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Department of Biology, Biological Imaging Center, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91125.
Correspondence should be addressed to R.L. (rusty@caltech.edu).
commercial lines were lost during the Second World
War, new strains of quail were eventually re- established.
All domesticated lines in use today are derived from
post-war populations2.
C. japonica has been used as an animal model in
laboratories all over the world for many years. The
Japanese quail was first described as a research model
in 1959 by Padgett and Ivey, who noted its practicality
as a laboratory animal for avian developmental
studies3. These researchers later prepared a detailed
developmental atlas of the quail4 that was based on
the 1951 chicken staging system of Hamburger and
Hamilton5. This atlas, along with that published by
Zacchei in 1961 (ref. 6), continues to serve as the gold
standard for staging quail development. An exhaustive
study of the anatomy and histology of the Japanese
quail was published by Fitzgerald in 1969 (ref. 7),
and many of the metrics associated with maintaining
a laboratory breeding colony of Japanese quail were
published by Woodard et al. in 1973 (ref. 1). In 1985,
Ratnamohan reviewed the management of Japanese
quail in the laboratory as well as the many uses of this
species in virological research8.
Japanese quail as a model for developmental
biology
Unlike the rodent embryo, the avian embryo can be
easily manipulated and visualized as it grows, simply
by removing a small portion of the eggshell. This
Many avian species are routinely used as animal models
across various disciplines within the biological sciences.
Pigeons, zebrafinches and owls, among others, are all used
in highly specific fields of investigation. Given its long
history of study, the chicken is the primary avian model
system used in developmental embryology. Another
notable avian species is the Japanese quail (Coturnix
japonica), which has been widely used by scientists in
the past and continues to be popular today (Fig. 1).
We highlight some of the past and current contributions
of the Japanese quail as an avian model, explore its use
in the field of biotechnology and describe in detail the
husbandry of this species in the laboratory.
History
The Japanese quail belongs to the order Galliformes and
the family Phasianidae. It is considered a separate species
from the common quail (Coturnix coturnix), which
migrates throughout Europe, Asia, Africa and India. The
Japanese quail is not closely related to the native North
American bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) or California
quail (Lophortyx california)1. It is believed that migratory
common quail were domesticated in China sometime
during the 11th century and subsequently brought to
Japan in the 12th century. For hundreds of years, these
quail were bred in Japan primarily for their song and were
later introduced into China, Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong
and Indochina. During the 1900s, the Japanese bred quail
for egg and meat production. Although many of these
Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica)
as a laboratory animal model
David Huss, BS, Greg Poynter, BS & Rusty Lansford, PhD
For the past 50 years, the Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) has been a popular
animal model in numerous fields of research. The quail’s 16-d developmental period
and its easily accessible embryo make C. japonica a convenient model for studies of
developmental biology. Because its lifespan is relatively short and its physiology is
comparable to that of humans, the adult quail is useful for studies of aging and disease.
The authors describe the Japanese quail as an animal model and, drawing on their
experience raising a quail colony at the California Institute of Technology, present
detailed guidelines for the husbandry of the species.
Volume 37, No. 11 | NOVEMBER 2008 513LAB ANIMAL
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image a broad range of cellular events throughout
development and to assess temporal and spatial
gene-expression patterns. Among vertebrate embryos,
the physical characteristics of quail allow experiments
to be carried out more quickly and at less cost than
comparable work in the mouse or chicken.
Japanese quail as a model for disease
Both embryos and adult Japanese quail are widely used
in studies of vertebrate physiology and diseases that
affect human health. Our understanding of myogene-
sis, vasculogenesis, angiogenesis, skeletogenesis, wound
healing, virology and teratology has progressed sub-
stantially as a result of studies on avian embryos14. The
quail embryo is an excellent model for studies related
to fetal alcohol syndrome15. Researchers have exploited
the Japanese quail’s 16-d developmental period to study
the effect of microgravity on embryonic development
during short-duration spaceflight16.
The adult Japanese quail is also used in a wide
variety of scientific fields. It is featured in many stud-
ies of ethology and animal learning2,17. Numerous
laboratories have used quail as a model to investi-
gate age-related disease. The Japanese quail’s short
lifespan combined with its physiological similarity
to humans have made this bird an ideal model for
studies addressing senescence in immunology, endo-
crinology and reproductive biology18,19. In addition,
C. japonica has been used to study photoperiodism
and circadian control of brain function, circulating
levels of sex hormones and reproductive activity20–22.
The Japanese quail also serves in studies of the repro-
ductive toxicology of chemical compounds and the
effects of environmental endocrine disruptors23.
Numerous Japanese quail strains have been estab-
lished and derived from commercial birds in Japan,
including genetic lines bred specifically for plumage
color, eggshell color or blood type, as well as models
for human hereditary diseases, malformations and
abnormalities24. Quail lines have been developed with
myotonic dystrophy, diabetes insipidus and acid maltase
deficiency, also known as Pompe’s disease14,25,26. Two
separate strains of Japanese quail, one susceptible to
atherosclerosis and the other resistant, have been used
as models to investigate the mechanisms underlying the
development of vascular lesions and hypercholester-
olemia27–29. Lines with heavy or light body weight have
also been developed over many generations of selective
breeding30. The distinct growth characteristics of these
lines have been extensively studied and compared31.
Husbandry
Laboratories with experience using chickens will find
the transition to quail virtually seamless. Even laborato-
ries developing an avian model system from the ground
up will find the process relatively straightforward. On
accessibility makes birds highly valuable in the study of
developmental biology. Chicken and quail are warm-
blooded vertebrates with developmental patterns that
closely resemble those of humans. Though the early
development of the chicken and quail are remarkably
similar, the condensed heterochromatin inside the quail
cell nucleus clearly differentiates it from chicken cells.
Developmental biologists have long used this differ-
ence to distinguish between quail and chicken cells after
transplanting tissue from one species into the other.
The quail–chick chimera is a highly successful model
for elucidating cell fates during development9. Because
the avian embryo can be directly visualized, research-
ers have been able to use computer-analyzed time-lapse
videomicroscopy to follow its development10.
Publication of the chicken genome in 2004 has
proven to be a powerful tool for developmental biolo-
gists who use the classic quail–chick chimera model
system11. There has been great interest in adapting
techniques for genetic manipulation in rodents, such
as development of knockout and transgenic lines, to
an avian species. Recently, the quail has proven to be
a successful model for the production of a transgenic
avian. Human immunodeficiency virus–based viral
vectors were injected into embryos of freshly laid
eggs, which were then incubated until hatching. These
quail were able to maintain germline transmission and
expression of the transgene encoding green fluorescent
protein for numerous generations12,13. The quail yields
several advantages for production of a transgenic avian.
The hardy nature of its embryo limits mortality during
introduction of the transgene into the blastoderm. The
quail’s short embryonic development period of 16 d,
rapid advancement to sexual maturity and prodigious
egg production all combine to substantially shorten
the time needed to produce a stable line of transgenic
avians when compared with the chicken.
Combining transgenic technology with the direct
experi mental oppo rtuniti es offered by the av ia n
embryo enables scientists to take a molecular genetic
approach when addressing questions in developmen-
tal biology. For example, the creation of transgenic
quail expressing fluorescent proteins, either in a
tissue-specific manner or ubiquitously in subcellu-
lar structures, permits the researcher to dynamically
FIGURE 1 | Adult Japanese quail. (a) Female with speckled brown
breast feathers. (b) Male with cinnamon brown breast feathers.
www.labanimal.com514 Volume 37, No. 11 | NOVEMBER 2008
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conditions. The hatching unit is typically located in the
same area as the egg incubator(s). We use the PROFI-H
from Lyon Electric Co. (Chula Vista, CA), which comes
with eight hatching baskets and has a clear plastic door
for monitoring the progress of the hatch (Fig. 2b).
During their first 4 weeks of life, hatched quail need
to be housed in a separate brooder that provides an
auxiliary heat source. Whereas egg incubators and
hatchers are typically located in a laboratory space,
brooders are usually maintained in the animal facility
room that houses the adult quail. Brooders that hold up
to several hundred chicken hatchlings are commercially
available. Vendors offer smaller wire mesh panels to
adapt these units from chicks to quail. If smaller clutch
sizes are expected, empty cages from other species may
be used for quail if fitted with a heater or heat lamp.
We use solid-bottom metal cages (62 cm long × 46 cm
wide × 25 cm high) that were previously used for guinea
pigs, with a small brooder heater from Lyon Electric
Company (Chula Vista, CA) attached to the wire mesh
lid of each cage (Fig. 2c). These brooders can hold up
to 12 hatchlings. We record the temperature inside the
brooders daily with a high-quality thermometer to
ensure rapid hatchling growth and good health.
Handling eggs. The size, shape and color pattern of
Japanese quail eggs vary considerably among females.
In general, eggs weigh about 12 g and have a white and
brown mottled appearance (Fig. 3a). Most laboratories
order fertilized quail eggs from a local commercial sup-
plier. It is important to work with freshly laid eggs that
have come from a well-maintained and healthy flock. A
good supplier will be able to minimize the seasonal vari-
ation in fertility rates that occurs throughout the year.
Storage and shipping conditions may also contribute to
viability rates; many labs may notice a drop in viability
during the hot summer months. Once eggs arrive in
the lab, it is important to store any eggs that will not be
incubated immediately in a cool refrigerator at about
13 °C. A temperature of 4 °C is too cold for egg stor-
age and will result in high mortality. The refrigerator
should contain a tray of water to maintain a moderate
level of humidity. Fertilized quail eggs should be stored
the basis of our experience at the California Institute
of Technology, we describe the practical steps involved
in setting up and maintaining a quail colony in an
institutional setting. The following animal husbandry
protocols have been approved by our IACUC and the
Office of Laboratory Animal Resources.
Equipment requirements. An investigator raising
Japanese quail in a laboratory for the first time will need
to obtain several pieces of equipment. If quail are to
be raised from fertilized eggs, a high-quality incubator
is a necessity. The size of planned experiments within
the laboratory group will determine the capacity and
number of incubators to be purchased. Many types
and sizes of egg incubators are commercially available.
G.Q.F. Manufacturing Company (Savannah, GA) sells
a wide variety of poultry supplies, and many other sup-
pliers are available. The most consistent results will be
obtained from a forced-air incubator, which uses an
internal fan to circulate warm, humid air inside the
chamber. Egg incubators for Japanese quail should
include an automatic egg turning system that can tilt
the egg trays incrementally through a 90° angle once
per h (Fig. 2a). Incubators with automatic systems for
maintaining proper humidity levels are also available.
If the investigator wishes to hatch Japanese quail, an
incubator with separate hatching trays and matching
wire mesh lids will be needed. Digital thermostats have
largely replaced gas-filled wafers in new incubators and
give steady, consistent temperature and humidity levels.
Still, the temperature within the incubator should be
checked with a high-quality, calibrated thermometer
both at initial setup and daily during incubation.
Purchasing replacement parts for incubators can
reduce down-time incurred by equipment malfunction.
Running incubators on electrical circuits with genera-
tor backup ensures that power spikes or outages do not
delay or ruin a set of incubating eggs.
Often, several batches of eggs, all at different stages
of development, will be incubating simultaneously in
the same unit. If some of these eggs will be allowed to
hatch, it is useful to keep a separate incubator for this
purpose, as hatching requires specific environmental
a b c
FIGURE 2 | Incubation and hatching of Japanese quail eggs. (a) A cabinet-type forced-air egg incubator equipped with an
automatic tray-tilting system. (b) A separate hatching incubator, shown with three trays, is maintained with higher humidity than
the egg incubator (a). The upper and lower pans of water contribute to humidity, which is measured by a wet-bulb hygrometer.
(c) Two brooders made from former guinea pig cages. Digital thermometers measure the temperature at the height of the hatchlings.
Volume 37, No. 11 | NOVEMBER 2008 515LAB ANIMAL
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be tilted; this will allow the embryo to orient itself in the
correct hatching position, with the head near the air cell
located in the large end of the egg.
Hatching and brooding. If eggs are to be hatched,
all nonviable eggs should first be identified by candling
and then discarded. The optimal conditions for hatch-
ing are a temperature of 37 °C and about 70% relative
humidity. The higher humidity, which can be achieved
by placing additional trays of water in the incubator,
keeps the hatchlings from sticking to the shell mem-
branes during hatching. We measure humidity using a
wet bulb hygrometer, which we assemble using a good-
quality thermometer with the bulb sheathed in a clean
wick that is saturated with distilled water. On the 16th
day of incubation, the eggs should be laid on their sides
in the hatching trays. The bottom of the trays should
be covered with soft, absorbent paper that provides
good traction for the chicks as they hatch. If the lining
material is too smooth or slick, hatchlings will develop
splayed legs, which is a fatal condition. Because the cho-
rioallantoic membrane is a good source of hatchling
genomic DNA for genetic analysis, the hatching trays
can be subdivided to isolate single hatchlings and their
associated eggshells from other individuals. Once the
hatchlings start to pip the shells, the incubator should
be kept closed in order to keep the humidity levels high.
Hatching typically takes place over the course of several
hours. Good pre-incubation care of the fertilized eggs
and stable incubation conditions will decrease the time
between the first hatch and the last. It is not advised to
assist a bird during the hatching process, as this can lead
to developmental abnormalities.
Once the hatchlings emerge from the shell, they
rest for several hours and dry off over the course of
the following day. Like most ground-nesting birds,
quail are precocial and soon stagger to their feet with
their eyes wide open. Quail hatchlings typically weigh
about 10 g. During the first 24 h in the hatcher, no
food or water is required because the hatchlings
derive nutrition from the yolk sac, which is absorbed
into their abdomen in the final days of embryonic
with the large end up in plastic or papier- mâché egg
flats. In our quail colony, we use a heavy-weight strain,
which results in relatively large eggs. For these large
eggs, we prefer to use papier-mâché flats designed for
Chukar eggs (G.Q.F. Manufacturing Co., Savannah,
GA). Eggs can be successfully stored for 2 weeks under
these conditions, but for best results, we recommend
using fertilized eggs as soon as possible after they arrive
in the lab. If a breeding colony of adult quail is main-
tained, eggs from breeding pairs can be collected daily
and stored under similar conditions. Soiled eggs can
be lightly washed with room- temperature water and
then sprayed with 70% ethanol. Once dry, fresh eggs
can be stored or incubated in the same manner as
commercially derived eggs.
Incubation. The incubator should run for several
days to establish a constant temperature of 37.5 °C
with about 50% relative humidity before setting eggs.
The importance of maintaining the proper tempera-
ture cannot be overstated. Embryonic developmental
timelines are strictly dependent on a temperature of
37.5 °C (ref. 4). Fluctuations above or below this tem-
perature accelerate or delay development, respectively.
Researchers should allow eggs to slowly come to room
temperature before placing them, small end down, in
the incubator. At the onset of incubation, fertilized
quail eggs weigh about 12–13 g. The eggs lose approxi-
mately 13% of their weight as embryonic development
continues. For the first 13 d of incubation, the egg trays
should be tilted incrementally about once per h within
a 90° angle, starting from a horizontal position. This
process facilitates normal development.
A commercial egg candler can be used to assess viabil-
ity of Japanese quail eggs. As an alternative, fiber optic
light sources, which are available in most laboratories
that use dissecting stereomicroscopes, can be easily
modified for this purpose. The mottled pigmentation
of Japanese quail egg shells (Fig. 3a) makes it difficult
to stage eggs by candling; however, viability can be reli-
ably determined after about 7 d of incubation. On the
14th and 15th days of incubation, the eggs should not
bca
FIGURE 3 | Hatchling Japanese quail. (a) Quail eggs are about one-fifth the size of chicken eggs. Coturnix eggs are highly
pigmented. Each column of quail eggs is from a different hen and shows distinct patterning. (b) A Japanese quail hatchling
with the empty eggshell 1 d after hatching. The hatching trays can be subdivided to isolate individual eggs and hatchlings
for identification. (c) Two-day-old quail hatchlings in a paper-lined brooder. Ground starter feed is scattered on the floor,
and marbles in the drinking fount prevent chicks from drowning.
www.labanimal.com516 Volume 37, No. 11 | NOVEMBER 2008
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We line cages with autoclaved aspen shavings
(Northeastern Products Corp., Warrensburg, NY) and
provide water ad libitum from automatic valves located
outside the cage (Fig. 4b). Five-week-old quail are given
constant access to quality feed formulated specifically
for egg production, such as Mazuri Exotic Gamebird
Breeder (PMI Nutrition International, Brentwood,
MO). In each cage, we also place a small amount of
corn husk shavings (The Andersons, Maumee, OH)
and a plastic guinea pig hut (Bio-Serv, Frenchtown, NJ),
which provides some isolation for the hens. We change
cages twice a week. Environmental enrichment includes
adding a small amount of cat litter for dust bathing and
sesame seeds for diet variation. To maximize egg pro-
duction, the colony receives 14 h of light and 10 h of
darkness every day with a room temperature of 22 °C.
The amount of daily light is an important seasonal cue
for reproduction in quail. According to Padgett and
Ivey, wild populations of quail typically breed from
April until September3. If daylight time drops to less
than 12 h, the quail may decrease or cease egg laying.
Japanese quail begin to reach sexual maturity at about
8 weeks of age. Hens typically begin to consistently lay
eggs at 9–10 weeks of age, with fertility rates quickly
increasing. A healthy breeding pair should produce
about 4–5 eggs per week for 1 year. During this time,
we routinely obtain 90% fertility and 80% hatchability
rates from breeders in their prime. The constant copu-
lation often results in the hens losing their spinal and
cervical feathers, but this does not seem to adversely
affect their productivity. After 1 year, egg production
and fertility rates slowly decrease. Animal caretakers
collect eggs daily and write corresponding cage num-
bers on the egg shells in permanent ink. The eggs are
then stored as described above until incubation. Life
expectancy of laying females is about 3–4 years, with
males often surviving into their fifth year (ref. 1).
Health and behavioral considerations. A compre-
hensive literature review of Japanese quail behavior was
published by Mills et al. in 1997 (ref. 2). Understanding
the natural behavior of these birds can aid in effectively
managing them in the laboratory. Because adult quail
development (Fig. 3b). After 24 h, hatchlings can be
marked for identification with plastic leg bands. We use
size 2 plastic bandettes in several colors (National Band
and Tag Co., Newport, KY). It is important to keep an
accurate spreadsheet containing hatching dates, band
numbers and other pertinent information.
The hatchlings need to be kept warm during their
transportation to the brooders in the animal facility.
We initially set the temperature in the brooders at
37 °C and line the floor with absorbent paper such
as Dura Pads or DACB (Shepherd Specialty Papers,
Watertown, TN). We grind Mazuri Exotic Gamebird
Starter feed (PMI Nutrition International, Brentwood,
MO) into powd er form and sp rin kle it libe rally
around the floor of the brooder. Chicks are given free
access to water. Watering rings should be filled with
marbles or a similar material to keep the chicks from
drowning (Fig. 3c). We maintain the brooder at 37 °C
for 1 week. Subsequently, we lower the temperature by
2–3 °C every week for 3 weeks. Once the quail reach
2 weeks of age, we line the brooder with a layer of paper
chip bedding (Shepherd Specialty Papers, Watertown,
TN). We provide non-ground Gamebird Starter feed
after the first week in the brooder and until quail are
4 weeks old. After 4 weeks, the quail no longer need an
external heat source. At age 3–4 weeks, the sex of most
birds in our colony is easily identified by breast feather
coloration. The sex of some individuals, however, is
not apparent until they reach sexual maturity. In
males, breast feathers are a uniform rust brown color,
whereas female breast feathers are buff colored with
dark brown spots, which results in a mottled appear-
ance (Fig. 1). At this stage, we discard the initial leg
band and replace it with a size 4 numbered plastic leg
band in the appropriate color. Again, accurate record
keeping at this stage is essential to setting up and
maintaining a healthy breeding colony.
Adult quail. When birds are 5 weeks old, we
move them into individual cages as future breeding
pairs. Handling adult quail is relatively easy; how-
ever, when startled, the birds spring vertically into
flight and may injure their heads on the roofs of
their cages. Jumping-related injuries can be greatly
reduced, if not eliminated, by having low-roofed cages
and quick handling skills. We use modified rodent
See-Through System racks (Lab Products, Seaford,
DE), which hold 30 cages each (Fig. 4a). These
polycarbonate cages have a solid bottom and measure
52 cm long × 27 cm wide × 20 cm high. Cages of
this size can house a maximum of three adults: two
females and a male. One male and one female can also
be paired. Adults in our quail colony, which is derived
from the heavy-body-weight strain as mentioned
above, weigh about 250 g on average. Adults from the
light-body-weight strain are considerably smaller,
weighing about 130 g on average.
FIGURE 4 | Adult Japanese quail. (a) Cage racks used to
house adult quail breeding pairs or trios. Birds are moved
from the brooder to cages at 5 weeks of age. (b) An adult
quail drinks from the automatic valve. The hole in the rear
of the cage is 4.5 cm in diameter.
ab
Volume 37, No. 11 | NOVEMBER 2008 517LAB ANIMAL
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Conclusion
The Japanese quail has been studied from its first hours
of embryonic development to its last years of old age.
The study of selected quail lines with specific genetic
or phenotypic characteristics has greatly enhanced our
understanding of numerous physiological systems and
the diseases that affect them. The attributes described
here make the Japanese quail valuable in scientific
projects ranging from classroom demonstrations
to intricate experimental analyses. The quail’s 16-d
embryonic developmental period, combined with its
sexual maturation period of 8 weeks, results in genera-
tional times that are substantially shorter than those
of the chicken. In addition, the small body size of the
adult quail limits animal husbandry space and cost.
Over the last 50 years, the Japanese quail has proven
to be a truly diverse and efficient animal model. In the
future, it is likely that the Japanese quail will continue
to occupy a small yet prominent place in research
laboratories around the world39.
COMPETING INTERESTS STATEMENT
The authors declare no competing financial interests.
Received 18 March; accepted 30 May 2008
Published online at http://www.labanimal.com/
1. Woodard, A.E., Abplanalp, H., Wilson, W.O. & Vohra, P.
Japanese Quail Husbandry in the Laboratory (University of
California, Davis, 1973). <http://animalscience.ucdavis.edu/
Avian/Coturnix.pdf>
2. Mills, A.D., Crawford, L.L., Domjan, M. & Faure, J.M. The
behavior of the Japanese or domestic quail Coturnix japonica.
Neurosci. Behav. Rev. 21, 261–281 (1997).
3. Padgett C.S. & Ivey, W.D. Coturnix quail as a laboratory
research animal. Science 129, 267–268 (1959).
4. Padgett, C.S. & Ivey, W.D. The normal embryology of the
Coturnix quail. Anat. Rec. 137, 1–11 (1960).
5. Hamburger, V. & Hamilton, H. A series of normal stages in
the development of the chick embryo. J. Morph. 88, 49–92
(1951).
6. Zacchei, A.M. [The embryonal development of the Japanese
quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica T. and S.); article in Italian]
Arch. Ital. Anat. Embriol. 66, 36–62 (1961).
7. Fitzgerald, T.C. The Coturnix Quail: Anatomy and Histology
(Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, 1969).
8. Ratnamohan, N. The management of Japanese quail and their
use in virological research: a review. Vet . Res. Comm. 9, 1–14
(1985).
9. Le Douarin, N. & Kalcheim, C. The Neural Crest (Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 1999).
10. Kulsea, P.M. & Fraser, S.E. Neural crest cell dynamics revealed
by time-lapse video microscopy of whole embryo chick explant
cultures. Dev. Biol. 204, 327–344 (1998).
11. Lalloue, F.L. & Ayer-Le Lievre, C.S. Experimental study of early
olfactory neuron differentiation and nerve formation using
quail-chick chimeras. Int. J. Dev. Biol. 49, 193–200 (2005).
12. Scott, B.B. & Lois, C. Generation of tissue-specific transgenic
birds with lentiviral vectors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102,
16443–16447 (2005).
13. Poynter, G. & Lansford, R. in Avian Embryology (Methods of Cell
Biology) 2nd edn., vol. 87 (Bronner-Fraser, M., ed.) 282–292
(Academic, San Diego, 2008).
14. Mizutani, M. Establishment of inbred strains of chicken and
Japanese quail and their potential as animal models.
Exp. Anim. 51, 417–429 (2002).
can be aggressive toward other individuals, the con-
dition of breeding pairs should be monitored closely.
Pecking injuries comprise a large majority of the health
problems in our quail colony. It is usually the hens that
are injured by male pecking, but the opposite can also
occur. Sexually mature males should never be housed
together. To reduce injuries, we use a nail clipper to
trim the beaks and toenails of adults every 4 weeks.
We use Kwik-Stop styptic powder (ARC Laboratories,
Atlanta, GA) to quell any bleeding that occurs after
beak and nail trimming. Droppings in the cage can
accumulate as balls on the toes of the adult quail if
birds are housed in solid-bottom cages. Once these
balls dry, removing them can occasionally result in
injuries to the toes and nails.
We place injured adults into separate cages and give
them intramuscular (i.m.) ketoprofen at a dose of
2 mg per kg body weight once a day for about 1 week,
depending on the extent of the injury. Ketoprofen can
also be administered in drinking water at a total daily
dose of 2 mg per kg body weight, using a daily water
intake estimate of 40 ml. In cases of more severe inju-
ries, we administer i.m. buprenorphine to quail at a
dose of 0.01–0.05 mg per kg body weight twice a day
for 3 d as analgesia32. We administer all i.m. injections
into the breast muscle, just lateral to the sternum. Once
the injured quail have healed, they can usually be placed
back into a pair to continue breeding.
Japanese quail are susceptible to many common
poultry diseases including, but not limited to,
avian influenza and hepatitis33–35. Quail are also
susceptible to pathogenic strains of bacteria such
Salmonella pullorum and Escherichia coli, as well
as fungal infection by Aspergillus fumigatus1. In
1987, Barnes published a comprehensive review of
diseases affecting quail, along with information on
control, prevention and treatment36. Our colony of
about 70 birds has not experienced an outbreak of
any contagious illness and has maintained excellent
health for several years with minimum veterinary
intervention. As with any animal colony, constant
vigilance from staff, researchers and veterinarians is
essential to quickly identify, diagnose and treat any
conditions affecting the health of the birds.
Japanese quail do have two undesirable character-
istics as laboratory animals. First, the Japanese quail
genome has not been sequenced to date. This may limit
the usefulness of the quail for labs requiring the full
complement of online genomic resources. Several stud-
ies have concluded, however, that the quail genome is
highly homologous to that of the chicken37,38. Second,
it has long been known that C. japonica do not toler-
ate extensive inbreeding1. Repeated sibling mating will
decrease viability, hatchability and egg production. New
sources of genetic variability must be introduced regu-
larly to maintain flock fitness.
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RESOURCE
cholesterol and fat source on atherosclerosis in Japanese quail
(Coturnix japonica). Br. J. Nutr. 78, 993–1014 (1997).
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understanding of atherosclerosis and their promise for the
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