universities in Turkey using rational decision-making, academic procrastination, and intrinsic motivation scales. The results showed that students' intrinsic motivation positively influences rational decision-making and negatively influences academic procrastination behavior. In addition, intrinsic motivation has a negative influence on academic procrastination behavior. On the other hand, intrinsic motivation plays a mediating role between rational decision-making and academic procrastination behavior with a high degree of effectiveness. The effect of intrinsic motivation on the effect of rational decision-making on academic procrastination behavior is 45.2%. Thus, intrinsic motivation indirectly and significantly offsets the negative effects of students' rational decision-making on academic procrastination behavior. Since the results of the study are not only scientifically but also practically important, the analytical relationship between students' decision-making styles and academic procrastination behavior as well as the necessary predictions for all motivational components underlying procrastination leading to academic failure should be made.
... It has been found that procrastination was related to various personality traits, including neuroticism, impulsivity, and self-control [66,76]. Notably, future self-continuity, a relatively stable personality trait, exhibits a robust negative correlation with procrastination [17,73]. Nonetheless, the neural underpinnings of this association remain unclear. ...
... Procrastination involves making choices that affect our future, highlighting a failure in self-regulation. It reveals a disjunction between one's present and future self [73]. Moreover, the temporal decision model of procrastination (TDM) highlights the conflict between one's present self and future self [83]. ...
Article
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Procrastination is universally acknowledged as a problematic behavior with wide-ranging consequences impacting various facets of individuals’ lives, including academic achievement, social accomplishments, and mental health. Although previous research has indicated that future self-continuity is robustly negatively correlated with procrastination, it remains unknown about the neural mechanisms underlying the impact of future self-continuity on procrastination. To address this issue, we employed a free construction approach to collect individuals’ episodic future thinking (EFT) thoughts regarding specific procrastination tasks. Next, we conducted voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) analysis to explore the neural substrates underlying future self-continuity. Behavior results revealed that future self-continuity was significantly negatively correlated with procrastination, and positively correlated with anticipated positive outcome. The VBM analysis showed a positive association between future self-continuity and gray matter volumes in the right ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC). Furthermore, the RSFC results indicated that the functional connectivity between the right vmPFC and the left inferior parietal lobule (IPL) was positively correlated with future self-continuity. More importantly, the mediation analysis demonstrated that anticipated positive outcome can completely mediate the relationship between the vmPFC-IPL functional connectivity and procrastination. These findings suggested that vmPFC-IPL functional connectivity might prompt anticipated positive outcome about the task and thereby reduce procrastination, which provides a new perspective to understand the relationship between future self-continuity and procrastination.
... Furthermore, our study revealed significant correlations between maladaptive emotion-regulation strategies and hypervigilance, buck-passing, and procrastination decisionmaking styles, suggesting that individuals experiencing psychological distress may exhibit heightened emotional reactivity and vigilance (Clauss et al. 2020;Ding et al. 2020). Procrastination, often influenced by maladaptive emotion-regulation strategies like emotion inhibition, temporarily relieves negative emotions but can intensify them over time (Joormann and Gotlib 2010;Sirois and Pychyl 2013). ...
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In public security policing, where pressure is constant, effective decision-making and emotion regulation are critical, especially for leaders. These processes significantly impact upon work results, performance, officials' health, employee well-being, and the organizational environment. This study aims to broaden the understanding of decision-making styles and emotion-regulation strategies used by police officials in the Portuguese Public Security Police (PSP). We surveyed 138 Portuguese high-ranking police officials using two self-response questionnaires, namely the Emotion Regulation in the Workplace (ReTrab) and the Melbourne Decision Making Questionnaire (MDMQ), both translated, adapted, and validated for the Portuguese police context. A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted, followed by correlations to explore the relationship between emotion regulation strategies and decision-making styles. Finally, through a regression analysis, the potential impact of this relationship was assessed. The results reveal that specific emotion-regulation strategies, except for adaptive ones, significantly influence and modify the decision-making styles of PSP officials. Dysfunctional and maladaptive emotion-regulation strategies lead to less adaptive decision-making styles, while functional strategies promote more adaptive styles. These findings have theoretical and practical implications, offering valuable insights for targeted training programs and interventions in the law-enforcement sector, benefiting the police personnel, the communities they serve, and public perceptions about police.
... Procrastination has been identified as a phenomenon described by the prioritization of one's immediate self-interest over future-oriented considerations and the prioritization of short-term emotional regulation over long-haul objectives and benefits, as observed along the unidirectional trajectory from bedtime procrastination to mental health symptoms. 74 Individuals experiencing bedtime procrastination may realize that failing to adhere to proper sleeping schedules can negatively impact their health. As a result, they may impose self-inflicted pressure on themselves, subsequently leading to the manifestation of symptoms associated with mental health. ...
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Background Problematic smartphone use (PSU) is linked to various mental health issues, but the relationship between PSU, bedtime procrastination, and mental health symptoms is unclear. Sleep factors related to PSU and its mental health effects have been understudied. This study explores the longitudinal associations between PSU, bedtime procrastination, sleep quality, and mental health in university students. Methods In this study, a total of 683 university students participated by completing questionnaires on Smart Phone Addiction (SAS) scale, Bedtime Procrastination Scale (BPS), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and Depression, Anxiety Stress Scales 21 (DASS-21) across two different time points with six-months interval between them. The participants were selected using a cluster sampling technique from Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan. A cross-lagged model was utilized to assess the longitudinal association between these variables. Results Statistically significant reciprocal associations were found between PSU, bedtime procrastination, and mental health symptoms. PSU at Time 1 significantly predicted PSU at Time 2, bedtime procrastination at Time 2, sleep quality at Time 2, and mental health symptoms at Time 2. Bedtime procrastination at Time 1 predicted PSU at Time 2, sleep quality at Time 2, and mental health symptoms at Time 2. Sleep quality at Time 1 predicted bedtime procrastination at Time 2 and mental health symptoms at Time 2. Mental health symptoms at Time 1 predicted PSU at Time 2 and sleep quality at Time 2. Conclusion The research findings have significantly advanced understanding of the longitudinal connections between PSU, bedtime procrastination, sleep quality, and mental health indicators. This enhanced comprehension is instrumental for psychological practitioners in devising targeted interventions to mitigate such issues among the university student demographic.
... Research, for example, has shown that procrastinating on academic tasks could create a conflict between learners' present and subsequent learning, resulting in poor learning outcomes (Gareau et al., 2019;Kim & Seo, 2015). It is also associated with a myriad of adverse emotional experiences, including anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, fear of failure, and despair (Gadosey et al., 2021;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). ...
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The present study aimed to investigate the interconnections among mindfulness, self-regulated learning (SRL), attention control, and procrastination among English as a foreign language (EFL) learner in Iran. Additionally, the mediating influence of SRL and attention control on mindfulness-procrastination link were tested. For this purpose, 272 university EFL students were conveniently selected and administered self-report questionnaires. Structural equation modeling and mediation analyses were employed. The results indicated that greater levels of SRL and attention control were related to lower levels of procrastination. Further, mindfulness directly predicted SRL and attention control. The findings also showed that although mindfulness did not directly account for procrastination, it could indirectly impact procrastination via the mediation of SRL and attention control. The findings were discussed, and implications and suggestions for future research were presented.
... This is particularly noteworthy when considering that procrastination is viewed as an indicator or outcome of unsuccessful/dysfunctional MR (Bäulke et al., 2021;Grunschel et al., 2016). One possible explanation is that procrastination can alleviate unpleasant emotional experiences connected to motivational problems (see Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). More work is needed to explain the rationale underlying students' selection of this behavior for managing motivational problems; possible first steps include examining connections with regulatory goals using, for instance, (semi-)structured interviews, and how procrastination impacts students' subsequent emotions and motivation. ...
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Background: Motivation and emotion form important pillars of students’ educational experiences and, while representing distinguishable constructs, are closely intertwined. Consequently, it can be assumed that their regulation may be governed by similar mechanisms as well. From a theoretical perspective, MR and ER strategy taxonomies do contain overlap, particularly among strategies involving reappraisals of personal competencies, but also unique (i.e., non-overlapping) strategies. Empirically, however, motivational regulation (MR) and emotion regulation (ER) have had little intersection in prior research and stem from rather disconnected research traditions. Aims: Building on previous work on the functional interplay between students’ motivation and emotion, we examined similarities and differences in MR and ER strategies and tested the assumption that MR strategies are also used to regulate emotions, and ER strategies to regulate motivation, in study situations. Sample: Participants were 1,466 university students. Method: Using a within-person design, students reported on their use of various strategies for managing regu- latory problems involving either low motivation or negative emotions (anxiety, boredom). Results: Using CFA and latent difference modeling, we found that strategy use was strongly correlated and differed little in terms of mean levels across motivational and emotional regulation problems. These correlations were even stronger, and mean differences smaller, than those found for regulatory problem distinctions within motivational and emotional problems. Conclusions: The findings indicate that many designated MR and ER strategies as distinguished in current tax- onomies may be relevant for managing both motivational and emotional problems and underscore the need for joint theoretical perspectives on MR and ER.
... The Short-term Mood Regulation Theory (STMR) of procrastination proposes that when individuals encounter negative emotions while pursuing goals such as learning tasks, they may forgo long-term beneficial behaviors, including studying, as a means to alleviate their current negative emotions (Sirois and Pychyl, 2013). This behavior often leads to academic procrastination. ...
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Background While previous studies have linked mindfulness to reduced academic procrastination, the mechanisms involved remain under-explored. This study deepens the understanding by investigating how learning vigor mediates the mindfulness and procrastination relationship, and how harsh parenting influences this mediation. Methods This study, adopting a positivist research approach, utilized a cross-sectional design. Data were collected from 800 students at three middle schools in Henan Province, China, through cluster random sampling. This approach yielded 800 questionnaires. The participants sequentially completed four questionnaires: the Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale, the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale-Student, the Aitken Procrastination Inventory, and the Harsh Parenting Questionnaire. After removing 67 invalid questionnaires due to incomplete responses and patterned answers, a total of 733 valid questionnaires were obtained, with 53.3% girls and an average age of 13.12 years (SD = 1.01), leading to an effectiveness rate of 91.63%. Upon data collection, SPSS 26.0 software was used for correlation analysis, mediation analysis, and moderated mediation analysis to assess the relationships between variables. Results (1) Mindfulness negatively predicts academic procrastination; (2) Learning vigor serves as a mediator in the relationship between mindfulness and academic procrastination; and (3) Harsh parenting moderates the relationship between mindfulness and learning vigor. Specifically, the positive impact of mindfulness on learning vigor is more pronounced in individuals experiencing lower levels of harsh parenting compared to those with higher levels. Conclusion This study reveals that mindfulness significantly protects against academic procrastination in adolescents, with 52.27% of this effect mediated by increased learning vigor. Additionally, it shows that high levels of harsh parenting weaken mindfulness’s positive impact on learning vigor, tempering its overall protective influence on procrastination. These insights, which apply Trait Activation Theory to educational psychology, not only deepen our understanding of the dynamics between mindfulness and procrastination but also have important implications for addressing academic procrastination in Chinese adolescents.
... Scientific literature includes extensive in-depth research into the concept, causes and consequences of procrastination behaviour. (Klassen et al., 2008;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013;Steel, 2007;Steel & Ferrari, 2013). According to Steel (2007), 75% of university students procrastinate and 50% admit that they frequently procrastinate in their studies. ...
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Academic procrastination is a behaviour that delays the completion of tasks, time management or other academic activities. However, it is possible to develop interventions that eliminate or minimise this procrastinating behaviour. This study presents a systematic review of the literature following the PRISMA method guidelines, with the aim of identifying interventions for the reduction or elimination of procrastinating behaviours in university students. A search was conducted for records published in peer-reviewed scientific journals between 2010 and 2022. Three electronic databases were consulted. A total of ten studies that met the inclusion criteria were analysed. This review shows the main features of the included studies, with special emphasis on the changes perceived depending on the intervention modes applied: face-to-face, online and hybrid. The results revealed that face-to-face interventions showed high levels of changes perceived, as participants presented improved time management, task planning, awareness and reduced procrastination behaviour. However, although the hybrid and online interventions showed some changes in terms of the competencies identified, they did not report changes perceived in terms of changes in procrastination behaviour.
... The sixth hypothesis of the study predicted the positive effect of WP on CWB, and our hypothesis testing results supported this prediction. Many studies have examined the link between WP and adverse individual and organizational outcomes (Munjal & Mishra, 2019;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and evidence suggests that higher levels of procrastination are associated with increased engagement in CWB (Haider & Yean, 2023). Our result is consistent with the results of previous studies examining this relationship. ...
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Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) causes financial losses and psychologically affects other employees exposed to verbal or physical attacks from their colleagues. This issue creates a stressful workplace and has a negative impact on organizational outputs. The objective of this study is to develop a coherent logic and a thorough comprehension of the CWB’s predecessors and their relationships to the CWB. Our research applied partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to test hypotheses on a sample of 390 healthcare personnel in a hospital. We propose an approach in which administrators can reduce counterproductive work behaviors by strengthening psychological capital. Also, eliminating work alienation and workplace procrastination is an original and critical argument for preventing counterproductive work behavior. The findings reveal that high psychological capital negatively affected counterproductive work behaviors and reduced these behaviors in the workplace. However, the partial mediation role of work alienation and the mediation role of workplace procrastination were determined in the relationship between psychological capital and counterproductive work behavior.
... Such consequences include diminished academic engagement [17], dropout rates [18], and reduced motivation [19]. The prevalence of this maladaptive behavior, causing many negative consequences and hindering effective societal performance [20], underscores the need to investigate both risk and protective factors associated with academic procrastination. ...
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Academic procrastination, a prevalent issue in higher education, has been associated with various adverse outcomes. This study aims to discern and compare the degrees of academic procrastination among university students in Honduras and Spain while also investigating the relationship between academic procrastination and the Big Five personality factors alongside self-esteem. The sample comprised 457 university students, encompassing 237 Hondurans and 220 Spaniards. The research employed descriptive, comparative, correlational, and regression analyses. Honduran university students exhibited a significantly lower level of academic procrastination. Correlational analyses revealed that self-esteem and all Big Five personality factors, except for neuroticism in the Spanish cohort, displayed noteworthy associations with academic procrastination. Further regression analyses demonstrated that conscientiousness emerged as a significant predictor of procrastination in both samples. This study's findings can be pivotal in identifying students at risk of procrastination at an early stage. Additionally, the results can inform the development of intervention programs designed to mitigate procrastination tendencies among university students.
... [4]The bedtime procrastination behavior can be seen as a short-term emotional fix. [5]Specifically, individuals with bedtime procrastination delay going to bed as a way to alleviate negative feelings However, this behavior often leads to sleep deprivation, perpetuating the cycle of bedtime procrastination. Consequently, we propose that negative emotions impact sleep patterns, and procrastinating before bedtime serves as an insufficient strategy for emotional regulation, resulting in bedtime procrastination behavior. ...
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This study aims to research the effects of negative emotions on bedtime procrastination behaviors, with self-control and time management as chain mediating variables. Using relevant scales, a questionnaire survey was conducted among 300 participants. The results showed significant negative correlations between bedtime procrastination and negative emotional bias, self-control, and time management tendency. Mediation analysis indicated that, Controlling for gender and age., negative emotions significantly positively predict bedtime procrastination. The significant mediating role of time management tendency, and Interlocking mediating effects of self-control and time management tendencies is significant. In essence, individuals with high levels of negative emotions are more likely to engage in bedtime procrastination behaviors and negative emotions can lead to bedtime procrastination behaviors by affecting self-control and time management tendencies.
... Indeed, high self-control can help to translate affective appraisals such as guilt or entertainment experience into goal-conducive behavior change (Inzlicht et al., 2014). Conversely, research found that individuals favor immediate gratifications in situations when self-control is low (e.g., Hofmann et al., 2012;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Low self-control has, for example, been associated with procrastinatory media use through which recipients postpone other tasks (Exelmans & van den Bulck, 2017). ...
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Consuming media entertainment often challenges recipients’ self-control. While past research related self-control almost exclusively to whether individuals engage in media use, it might be equally relevant for the disengagement from media use. Testing core assumptions of the Appraisal of Media Use, Self-Control, and Entertainment (AMUSE) model, the present study investigates the situational interplay of self-control and affective appraisals in predicting disengagement from Netflix use. Preregistered hypotheses were tested based on an event-contingent experience sampling design, in which 205 adult Netflix users in the Netherlands and Germany were tracked and surveyed for two weeks. Results demonstrate that disengagement is contingent upon enjoyment and appreciation and that enjoyment, in turn, can be “spoiled” by feeling guilty. Self-control influenced goal conflict and enjoyment throughout the reception process. We discuss opportunities for modeling disengagement from media use with situational research approaches.
... Similarly, previous findings suggest that students with impulsivity (Steel, 2007) and goal avoidance orientation (Corkin et al., 2011;Howell & Buro, 2009;Howell & Watson, 2007;Seo, 2009) are more likely to procrastinate on their tasks and assignments. Current findings on the relationship between fear of failure, difficulties with emotion regulation, and procrastination also support the idea that procrastination functions as a short-term emotion regulation strategy (Pychyl & Sirois, 2016;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013;Tice et al., 2001). Recent evidence suggests that difficulties in regulating unpleasant emotions effectively promote procrastination behavior (Mohammadi Bytamar et al., 2020). ...
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This study investigates the mediating mechanisms that play a crucial role in the relationship between fear of failure and academic satisfaction and between fear of failure and procrastination. The study sample consists of 292 undergraduate students enrolled in different departments of the university. Within the scope of this study, emotion regulation difficulties may be one of the mediating mechanisms in this reciprocal relationship, the findings provide evidence that procrastination functions as a mediating variable in the relationship between fear of failure, difficulty in emotion regulation, and academic satisfaction while difficulty in emotion regulation acts as a mediator in the relationship between fear of failure and procrastination. Therefore, the findings of this study suggest that interventions aimed at improving the individual's emotion regulation skills may play an important role in overcoming the negative effects associate with the fear of failure on procrastination and academic satisfaction.
... Research suggests that negative emotions may hinder an individual's ability to perceive the benefits of adhering to a regular sleep schedule, including increased energy levels and improved mental health. Specifically, negative emotions could lead individuals to perceive the rewards associated with going to bed on time as distant and ineffective in helping them cope with their current negative emotional state (Sirois and Pychyl, 2013). As a prevalent phenomenon in the adolescent population, emotional distress is a commonly used indicator of mental health, which is often characterized by anxiety, depression, and somatic symptoms (Drapeau et al., 2012). ...
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This longitudinal study explored the impact of the upper limit of cognitive control on the sleep quality of high school students. We collected data in two waves to examine four main variables: capacity of cognitive control (CCC), trait mindfulness, emotional distress and sleep quality. At the first time point (T1), trait mindfulness and emotional distress were measured by rating scales, and the CCC was evaluated by revised backward masking majority function task. Sleep quality was rated 5 months later (T2). The results indicated that: (1) the CCC was negatively correlated with trait mindfulness, and trait mindfulness was negatively correlated with emotional stress; (2) there was no simple mediation of either trait mindfulness or emotional distress in the relationship between CCC and sleep quality; (3) instead, the CCC was associated with poor sleep quality in a sequential mediation through trait mindfulness and then emotional stress. The research highlights the importance of trait mindfulness and emotional distress for addressing sleep problems in adolescents.
... However, modern hedonism carries negative motivational and learning consequences [38,23]. Sirois [39] found that while present hedonism offers immediate pleasure, it hampers long-term planning and goal achievement, ultimately impacting overall success and well-being. ...
Article
This study investigated the relationship between time perspectives (past, present, future) and personality traits among 350 university students in the Davao Region using a quantitative-predictive research design. Shapiro-Wilk test confirmed normal distribution and measured variable levels. Findings revealed that students had high present hedonistic, past negative, and past positive time perspectives, along with high openness to experience and agreeableness, and moderate neuroticism, conscientiousness, and extraversion. A positive correlation between time perspectives and personality traits was identified, with linear regression indicating that future, present hedonistic, and past positive perspectives were significant positive predictors. This research offers clear recommendations for utilizing diverse time perspectives and associated personality traits in personal development. Encouraging self-awareness and reflection can assist students in understanding how their time outlook shapes their behavior. This research also highlights potential drawbacks such as excessive future-oriented thinking leading to anxiety or rigidity, present hedonism resulting in neglect of long-term goals or consequences, and dwelling excessively on past positive experiences hindering present growth. It also underscores the importance of addressing these negatives through balanced approaches tailored to individual needs. Future research should include larger sample sizes and consider additional factors such as life satisfaction, parenting styles, and subjective well-being.
... Procrastination is defined as "the act of putting off a task even when one knows that doing so will have maladaptive consequences" [1][2][3] , and has been reported to reduce people's well-being and increase their stress [4][5][6][7][8] . Since procrastination deeply pervades people's daily lives and affects all aspects of their lives, various factors have been examined as related to procrastination, including personality traits such as the Big Five 9-12 , cognitive and motivational factors such as self-control [13][14][15][16] , and task traits such as task aversiveness [17][18][19] . Among these factors, temporal characteristics have played a central role in understanding procrastination since procrastination involves putting off "present" tasks to "future" ones. ...
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Previous studies have shown that procrastinators tend to disregard the future. However, the "time view" of procrastinators, including their impressions of the future, has not been sufficiently examined. Therefore, we introduced new indices, "chronological stress view" and "chronological well-being view," which treat impressions of the past, present, and future (= time view) as time-series data via stress and well-being, respectively. The results showed that the group that believed that stress did not increase as they moved into the future had a lower percentage of severe procrastinators. No relationship was found between the chronological well-being view and procrastination. This result suggests that people who are relatively optimistic about the future based on the chronological stress view are less likely to be severe procrastinators. This may suggest the importance of having a hopeful prospect in the future to avoid procrastinating on actions that should yield greater rewards in the future.
... Additionally, students' beliefs about their selfregulation skills, such as time management, are related to procrastination (Han et al., 2023). People who fail to self-regulate their own behavior, especially when facing aversive tasks, often give into the short-term rewards and instant gratification that can come when avoiding a task (Sirois and Pychyl, 2013). Thus, it is a matter of deficit in emotional regulation over long-term goals. ...
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Introduction The aim of our study is to explore the relationship between procrastination, time management skills and psychological flexibility and the changes in them during an Acceptance and Commitment therapy (ACT)-based course that included time management training. We also explored the effects of time management skills and psychological flexibility on procrastination. The study used an experimental design in an ACT-based well-being course that included time management training. Methods The participants were 109 students taking the course and 27 waiting list students. Analyses were conducted with Pearson correlation, mixed ANOVA and causal mediation analysis. Results and discussion Our results show that time management skills, psychological flexibility and procrastination were related to each other, and all changed during the course. In addition, change in both time management and psychological flexibility had an impact on the change in procrastination during the course. The results show that both time management and psychological flexibility influence the change in procrastination during an ACT-based course.
... Support groups and therapy that focus on these life factors can provide the necessary tools to manage depressive symptoms more effectively (Eimontas et al., 2021;Krishna et al., 2011). Moreover, by tackling the underlying causes of depression, such interventions can help reduce procrastination, as they regain a sense of self control (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). Furthermore, incorporating physical activity programs can combat fatigue and improve cognitive function, thereby reducing the tendency to procrastinate (Paterniti et al., 2002). ...
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Objectives: Procrastination is an almost universal behaviour and yet little research to date has focused on procrastination among older adults. The purpose of this study was to explore the potential association between age and procrastination, and the potential mediating roles of depressive symptom-atology and loneliness. Method: Structural equation modelling was applied to data from 1309 participants (aged 29-92) from two waves United States Health and Retirement Study (2016-2020). Within the model, sex, education, marital status, and job status were added as covariates. Results: There was no statistically significant direct effect between age and procrastination (β = 0.06, p = 0.106). However, an indirect effect was present via depressive symptomatology (β = −0.40, p < 0.001). No mediating effect of loneliness was observed (β = − 0.01, p = 0.371). Subsequent analysis revealed that the symptoms, fatigue, loneliness, and lack of motivation significantly predicted procrastination. Conclusion: While age was not directly associated with procrastination, increasing age was associated with a decreased likelihood of depressive symptomatology, which was in turn associated with an increased likelihood of procrastination. Such findings indicates that age demonstrates no association with procrastination because of the suppressing effect of depressive symptomatology.
... Procrastination is defined as "to voluntarily delay an intended course of action despite expecting to be worse off for the delay" with an irrational delaying behavior (Steel, 2007). Conceptually, procrastination is regarded as a form of self-regulation failure that prioritises to the short-term mood repair over the long-term goals (Sirois, 2014;Sirois & Pychyl, 2013;Tice & Bratslavsky, 2000). In other words, when people meet a task that is so aversive that they would rather avoid it at the expense of a long-term goal that might be achieved by engaging in the task, procrastination occurs. ...
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Although low self-control is regarded as an important influence factor of college student smartphone addiction, the mediating mechanism is still unclear. Based on the I–PACE model, the present study aims to explore the multiple mediating roles of social anxiety and procrastination in the effect of self-control on smartphone addiction among college students, as well as the gender differences, using a semi-longitudinal design. Our sample consisted of 1143 Chinese college students (36.4% males; Mage=21.91 years, SD = 1.02 years, range from 19 to 28 years) who completed the Brief Self-control Scale, the Interaction Anxiousness Scale, the Pure Pocrastination Scale, and the Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Version. SPSS 26.0 was used to analyze correlations among variables and Mplus 8.0 was used to test the structural equation model and gender differences. The results indicated that self-control was negatively associated with smartphone addiction. Social anxiety and procrastination sequentially mediated the link between self-control and smartphone addiction. Furthermore, although the proposed mediation model did not show significant gender differences, we found different associations between self-control, procrastination and smartphone addiction between males and females. The results of this study may contribute to intervention and prevention programs to reduce smartphone addiction among students.
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Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menginvestigasi efek cyberloafing terhadap dinamika stres profesional, dengan fokus khusus pada pengaruh cyberloafing terhadap stres kerja di institusi X. Studi ini melibatkan 120 karyawan sebagai responden dan menggunakan metode analisis korelasi product moment untuk mengukur hubungan antara kedua variabel tersebut. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan adanya hubungan negatif yang sangat signifikan antara cyberloafing dan stres kerja, dengan koefisien korelasi (r) sebesar -0,595 dan taraf signifikansi p = 0,000 (p < 0,01). Temuan ini mengindikasikan bahwa semakin tinggi tingkat cyberloafing, semakin rendah tingkat stres kerja yang dialami karyawan. Meskipun demikian, penelitian ini juga mengungkapkan kompleksitas hubungan antara cyberloafing dan stres kerja. Cyberloafing dalam tingkat moderat dapat berfungsi sebagai mekanisme koping yang efektif untuk mengurangi stres kerja dan meningkatkan kesejahteraan karyawan. Namun, fenomena ini juga berpotensi berdampak negatif terhadap produktivitas dan kinerja organisasi jika tidak dikelola dengan baik. Hasil penelitian ini menyoroti pentingnya pendekatan yang seimbang dalam mengelola cyberloafing di tempat kerja, dengan mempertimbangkan potensi manfaatnya dalam mengurangi stres kerja sambil tetap menjaga produktivitas. Penelitian ini memberikan wawasan baru tentang dinamika cyberloafing dan stres kerja, serta implikasinya bagi manajemen sumber daya manusia di era digital. Temuan ini dapat menjadi dasar bagi pengembangan kebijakan yang lebih efektif dalam mengelola penggunaan internet di tempat kerja dan strategi pengelolaan stres karyawan.
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Đề tài này tìm hiểu về mối quan hệ giữa tính linh hoạt tâm lý, khả năng điều tiết cảm xúc và khuynh hướng trì hoãn trong học tập của 422 sinh viên tại trường Đại học Công nghệ Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh. Bằng phương pháp nghiên cứu cắt ngang kèm 3 công cụ là thang đo chỉ số linh hoạt tâm lý cá nhân, thang đo các khó khăn trong điều tiết cảm xúc và thang đo trì hoãn trong học tập; chúng tôi đã tiến hành xử lý số liệu thu thập được bằng phần mềm SPSS và tệp lệnh mở rộng PROCESS. Kết quả cho thấy, sinh viên có mức độ linh hoạt tâm lý ở mức tương đối cao, khả năng điều tiết cảm xúc ở mức trung bình đến cao, và có 69,9% sinh viên trì hoãn học tập từ mức trung bình đến rất cao. Sinh viên thuộc các năm học khác nhau thì khả năng chấp nhận trong tính linh hoạt tâm lý, khả năng thấu hiểu và chấp nhận cảm xúc, cùng khả năng điều tiết cảm xúc nói chung cũng khác nhau. Cả linh hoạt tâm lý và điều tiết cảm xúc đều tương quan và có khả năng dự đoán đối với khuynh hướng trì hoãn học tập ở sinh viên. Ngoài ra, trong nghiên cứu này, khả năng điều tiết cảm xúc của sinh viên còn đóng vai trò trung gian trong sự tác động của linh hoạt tâm lý lên trì hoãn học tập. Cuối cùng, dựa trên kết quả của công trình này, chúng tôi đưa ra kiến nghị về ứng dụng các kỹ thuật của liệu pháp chấp nhận – cam kết để cải thiện xu hướng trì hoãn của sinh viên thông qua trực tiếp nâng cao tính linh hoạt tâm lý và gián tiếp thông qua khả năng điều tiết cảm xúc.
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Nghiên cứu này phân tích và tìm hiểu vai trò trung gian của biến điều tiết cảm xúc trong sự tác động của linh hoạt tâm lý đến trì hoãn học tập ở sinh viên Trường Đại học Công nghệ Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh. Thang đo Trì hoãn trong học tập, thang đo Tính linh hoạt tâm lý cá nhân và thang đo Các khó khăn trong điều tiết cảm xúc được sử dụng khảo sát trên 422 sinh viên. Kết quả cho thấy, có 69,9% sinh viên trì hoãn học tập từ mức trung bình cho đến rất cao, sinh viên có mức linh hoạt tâm lý tương đối cao và có khả năng điều tiết cảm xúc từ mức trung bình cho đến cao. Trì hoãn học tập có mối tương quan nghịch với linh hoạt tâm lý và khả năng điều tiết cảm xúc của sinh viên, điều tiết cảm xúc đóng vai trò trung gian trong tác động của tính linh hoạt tâm lý lên trì hoãn học tập. Từ đó, chúng tôi đề xuất hướng nghiên cứu khai thác vai trò của can thiệp ACT trong cải thiện trực tiếp trì hoãn học tập ở sinh viên, thông qua nâng cao tính linh hoạt tâm lý và gián tiếp thông qua ảnh hưởng của linh hoạt tâm lý lên khả năng điều tiết cảm xúc. This study explored the mediating role of emotion regulation in the relationship between psychological flexibility and procrastination in students of Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HUTECH). The Academic Procrastination Scale, Personalized Psychological Flexibility Index, and Difficulties of Emotion Regulation Scale were the measurement used on the sample of 422 students. The result showed that 69.9% of students reported procrastinating at the medium to very high level. They were relatively heightened in psychological flexibility and mediumly to highly able to regulate their emotions. Academic procrastination is negatively correlated with both psychological flexibility and the ability to regulate emotions. There was a significant statistical mediating role of emotion regulation on the impact of psychological flexibility on academic procrastination. Based on the exploration, we suggest further research to discover the importance of ACT interventions in directly improving students' academic procrastination by enhancing psychological flexibility and indirectly through the effect of psychological flexibility on emotion regulation.
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i>Activities that bring short-term pleasure, such as video gaming, have an ambiguous effect on long-term goal attainment. From one perspective, they are a source of positive affect, which helps people to overcome procrastination and finally initiate the planned task. However, these short-term pleasure activities may become the source of procrastination themselves, tempting people to engage in them beyond the intended timeframe. The present study attempts to resolve this conflict. It implies a novel “qualitative experiment” methodology in order to test a behavioral strategy; taking 10-minute breaks after each game round, which is aimed to help gamers control their desire to play beyond the self-imposed limit. Over the course of two weeks, participants who used this strategy (Strategy group) reported a similar decrease in procrastination tendencies compared to participants who totally abstained from video gaming (Abstinence group) and a larger decrease in procrastination compared to participants who played in their regular routine (Control group). In addition, the Strategy group reported a higher sense of emotional well-being than both the Abstinence and the Control ones. These results corroborate the effectiveness of the self-control model, oriented on the productive coexistence of hedonic pleasures and long-term goals.</i
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The current study investigated perfectionism and procrastination from the trait and cognitive perspectives and addressed how they relate to components of a personal orientation toward failure. A sample of 327 undergraduate students completed three perfectionism measures (i.e., Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, Hewitt–Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, and Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory), two procrastination measures (i.e., Lay Procrastination Scale and Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory), and measures of fear of failure and overgeneralizing failure. Correlational analyses showed that the composite trait dimension of perfectionistic concerns and the cognitive dimension of perfectionistic automatic thoughts had modest links with trait procrastination but much stronger links with the cognitive measure of procrastinatory automatic thoughts. All perfectionism and procrastination measures were significantly correlated with fear of failure and overgeneralization of failure. More extensive analyses showed that fear of failure mediated trait and cognitive pathways between perfectionism and procrastination, and the overgeneralization of failure mediated most pathways. Other evidence supported a sequential mediation between perfectionism and procrastination (i.e., fear of failure followed by the overgeneralization of failure). Overall, the results suggest that procrastinating perfectionists have a cognitive hypersensitivity to failure and a potentially debilitating form of perfectionistic reactivity characterized by overgeneralizing failures to the self. The theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
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مقارنة في التسويف الأكاديمي و تسويف وقت النوم و الخجل لدى طلبة الجامعة المرحلين وغير المرحلين دراسيا
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This much-needed book introduces readers to the related fields of expertise, creativity, and performance, exploring our understanding of the factors contributing to greatness in creative domains. Bringing together research from the fields of creativity and expertise, it provides fresh insights for newcomers and seasoned scholars alike with its approachable guide to the multidimensional complexities of expertise development. It transcends traditionally studied fields such as chess, sports, and music, instead exploring the intersection of expertise with creativity and the performing arts. Dedicated applied chapters cover eight fields, including mind-games, music, dance, creative writing, acting, art, and STEM. The book also examines the facilitators of creative performance, including aesthetic sensitivity, creativity, and mental imagery as well as the obstacles to performance such as burnout, procrastination, and gender-related challenges. The book concludes by engaging with pressing issues facing expertise, including the impact of AI. Student-friendly pedagogy is featured throughout, including 'Spotlight on...', 'Check it out...', and 'Consider this...' boxes to position material within context and engage students' learning. Whether revealing how an actor brings their part to life, how writers conjure up their storylines and vibrant characters, or what lies behind scientific invention, The Psychology of Creative Performance and Expertise offers a fascinating insight into the multifaceted journey towards achieving creative excellence. This is a valuable resource for final-year undergraduates, postgraduate students, and scholars across a range of disciplines, including expertise or skill acquisition, the psychology of performance, and creativity.
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Student academic procrastination has been established as a strong predictor of several unfavorable consequences such as poor academic performance, low academic self-efficacy, and negative emotional experience. Increasing knowledge on what variables affect academic procrastination can assist nurturers and educators in minimizing student academic procrastination in the primary school setting. Based on the temporal decision model, this study examined the link between self-control and academic procrastination via the mediational role of task aversiveness and outcome value. The model was tested using structural equation modeling and cross-sectional data from 3028 primary school students (50.8% boys) in grades 3–6. The results showed a positive association between the impulse system and academic procrastination, and a negative association between the control system and academic procrastination among primary school students. Moreover, both task aversiveness and outcome value were found to mediate the link between self-control and academic procrastination among primary school students. These findings suggest that encouraging and guiding students to think more about the positive outcome and less about the negative engagement of tasks may be an effective strategy to reduce their academic procrastination.
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Reiff and colleagues found that perceived similarity between one’s present and future self is positively associated with life satisfaction 10 years later, using a difference-score approach to operationalize similarity. This study further evaluated the similarity effect by reproducing the original longitudinal association with a difference-score method, by using more sophisticated analyses (i.e., polynomial regression and response surface analyses), and by replicating the association in a newly collected sample. We were able to reproduce and replicate the findings based on a difference-score approach. However, we did not find a similarity effect in either sample using more sophisticated approaches. The current results show that previously reported support for the association between perceived similarity and well-being is driven by the statistical main effects of personality reports.
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Academic procrastination, a dynamic phenomenon, profoundly affects students’ academic performance and psychosocial development. This study delves into the evolving nature of procrastination patterns among 582 Chinese junior high school students (aged 12–16) over a 12-month period. Employing Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) and Latent Transition Analysis (LTA), we uncovered four distinctive profiles: non-procrastinators, mild, moderate, and severe procrastinators. To predict these transitions, we examined fear of negative evaluation, parental psychological control, and deviant peer affiliation. The results illuminate that student associated with deviant peers, subjected to parental psychological control, or grappling with fear of negative evaluation were inclined towards profiles characterized by heightened academic procrastination. Notably, stability was most pronounced among mild and moderate procrastinators. Deviant peer affiliation, parental psychological control, and fear of negative evaluation compounded academic procrastination, impeding its amelioration. This investigation sheds light on the intricate interplay of personal, familial, and peer influences in the dynamic landscape of academic procrastination. By understanding these dynamics and predictive factors, we aim to inform targeted interventions to mitigate procrastination tendencies among junior high school students, fostering a more conducive learning environment. These findings hold substantial promise for educators, parents, and policymakers seeking to enhance students’ academic experiences and outcomes.
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Objectives Procrastination is one of the critical issues for university students and is associated with various psychological problems. This study examined the effectiveness of group compassion-focused intervention on procrastination, anxiety, and quality of life of (QoL) university students. Methods This research is an experimental study of clinical trial type. The study participants were 40 students of Iran University of Medical Sciences selected by a convenience sampling method. After obtaining informed consent, they completed the demographic questionnaire; academic procrastination questionnaire; depression, anxiety, and stress scale-21 (DASS-21); and personal wellbeing index–adult (PWI-A), before, immediately after, and three months after the intervention. The experimental group received eight 120-minute sessions of group compassion-focused therapy once a week, while the control group received no intervention. The data were compared using GLM repeated measures analysis of variance (GLMRM). Results Regarding procrastination, there is no significant difference between the average preparation for assignments and the tendency to change people›s procrastination at different evaluation times. However, the interaction effect of time and group has a significance level smaller than 0.05, indicating a significant difference between the average preparation for the tasks of the experimental and control groups at different evaluation times (F=4.439, P=0.043). The effect size of 0.115 indicates a moderate effect. There is also a significant difference between the procrastination tendency of the experimental and control groups at different evaluation times (F=8.348, P=0.007). The effect size of 0.197 indicates a moderate effect. Also, there is a significant difference between the experimental and control groups› average anxiety (F=35.62, P=0.000) and quality of life (F=14.57, P=0.001) at different evaluation times. The size of the effect indicates its strength. Conclusion Group compassion-focused intervention can be used as an effective therapy in working with students. However, more studies are needed to examine and compare other variables with other evidence-based treatments.
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This article suggests pedagogical practices to help first-generation students gain effective problem-solving strategies for the future transfer of writing knowledge and skills. The retention of first-generation students depends on developing four positive dispositions for learning: success attribution, self-efficacy, expectancy value, and self-regulation. Meaningful writing assignments with a connection to students’ cultural experiences are an essential foundation for improving transfer. Specific reflective activities are detailed for analyzing emotional reactions to writing experiences, evaluating procedural writing strategies, and solving current and future writing-related problems. A reflective problem-solving pedagogy promotes deep learning by emphasizing students’ agency in responding to writing difficulties and their resourcefulness in creating successful solutions.
Chapter
This chapter explores the benefits of leveraging strategic, holistic leadership practices throughout human-centric organizational ecosystems with a deep dive into the social-behavioral work-life dynamics associated with employee resilience building, growth mindset development, and assertive communications tactics. The perfectionism mindset is increasingly impacting work-life experiences at all levels of leadership and management within multicultural and multigenerational organizations. To enhance effectiveness and efficiencies, astute leaders integrate holistic well-being perspectives, practices, and policies to align evidence-based scientific multidisciplinary strategies incorporating principles from the people management, organizational development, and industrial-organizational psychology disciplines. Key concepts are guided by foundational dissertation mixed-methods research informing the application of practical exercises to deepen awareness and establish an appreciation for the holistic leadership mindset to counteract the perfectionism mindset for fostering a harmonized work-life.
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Two studies used the self-concordance model of healthy goal striving (K. M. Sheldon & A. J. Elliot, 1999) to examine the motivational processes by which people can increase their level of well-being during a period of time and then maintain the gain or perhaps increase it even further during the next period of time. In Study I, entering freshmen with self-concordant motivation better attained their 1st-semester goals, which in turn predicted increased adjustment and greater self-concordance for the next semester's goals. Increased self-concordance in turn predicted even better goal attainment during the 2nd semester, which led to further increases in adjustment and to higher levels of ego development by the end of the year. Study 2 replicated the basic model in a 2-week study of short-term goals set in the laboratory. Limits of the model and implications for the question of how (and whether) happiness may be increased are discussed.
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In Sample 1, 46 procrastinators compared with 52 nonprocrastinators claimed lower self-esteem, greater public self-consciousness and social anxiety, and a stronger tendency toward self-handicapping. In Sample 2, 48 procrastinators compared with 54 nonprocrastinators reported a weaker tendency toward seeking self-identity information but a stronger tendency toward a diffuse-identity style, yet there were no significant differences in verbal and abstract thinking abilities. Further research must provide evidence for persistent procrastination as a personality disorder that includes anxiety, avoidance, and a fear of evaluation of ability.
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Investigated the frequency of 342 college students' procrastination on academic tasks and the reasons for procrastination behavior. A high percentage of Ss reported problems with procrastination on several specific academic tasks. Self-reported procrastination was positively correlated with the number of self-paced quizzes Ss took late in the semester and with participation in an experimental session offered late in the semester. A factor analysis of the reasons for procrastination Ss listed in a procrastination assessment scale indicated that the factors Fear of Failure and Aversiveness of the Task accounted for most of the variance. A small but very homogeneous group of Ss endorsed items on the Fear of Failure factor that correlated significantly with self-report measures of depression, irrational cognitions, low self-esteem, delayed study behavior, anxiety, and lack of assertion. A larger and relatively heterogeneous group of Ss reported procrastinating as a result of aversiveness of the task. The Aversiveness of the Task factor correlated significantly with depression, irrational cognitions, low self-esteem, and delayed study behavior. Results indicate that procrastination is not solely a deficit in study habits or time management, but involves a complex interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and affective components. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
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When an attractive action opportunity has been forgone, individuals tend to decline a substantially less attractive current opportunity in the same action domain, even though, in an absolute sense, it still has positive value. The hypothesis that continued inaction (inaction inertia) occurs in the service of avoiding anticipated regret was tested. In Experiments 1 and 2, when repeated contact with the forgone opportunity (and, hence, the experience of regret) was made unavoidable the tendency toward subsequent inaction decreased. The inaction inertia effect was also reduced when avoidance costs were increased (Experiment 3) or when the initial reason for avoidance was removed (Experiment 4). Experiment 4 included a thought-listing task that provided direct evidence for the role of regret in producing inaction inertia.
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For five consecutive days, participants listed daily tasks they intended to complete. Recall of listed tasks served as the primary dependent variable. Characteristics of the task, including whether or not the task was actually completed, did not, in general, predict recall. The one exception was that the rated importance of the task to one's family did increase the likelihood of recall. Individual differences in avoidant procrastination were negatively related to the likelihood of recalling listed tasks. Avoidant procrastination also was related (positively) to false positive rates, the degree to which individuals "recalled" tasks that they had not listed the previous day. These findings suggest that procrastinators may have general cognitive processing strategies that are different from non-procrastinators. However, further research is needed to explore the information processing abilities of people who delay completing tasks.
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An 18-item Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory was developed in Study 1 and related to trait procrastination and negative affect. The research participants were 208 university students. Procrastinatory cognitions were found to mediate trait procrastination-negative affect relations. In Study 2,66 university students completed the Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory in terms of anticipated ruminations over the next three weeks (Time 1), and in terms of past ruminations experienced in that period, three weeks later at Time 2. The two assessments of procrastinatory cognitions demonstrated high stability. Trait procrastination was positively associated with procrastinatory cognitions at Time 1 and Time 2. Cognitions were related to self-reported dilatory behavior and to negative affect obtained at Time 2. The usefulness of the Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory was discussed and suggestions for future research were made.
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Consideration of counterfactual alternatives to negative outcomes, particularly when the counterfactuals change those outcomes, has repeatedly been shown to intensify regret and judgments of blame. Two studies examined the influence of the relevance of the counterfactual to future behavior on Ss' judgments of regret and self-blame after a negative outcome. Results indicated that a dispositional tendency to consider the future consequences of current behavior can ameliorate the negative affect caused by thinking about how a negative outcome could have been avoided. Results also suggested that this amelioration is particularly likely to occur when Ss are induced to focus on the future. These findings are discussed in terms of understanding the positive functions counterfactuals may serve, particularly with respect to the determination of future behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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The role of autonomous self-regulation as a predictor of academic procrastination was assessed. French-Canadian students from a junior college (N = 498) completed the Academic Motivation Scale as well as an academic procrastination scale and other measures (anxiety, self-esteem, and depression) that have been found to be related to fear of failure. Correlation results indicated that students with intrinsic reasons for pursuing academic tasks procrastinated less than those with less autonomous reasons (external regulation and amotivation). Regression results indicated that the measures of depression, self-esteem, and anxiety accounted for 14% of the variance in academic procrastination, whereas the self-regulation variables accounted for 25%. These results support the notion that procrastination is a motivational problem that involves more than poor time management skills or trait laziness.
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Procrastination is variously described as harmful, innocuous, or even beneficial. Two longitudinal studies examined procrastination among students. Procrastinators reported lower stress and less illness than nonprocrastinators early in the semester, but they reported higher stress and more illness late in the term, and overall they were sicker. Procrastinators also received lower grades on all assignments. Procrastination thus appears to be a self-defeating behavior pattern marked by short-term benefits and long-term costs.
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Because procrastination concerns a person’s ability to meet deadlines, temporal dimension is clearly important to this personality construct. In the present study, the characteristic profile of arousal and avoidant motives of procrastinators were related to past, present, and future time conceptions. Participants (140 women, 135 men; mean age=49.4, SD=5.55) completed measures of arousal and avoidance procrastination, and time orientation. Results indicated that avoidant procrastination was associated negatively with present-fatalistic time orientation, and arousal procrastination was associated positively with present-hedonist and negatively with future time orientations. The variance accounted for by time orientations was modest, yet provides further evidence that there are distinct motives for chronic procrastination.
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Although previous research has demonstrated that procrastinators experience high levels of stress, less is known about the internal sources of stress associated with this behavioural style. This study is the first to investigate low self-compassion as a source of procrastinators’ self-generated stress. Across four samples (145 undergraduates, 339, undergraduates, 190 undergraduates, and 94 community adults) trait procrastination was associated with low self-compassion and high stress. A meta-analysis of these effects revealed a moderately strong negative association of procrastination with self-compassion. In all four samples bootstrapping tests found that low self-compassion explained the stress associated with procrastination. These findings suggest that low self-compassion is a source of stress for procrastinators and interventions that promote self-compassion may be beneficial for these individuals.
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Research into why individuals do or do not engage in important health behaviors is often approached from the perspective of expectancy-value theories of motivation. Such theories suggest that the motivation to engage in a behavior is regulated by the outcome expectancies for the behavior and the value of the outcome. However, the relationship of expectancies and values to stable individual differences known to affect motivation are often overlooked. In this chapter the links between procrastination, a behavioral style known to be linked to poor health behaviors, and household safety behaviors were examined using an expectancy-value theory (EVT) framework. Adults (n = 254) recruited from the community and the Internet completed selfreport measures of procrastination, health self-efficacy, household safety behaviors, previous experiences with household accidents, and questions about the importance of keeping their homes free from potential accidents. Despite the fact that chronic procrastinators were more likely to have experienced a household accident that could have been prevented, procrastination was negatively related to the performance of household safety behaviors. Procrastination was also negatively related to health-self-efficacy and household safety value. Hierarchical regression testing the EVT variables found support for the predictive value of both outcome expectancies (self-efficacy) and value, but not their product, in explaining household safety behaviors after controlling for procrastination. Separate path analyses tested whether selfefficacy and valuing household safety mediated the relationship between procrastination and household safety behaviors. Safety value and self-efficacy each partially mediated the procrastination-household safety behaviour relationship after controlling for procrastination. These findings suggest that EVT may be useful for explaining motivations for household safety behaviors in general, and may also provide insight into the lack of motivation for these behaviors demonstrated by procrastinators.
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Initial investigations into the links between procrastination and health in student samples implicated stress-related and behavioural pathways. However, it is unknown if these relations are the same for com-munity-dwelling adults, or if alternative measures of procrastination and health behaviors will yield the same results. To replicate and extend previous findings 254 adults recruited from the community and the Internet completed self-report measures of procrastination, health, stress, wellness and household safety behaviours. Consistent with previous work, procrastination was associated with higher stress, more acute health problems, and the practice of fewer wellness behaviours. Procrastinators also reported fewer house-hold safety behaviours, and less frequent dental and medical check-ups. The structural equation modeling analyses revealed that stress fully mediated the procrastination–health relationship, but health behaviours did not when the combined effect with stress was considered. These findings suggest that in addition to hin-dering a variety of health-related behaviours, procrastination may confer additional risk for increased stress, and consequently more health problems.
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In this study, we extend previous work documenting links between procrastination, stress, and physical health by examining the potential role of mindfulness in explaining the high stress and poor health reported by procrastina-tors. A sample of 339 students (81% female) completed an on-line survey that included measures of trait procrastination, mindfulness, perceived stress, and per-ceived health. Univariate analyses revealed that procrastination was associated with low mindfulness, high stress, and poor perceived health. Structural equation mod-elling was used to test the role of mindfulness in explaining the links between procrastination and stress, and between procrastination and perceived health. The overall measurement model indicated a good fit to the data. Tests of the nested mediation models revealed that the effects of procrastination on stress and health were mediated by mindfulness, and bootstrapping analyses confirmed the signifi-cance of these effects. Our findings are consistent with previous research and theory on the salutatory effects of mindfulness for health and well-being and indicate that for procrastinators, low mindfulness may be a risk factor for poor emotional and physical well-being. This paper is based in part on data collected for Natalia Tosti's (2010) honours thesis.
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Guided by the conceptual framework of the consumer decision-making model, the present study compared the factors associated with initial and long-term use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) providers. A survey was completed by 239 people recruited from the offices of physicians and CAM practitioners. Conventional medicine clients (n = 54), new or infrequent clients (n = 73), and established CAM clients (n = 112) were compared to identify the decision factors for initial and long-term CAM use. Consistent with the components of this model, we found support for the roles of external influences (age, social recommendations), decision process factors (symptom severity, egalitarian provider preference), and post-decision factors (dissatisfaction with conventional care) depending on whether the pattern of CAM use was new or infrequent or established. Overall, this study provides preliminary support for the utility of the consumer decision-making model as an integrative framework for understanding the roles of correlates of CAM use.
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The purpose of this study was to examine the benefits associated with complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) treatments from the patients' perspective using a whole systems research approach as a guiding framework. We conducted five focus groups of six to eight participants each, with users of CAM recruited through experienced CAM providers and clinics. Eligible participants were aged 21 or older, had used CAM in the last 12 months, and believed the treatment to be beneficial. The focus group discussions were digitally recorded, transcribed, and analyzed through a quali-tative content analysis. Responses were inductively coded for common themes, and then placed into broader conceptual categories reflecting the CAM outcome domains suggested by Verhoef and colleagues. Participants described physical health benefits including symptom relief and improved function, and positive psychological benefits such as improved coping and resilience. Social health benefits that arose from the positive aspects of the patient-practitioner relationship were also reported, including support and advocacy. In addition, participants identified empowerment, increased hope and spiritual growth as results of receiving CAM treatments. A new behavioral health outcome domain emerged as partici-pants reported that CAM use had fostered behavioral changes such as increased exercise, smoking cessation and improv-ing their diets. These patient-reported benefits of CAM treatment are consistent with the outcome model proposed by Verhoef and col-leagues, and extend this model by identifying a new outcome domain—behavioral health outcome. The findings provide insight and direction for the development of outcome and process measures to evaluate CAM treatment effects.
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When an attractive action opportunity has been forgone, individuals tend to decline a substantially less attractive current opportunity in the same action domain, even though, in an absolute sense, it still has positive value. The hypothesis that continued inaction (inaction inertia) occurs in the service of avoiding anticipated regret was tested. In Experiments 1 and 2, when repeated contact with the forgone opportunity (and, hence, the experience of regret) was made unavoidable, the tendency toward subsequent inaction decreased. The inaction inertia effect was also reduced when avoidance costs were increased (Experiment 3) or when the initial reason for avoidance was removed (Experiment 4). Experiment 4 included a thought-listing task that provided direct evidence for the role of regret in producing inaction inertia. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Introduces the concept of possible selves (PSs) to complement current conceptions of self-knowledge. PSs represent individuals' ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming, and thus provide a conceptual link beteen cognition and motivation. PSs are the cognitive components of hopes, fears, goals, and threats; they give the specific self-relevant form, meaning, organization, and direction to these dynamics. It is suggested that PSs function as incentives for future behavior and to provide an evaluative and interpretive context for the current view of self. The nature and function of PSs and their role in addressing several persistent problems (e.g., the stability and malleability of the self, the unity of the self, self-distortion, the relationship between the self-concept and behavior) are discussed. (143 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Counterfactual thoughts ("might-have-been" reconstructions of past outcomes) may serve an affective function (feeling better) and a preparative function (future improvement). Three studies showed that counterfactuals varying in their direction and structure may differentially serve these 2 functions. Direction influenced affect such that downward (vs upward) counterfactuals caused more positive affect. Direction influenced intentions such that upward (vs downward) counterfactuals heightened intentions to perform success-facilitating behaviors. Both direction and structure influenced performance on an anagram task such that upward and additive (vs downward and subtractive) counterfactuals engendered greater improvement. These findings suggest that people can strategically use downward counterfactuals to make themselves feel better and upward and additive counterfactuals to improve performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
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Investigated the frequency of 342 college students' procrastination on academic tasks and the reasons for procrastination behavior. A high percentage of Ss reported problems with procrastination on several specific academic tasks. Self-reported procrastination was positively correlated with the number of self-paced quizzes Ss took late in the semester and with participation in an experimental session offered late in the semester. A factor analysis of the reasons for procrastination Ss listed in a procrastination assessment scale indicated that the factors Fear of Failure and Aversiveness of the Task accounted for most of the variance. A small but very homogeneous group of Ss endorsed items on the Fear of Failure factor that correlated significantly with self-report measures of depression, irrational cognitions, low self-esteem, delayed study behavior, anxiety, and lack of assertion. A larger and relatively heterogeneous group of Ss reported procrastinating as a result of aversiveness of the task. The Aversiveness of the Task factor correlated significantly with depression, irrational cognitions, low self-esteem, and delayed study behavior. Results indicate that procrastination is not solely a deficit in study habits or time management, but involves a complex interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and affective components. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conference Paper
An 18-item Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory was developed in Study 1 and related to trait procrastination and negative affect. The research participants were 208 university students. Procrastinatory cognitions were found to mediate trait procrastination-negative affect relations. In Study 2,66 university students completed the Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory in terms of anticipated ruminations over the next three weeks (Time 1), and in terms of past ruminations experienced in that period, three weeks later at Time 2. The two assessments of procrastinatory cognitions demonstrated high stability. Trait procrastination was positively associated with procrastinatory cognitions at Time 1 and Time 2. Cognitions were related to self-reported dilatory behavior and to negative affect obtained at Time 2. The usefulness of the Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory was discussed and suggestions for future research were made.
Article
Most research concerning chronic procrastination has focused on the cognitive and behavioral aspects of delay in starting or completing tasks. The primary goal of the current study was to clarify the relationship of chronic procrastination with affective experiences of shame and guilt. In the present study, 86 undergraduates (34 male, 52 female) completed two measures of chronic procrastination as well as measures of shame, guilt, perfectionism, self-esteem, fear of negative evaluation, and conscientiousness. Correlational analyses demonstrated that shame-proneness was related to procrastination tendencies, whereas guilt-proneness was not. In addition, using hierarchical regression, shame was found to be a moderator between chronic procrastination and perfectionism, particularly socially-prescribed perfectionism. Overall, the results suggest that affect plays an important role in understanding the complex dynamics of chronic procrastination.
Article
Counterfactuals are mental representations of alternatives to the past and produce consequences that are both beneficial and aversive to the individual. These apparently contradictory effects are integrated into a functionalist model of counterfactual thinking. The author reviews research in support of the assertions that (a) counterfactual thinking is activated automatically in response to negative affect, (b) the content of counterfactuals targets particularly likely causes of misfortune, (c) counterfactuals produce negative affective consequences through a contrast-effect mechanism and positive inferential consequences through a causal-inference mechanism, and (d) the net effect of counterfactual thinking is beneficial.
Article
This research evaluated assumptions of self-regulation and specious rewards explanations of procrastination which postulate that a reduced focus on the future among procrastinators is due to their increased focus on current concerns and immediate rewards. In Study 1, 147 college undergraduates completed self-report measures of procrastination and past, present and future time perspectives. Consistent with these theories, high levels of procrastination were predicted by a reduced focus on the future. However, contrary to assumptions of these models, procrastination was also predicted by high levels of fatalism, rather than hedonism, about the present and negative attitudes about the past. This pattern of findings was replicated in Study 2 (n = 160), after controlling for level of current negative affect. Low levels of structured, subjectively meaningful use of time also contributed to procrastination, beyond the impact of negative affect or perceptions of the past, present, and future. Together, findings suggest that explanations invoking failures in self-regulation or preoccupations with specious rewards to account for procrastinators' reduced focus on setting and carrying out future goals require modification. © 2003 Individual Differences Research Group. All rights reserved.
Chapter
What does the apparent lack of concern for one's future, which is involved in many cases of procrastination, entail with respect to our conception of personal identity? One claim that is prominent in the debate is that the fact that we normally have a special concern for our future selves is a problem for psychological continuity theories (such as those of Derek Parfit). On the basis of a detailed account of the various kinds of procrastination and of the ways imprudent procrastination involves harm to future selves, this chapter argues that procrastinators often impose an uncompensated burden on their future selves, something that is best explained by a lack of concern for their future selves. The lesson that follows is that the objections to psychological continuity theories based on the idea of a special concern for our future selves are in serious trouble.
Chapter
Procrastination is defined typically as an irrational tendency to delay tasks that should be completed (Lay, 1986). Procrastination is believed to be associated with several cognitive, behavioral, and affective correlates and is regarded as a “dysfunction of important human abilities” in routine tasks and critical life tasks (Milgram, Sroloff, & Rosenbaum, 1988, p. 210). The extent of the dysfunction is reflected by estimates indicating that at least 25% of students suffer from severe levels of procrastination (see Hill, Hill, Chabot, & Barrall, 1978; McCown, Johnson, & Petzel, 1989b). Given the potential importance of the procrastination construct, it is perhaps not surprising that it is a topic that has been discussed at length by clinicians and by counselors (e.g., Burka & Yuen, 1983; Ellis & Knaus, 1977; Rarer, 1983).
Book
The design and evaluation of questionnaires—and of other written and oral materials—is a challenging endeavor, fraught with potential pitfalls. Cognitive Interviewing: A Tool for Improving Questionnaire Design describes a means of systematically developing survey questions through investigations that intensively probe the thought processes of individuals who are presented with those inquiries. The work provides general guidance about questionnaire design, development, and pre-testing sequence, with an emphasis on the cognitive interview. In particular, the book gives detailed instructions about the use of verbal probing techniques, and how one can elicit additional information from subjects about their thinking and about the manner in which they react to tested questions. These tools help researchers discover how well their questions are working, where they are failing, and determine what they can do to rectify the wide variety of problems that may surface while working with questionnaires.
Chapter
It is believed that the quality of social relationships determines a person's resistance to infection - this is the hypothesis of this chapter. On the one hand, healthy interaction with others and strong ties both facilitate a drive to be concerned about oneself, tolerate effective regulation of emotional reactions, and provide back-up during difficult situations. While on the other hand, laboratory experiments and epidemiological research have discovered that stressful circumstances with significant others and unexpected transitory events inhibit the production of cellular components for immunity functions; hence, increasing the risk of acquiring upper respiratory ailments. In addition, low involvement in society or isolation accompanies a high risk of early death, which is comparable to the high mortality rate caused by persistent smoking. Although much of the literature, along with the study in this chapter, agrees on the positive effect of social relationships to susceptibility to the common cold, there are certain factors such as lifestyle and genes that can possibly account for the same outcomes.
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Although relevant nomothetically-based personality literature has made great advances in recent years correlating traits to measures of procrastination, little is known about the specific irrational beliefs of procrastinators, especially when they are actively avoiding tasks or situations. Based on theories from Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), it was hypothesized that compared to non-procrastinators, college student academic procrastinators would show greater self depreciation, greater other depreciation, greater life condition depreciation, and a lower frustration tolerance. Academic procrastination was operationally defined by quartile distributions on two self- report measures and three classroom-based assignments. Procrastinators and non-procrastinating students were given instructions to write approximately 500 words about their thoughts and feelings while they were in the process of actively putting off a specific, real event. While actually procrastinating, students logged on to a web site and made text entries describing what was going through their minds. Data were analyzed with the Psychiatric Content and Diagnosis Program Version 3 (PCAD 3; Gottschalk and Bechtel in Psychiatric content and diagnosis: the PCAD 3. GB Software, Brighton, MI, 2007). Procrastinators and non-procrastinators differed on relevant PCAD scales, supporting the hypotheses derived from REBT theory. Treatment implications and directions for future research are discussed.
Article
The present paper examines the nature of procrastination-related auto-matic thoughts by examining the correlates of the Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory (PCI). The PCI was administered along with numerous other measures to three samples of students (two undergraduate samples and one graduate student sample). Analyses confirmed that the PCI is associated with elevated levels of neuroticism and low levels of conscientiousness but is a unique predictor of distress over and above the variance attributable to these broad personality traits. The PCI was associated significantly with negative automatic thoughts in general as well as automatic thoughts reflecting the need to be perfect. Tests of achievement goal orientation showed that students with high scores on the PCI are focused on per-formance avoidance goals. Elevated levels of procrastinatory cognitions among graduate students were associated with apprehension about writing, graduate student stress, low self-actualization, and feelings of being an impostor. Overall, the find-ings suggest that the experience of frequent procrastination-related thoughts con-tributes uniquely to increased levels of psychological distress and stress. Our findings point to the potential utility of incorporating an emphasis on procrastination cognitions when conducting assessments and when implementing cognitive-behavioral interventions focused on procrastination-related themes.
Article
Procrastination has been viewed both as a single trait dimension and as a complex trait composed of several component antecedents. The aim of this study was to investigate some of the antecedents of procrastination (fear of failure, aversiveness of task, risk taking, rebellion against control, dependency, and difficulty making decisions) in terms of the five factors of personality (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Openness and Conscientiousness). The participants consisted of 349 university students who completed the Revised NEO Personality Inventory and the Procrastination Assessment Scale for students. Total procrastination was related to both the low conscientiousness facets (competence, order, dutifulness, achievement striving, self-discipline, deliberation) and the neuroticism facets (anxiety, depression, self-consciousness, impulsiveness, vulnerability). When the procrastination antecedents were considered, task aversiveness had a strong relationship to both low conscientiousness and neuroticism. Fear of failure, difficulty making decisions, and dependency had a smaller relationship to several of the conscientiousness and neuroticism facets. In addition, risk-taking was negatively related to agreeableness and the fantasy facet of openness to experience was related to total procrastination.
Article
Three studies examined the motivational implications of thinking about how things could have been worse. It was hypothesized that when these downward counterfactuals yield negative affect, through consideration of the possibility of a negative outcome, motivation to change and improve would be increased (the wake-up call). When downward counterfactuals yield positive affect, through diminishing the impact of a potentially negative outcome, motivation to change and improve should be reduced (the Pangloss effect). Results from three studies supported these hypotheses. Studies 1 and 2 showed that a manipulation of the counterfactual made about an investment influenced decisions toward that investment. Study 3 showed that students’ academic motivation was influenced by a manipulation of the type of downward counterfactual they made after an exam and that affect mediated the relationship between the counterfactual and motivation.
Article
Counterfactual thinking involves the imagination of non-factual alternatives to reality. We investigated the spontaneous generation of both upward counterfactuals, which improve on reality, and downward counterfactuals, which worsen reality. All subjects gained $5 playing a computer-simulated blackjack game. However, this outcome was framed to be perceived as either a win, a neutral event, or a loss. "Loss" frames produced more upward and fewer downward counterfactuals than did either "win" or "neutral" frames, but the overall prevalence of counterfactual thinking did not vary with outcome valence. In addition, subjects who expected to play the game again made more upward counterfactuals and were less satisfied with the outcome than were subjects who did not expect to play again. However, once subjects saw the cards from which they could have selected had they "hit" again (two winning cards and two losing cards), all subjects generated primarily upward counterfactuals and showed a corresponding decrease in satisfaction. These results implicate both cognitive and motivational factors in the generation of counterfactuals and tell us something about the functional value of counterfactual thinking: downward counterfactuals provide comfort; upward counterfactuals prepare one for the future.
Article
Introduces the concept of possible selves (PSs) to complement current conceptions of self-knowledge. PSs represent individuals' ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming, and thus provide a conceptual link beteen cognition and motivation. PSs are the cognitive components of hopes, fears, goals, and threats; they give the specific self-relevant form, meaning, organization, and direction to these dynamics. It is suggested that PSs function as incentives for future behavior and to provide an evaluative and interpretive context for the current view of self. The nature and function of PSs and their role in addressing several persistent problems (e.g., the stability and malleability of the self, the unity of the self, self-distortion, the relationship between the self-concept and behavior) are discussed. (143 ref)
Article
Understanding how emotion regulation is similar to and different from other self-control tasks can advance the understanding of emotion regulation. Emotion regulation has many similarities to other regulatory tasks such as dieting, and abstaining from smoking, drugs, alcohol, ill-advised sexual encounters, gambling, and procrastination, but it differs in a few important respects. Emotion regulation is similar to other kinds of self-regulation in that it consists of three components: standards, monitoring, and strength. Emotion regulation involves overriding one set responses with another, incompatible set, just like with other types of self-control. And like other regulatory tasks, emotion regulation can fail either because of underregulation or because of misregulation. Although emotion regulation is similar in many respects to other regulatory tasks, it is a special case of self-regulation in that it can often undermine attempts at other kinds of self- control. Specifically, focusing on regulating moods and feeling states can lead to a failure of self-control in other areas.
Article
Does achieving our goals make us happy? Is it achieving our goals or successfully pursuing them that matters? What do we mean by successful goal pursuit? Although the answers to these questions might intuitively seem simple, recent research reveals that the relation between personal goal achievement and subjective well-being is more complex. Personal goals and subjective well-being have often been linked (e.g., Brunstein, 1993; Emmons, 1986). Within the framework of personal goal constructs, it has been repeatedly stated that striving toward personal goals provides a person's life with structure and meaning (e.g., Klinger, 1977; Little, 1989), and empirical evidence has shown that people who are involved in the pursuit of subjectively important personal goals indicate higher subjective well-being than individuals who lack a sense of goal directedness (e.g., Emmons, 1986; Freund & Baltes, 2002). It seems plausible that if being committed to and acting on meaningful personal goals has positive consequences for well-being (e.g., Emmons, 1986), then making progress or attaining this goal should also have a positive effect (or have an even more pronounced effect). Hence, it is not surprising that a basic assumption of the personal goal literature is that the successful pursuit of meaningful goals plays an important role in the development and maintenance of psychological well-being (see Brunstein, 1993). This chapter summarizes theoretical and empirical approaches concerning the effects of successful goal pursuit on different facets of well-being. Before reviewing and integrating respective empirical research, however, the concepts of progress and attainment, as well as the multifaceted construct of subjective well-being, are introduced briefly. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Examined the relationships among procrastination, efficacy expectations, anxiety, gender, and age for 141 university students (ages 18–54 yrs). The study was concerned with the extent to which procrastination could be predicted by variables theoretically or empirically tied to the construct. Participants were asked to think about a major project and to rate their efficacy regarding the skills needed to accomplish the project. Ss completed a Self-Efficacy Inventory, a modified version of Form G of the Procrastination Inventory, and the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Bivariate correlations showed that efficacy expectations and anxiety had significant, individual relationships with procrastination. When these variables were entered into a regression model, only cumulative efficacy strength was a significant predictor of procrastination. Implications for counseling practice and research suggestions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
summarize extant research on procrastination and maladjustment / the chapter is organized into 3 sections / 1st section consists of a brief review of past and current research on procrastination and maladjustment, with a particular emphasis on research showing that most procrastinators suffer from a tendency to evaluate the self in a negative manner / this section focuses on contemporary research on procrastination in anxiety and depression, as well as work on procrastination and the self-concept / the 2nd section contains a description of research [from the authors'] laboratory on procrastination, life stress, and adjustment / in the 3rd section, [the authors] conclude by discussing the available evidence within the context of a preliminary model of procrastination and maladjustment (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Most research concerning chronic procrastination has focused on the cognitive and behavioral aspects of delay in starting or completing tasks. The primary goal of the current study was to clarify the relationship of chronic procrastination with affective experiences of shame and guilt. In the present study, 86 18-49 yr old undergraduates (34 male, 52 female) completed two measures of chronic procrastination as well as measures of shame, guilt, perfectionism, self-esteem, fear of negative evaluation, and conscientiousness. Correlational analyses demonstrated that shame-proneness was related to procrastination tendencies, whereas guilt-proneness was not. In addition, using hierarchical regression, shame was found to be a moderator between chronic procrastination and perfectionism, particularly socially-prescribed perfectionism. Overall, the results suggest that affect plays an important role in understanding the complex dynamics of chronic procrastination. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)