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Age and Gender-related Changes in Exercise Motivation among Highly Active Individuals.
Abstract and Figures
The purpose of this investigation was to determine differences in exercise motivation across age groups and gender of recreational endurance athletes (N = 2756), ages 18-64. Participants selected their top 3 motives from a list of 10 intrinsic and extrinsic factors, which across all individuals were enjoyment (57.1%), performance (53.3%), and health (51.9%). Performance motivation was endorsed by 79.7% of those aged 18-24 years vs. 37.8% of those aged 55-64 years. Women selected weight maintenance (26.8% vs. 17.4%) and appearance (15.7% vs. 7.0%) to a greater degree than men. Men endorsed improving performance (54.6% vs. 47.1%), living longer (18.5% vs. 9.7%) and feeling better (26.0% vs. 20.3%) as a primary motives more than women. There was a non-significant (p = 0.049) age and gender interaction for weight maintenance with gender differences apparent in younger age groups but not in older ages.
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... Age differences have also been reported (Brunet & Sabiston, 2011), although somewhat less consistently. Research has shown that across genders, younger individuals endorse enjoyment, attractiveness, and performance motives more frequently compared to older individuals (Tiggemann & Williamson, 2000), whereas older individuals place higher importance on health as a motivator for exercise (Stults-Kolehmainen et al., 2013;Trujillo et al., 2004), although some studies have failed to find age differences in reported exercise motivation (Davis et al., 1995). In one investigation of the interaction of age and gender on exercise motivation, evidence suggested that gender differences in weight management may be more apparent among younger individuals, and become less apparent as individuals age (Stults-Kolehmainen et al., 2013). ...
... Research has shown that across genders, younger individuals endorse enjoyment, attractiveness, and performance motives more frequently compared to older individuals (Tiggemann & Williamson, 2000), whereas older individuals place higher importance on health as a motivator for exercise (Stults-Kolehmainen et al., 2013;Trujillo et al., 2004), although some studies have failed to find age differences in reported exercise motivation (Davis et al., 1995). In one investigation of the interaction of age and gender on exercise motivation, evidence suggested that gender differences in weight management may be more apparent among younger individuals, and become less apparent as individuals age (Stults-Kolehmainen et al., 2013). ...
... Socializing was rated as the least important reason for exercise. These results are consistent with hypotheses and previous research (Stults-Kolehmainen et al., 2013;Tiggemann & Williamson, 2000). We found, consistent with hypotheses and previous research , that age was significantly negatively related to amount of exercise. ...
... These variables are often used in sport psychology research to reduce confounding effects and thereby elucidate the relationship between independent variables (e.g., AGO) and dependent variables (e.g., PP). Stults-Kolehmainen et al. (2013) found that gender and age significantly affect sport motivation and participation; Li et al. (2024) showed that increased education levels resulted in increased sport commitment and adherence; Tenenbaum et al. (2011) further emphasized the importance of controlling these demographic variables, noting that failure to account for these factors could lead to confusion and misleading conclusions when analyzing sports psychology variables. Therefore, including gender, age, and educational level as control variables in statistical analyses helps to reduce confounding effects, ensuring the validity and reliability of the findings. ...
Background
Achievement goal orientation (AGO) has been identified as an important determinant of Perceived Performance (PP) in athletes. However, there is limited research analyzing this relationship through multiple mediation models.
Methods
In this study, data from 377 competitive swimmers (45.1% female, 54.9% male, aged 18–22 years old) from Tianjin and Beijing universities were collected through questionnaires, and structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to analyze the relationship between AGO, Sports Enthusiasm (SE), Sports Commitment (SC), and Grit and PP.
Results
AGO significantly elevated PP (β = 0.116, p ≤ 0.001), explaining 76.6% of the total effect of AGO on PP through the chain-mediated effects of SE (β = 0.472, p ≤ 0.001), SC (β = 0.448, p ≤ 0.001) and Grit (β = 0.165, p ≤ 0.001).
Conclusion
The chain mediation model of this study suggests that AGO enhances swimmers ‘PP through SE, SC, and Grit, guiding coaches’ goal setting, swimmers ‘progress tracking, and psychologists’ reassessment strategies.
... However, in the promotion of running activities it should be considered that for example according to Kozlovskaia et al. [43] 49% of respondents experienced an injury associated with running activities during the past two years. Similarly, other studies point to the issue of musculoskeletal injuries in the lower body part and emphasise the importance of consulting a qualified professional in sports medicine or physiotherapy [44,45,46]. ...
Background
The global decline in physical activity (PA) among the youth has been exacerbated by the pandemic’s impact on their lifestyles. Addressing these adverse effects post-pandemic by supporting preferred physical activities among young individuals is crucial. The aim of the study is to investigate and compare the long-term trends in PA preferences among individuals in Poland and the Czech Republic, exploring the impact of global lifestyle challenges over the past 14 years, including the pandemic, on PA behaviors and choices.
Methods
The study design is cross-sectional and data gathering was in the period between 2007 and 2020, this research encompassed 19,235 participants aged 15 to 26. PA preferences were gauged using the Questionnaire on Physical Activity Preferences, while actual PA levels were measured through the International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Long Form. Crossing table, Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA, binary logistic regression and effect size coefficients were conducted.
Results
Among the participants, individual physical activities were favoured by 24% of Czech and 25% of Polish boys, and 23% of Czech and 25% of Polish girls. A positive correlation was found between the preference for running and higher levels of recreational, vigorous, and overall weekly PA. Additionally, an increased preference for running was associated with a higher likelihood of meeting weekly PA recommendations for both girls (OR = 1.82, CI = 1.62–2.04, p < 0.001) and boys (OR = 1.61, CI = 1.44–1.82, p < 0.001) in both countries.
Conclusions
Over a 14-year period, swimming, cycling, and running emerged as the most preferred PA across both Czech and Polish youth, with a notable increase in running, especially among Czech boys. Polish boys and girls also showed a growing preference for running, while Polish girls demonstrated a notable increase in badminton and ice-skating. The preference for running was associated with a higher likelihood of meeting PA recommendations, especially among Polish boys and Czech girls. Notably, activities like running, swimming, and cycling exhibited resilience to both pandemic-related restrictions and broader global lifestyle challenges, underscoring the importance of long-term monitoring of PA preferences for effective health promotion.
... The study noted that it is important to consider the motivation of children and youth to better understand their engagement in football training. The study by Stults-Kolehmainen, Ciccolo, Bartholomew, Seifert & Portman (2013) also confirmed that motivation is very important during physical activity, but the results showed that engagement in physical activity decreases with increasing age group. ...
The laws and regulations of Latvia on the professional education activity in football training state that as the age of the students increases, the number of contact hours per week that must be spent in football training also increases. Furthermore, scientific literature often mentions that as people age, their motivation to engage in physical activity and sports often decreases. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between the motivation of children and youth for participation and time spent in football training in different age groups. Within the framework of the study, the opinion of the Ethics Commission of the Latvian Academy of Sport Education was received on the compliance of the survey with ethical norms, as well as the legal representative of each research participant had confirmed their participation in the study with a permission. As part of the study, 167 research participants from one Latvian school were surveyed in the grade groups from 5 to 9. The number of hours the research participants spend in football training sessions per year was determined, as well as their motivation to participate in the training. The results of the study showed that as the age of children and youth increases, they spend more time in football training sessions (p≤0.001), but their motivation decreases every year (p≤0.01).
... Athletes after age 30 have variety motivations, and it appears that motivations for engagement in sport may vary throughout the lifespan [79]. The athlete's motivations affect performance in sport [80]. ...
Background
Sports performance is the result of an interaction of several variables, such as physical, technical, and psychological. The ability of athletes to use motivation, is an important predictor to achieve high performance in sport. SMS‐II comprised 18 elements to measure six behavioral control factors.
Aim
This study aims to validate an Arabic version of the revised sports motivation scale‐II (SMS‐II) and measure the psychometric properties of factorial structure, internal reliability, construct validity, and sensitivity.
Methods
A total of 780 athletes from different disciplines (432 men, 348 women; mean age = 18.97 years) participated in this study. Athletes voluntarily responded to the version of SMS‐II. Factorial validity was established by principal component analysis. Both exploratory (EFA; N = 390; males: 52.6%; females: 47.4%; [13–18] = 172; [19–30] = 218) and confirmatory (CFA; N = 390; males: 58.2%; females: 41.8%; [13–18] = 247; [19–30] = 143) analyses were examined.
Results
The 18 SMS-II items revealed perfect reliability (McDonald’s omega = 0.841, Cronbach’s α = 0.858, Gutmann’s λ6 = 0.952) and good temporal stability (ICC = 0.960, 95% CI = 0.915–0.980; r = 0.935, 95% CI = 0.889–0.963 at p < 0.001) over 4-week period. The CFA adjustment indices were perfect.
Conclusion
The results tended to clarify all indices as perfect adjustments to the theoretical model, ensuring the confirmation of factor structure and construction validity regarding the Tunisian sports workforce.
... Also, this sample was restrained to a cohort of very young athletes. Athletes after age 30 have different motivations, and it appears that motivations for engagement in sport may change throughout the lifespan [84]. likewise, basic needs persist over throughout lifetime, although their relative interest, and the ways in which they are met vary the lifespan and across cultures [6]. ...
Background
Satisfaction of fundamental needs is an important concept in sport, but currently there is no tool in Arabic to measure this construct. Basic needs are often linked to high rates of motivation and performance. It is necessary to develop tools to assess psychological needs in the sport context.
Aim
This study aimed to validate the Basic Needs Satisfaction in Sport Scale (BNSSS) in Arabic language across Tunisian athletes, and to test its psychometric properties (factorial structure, internal reliability, construct validity, and sensitivity).
Methods
Athletes in various sports participated in this study (370 men, 146 women; mean age 18.35) and voluntarily completed the Arabic version of the BNSSS-20. Both exploratory (EFA, N = 294; males: 68%; females: 32%; [14–18] = 182; [19–28] = 112) and confirmatory (CFA; N = 222; males: 76.6%; females: 23.4%; [14–18] = 103; [19–28] = 119) factor analyses were examined.
Results
Results from the EFA suggest that the BNSSS scale reflects the theoretical model well, with good internal consistency for all factors. All 20 items of BNSSS revealed excellent reliability (McDonald’s omega = 0.773, Cronbach’s α = 0.886, Gutmann’s λ6 = 0.970) and good temporal stability (ICC = 0.84, 95% CI = 0.55–0.93) over a 4-week period. Likewise, the CFA fit indices were excellent.
Conclusion
The BNSSS presented excellent fit to the theoretical model for all indices, confirming the factorial structure and providing validity of the instrument for Tunisian athletes.
... Typically, motivation for physical activity, and exercise and sport specifically, has been considered: (1) as a stable construct, similar to a trait (4)(5)(6), and (2) from a reflective perspective (e.g., goals). Indeed, some manuscripts in this Research Topic have adhered to this conceptualization (Zhao et al., Wu et al.). ...
The concept of motivation states for physical activity and sedentarism emerged from ideas emanating from addiction medicine, self-control research, and exercise psychology. To start, Robinson and Berridge's theory of incentive salience, which seeks to understand urges and cravings for addictive substances, differentiates the notions of liking versus wanting. Those addicted to exercise experience cravings for movement, in other words, strong desires or wants, which are perhaps independent of the pleasure they receive from it. The want or desire to move and be active, however, is not limited to athletes or exercise addicts. Indeed, most humans experience these motivation states from time to time, if not regularly (Stults-Kolehmainen et al.). In pondering over this point, there is a possibility that the reader may spontaneously feel an urge to move. Such a feeling might even persist for several minutes, but could also dissipate as quickly as it arrives. Regardless, it seems obvious that humans are more motivated to move, be active, and exercise at some moments compared to others. For instance, when waking up, the desire to move may be very weak, but after some additional time awake, a cup of coffee, and a pressing appointment in the next hour, a person might be “on fire” to move. Overall, it is clear that motivation to be physically active is a transient state that is regulated by a number of factors (Stults-Kolehmainen et al.). How this has been missed in exercise psychology textbooks is a mystery. CONTINUED in paper...
... For instance, the Brazilian samples were also approximately a decade older than the American samples (30.8 and 30.3 years vs. 20.9 and 20.3 years). Thus, we cannot ignore the potential influence of age, but in our previous work we determined that motivation to exercise (and not move, per se) varied little across this period of life (Stults-Kolehmainen et al., 2013a). The IIC provides insights into item quality and its ability to differentiate individuals based on the measured latent trait (Baker, 1992). ...
Motivation states for physical activity and sedentarism potentially vary from moment to moment. The CRAVE scale (Cravings for Rest and Volitional Energy Expenditure) was developed to assess transient wants and desires to move. Three studies were conducted with the aims of: (1) translating and validating the scale in Brazilian Portuguese, (2) examining changes with exercise, and (3) determining the best single-item for Move and Rest subscales for English and Portuguese. In Study 1, six bilingual speakers translated the scale into Brazilian Portuguese [named Anseios por Repouso e Gastos com Energia (ARGE)]. The ARGE had good content validity coefficients across three dimensions (0.89–0.91), as determined by three independent, bilingual referees. 1,168 participants (mean age = 30.6, SD = 12.2) from across Brazil completed an online version of the ARGE. An Exploratory Factor Analysis found two clear, oblique, and inversely related factors (Move and Rest; GFI = 1.00, RMSR = 0.03). Reliability was good (Cronbach α’s: 0.93 and 0.92). Two models of the scale (10 vs. 13 items) were compared with Confirmatory Factor Analysis. The previously validated version using 10 scored items (GFI = 1.00, RMSEA = 0.07, RMSR = 0.02) outperformed the version scored with 13 items. State anxiety and exercise behavior had small associations with Move and Rest (−0.20 to 0.26). In Study 2, ARGE Move scores had high correspondence post-session (ICC = 0.83) for 9 women performing short Sprint Interval Training (sSIT; 6 sessions). Large, but non-significant, effects were detected for changes in motivation states with sSIT. In Study 3, IRT analyses found that for the United States sample, “be physically active” and “be still” were the most representative items for Move and Rest, respectively, while for the Brazil sample they were “exert my muscles” and “be a couch potato.” Overall, it was found that: (A) the ARGE scale demonstrated good psychometric properties, (B) the original scoring (with 10 items) resulted in the best model, (C) it had small associations with exercise behavior, and (D) the subscales were reduced to single items that varied by country, indicating potential cultural differences in the concept of motivation states for physical activity.
Background
The global decline in physical activity among the youth has been exacerbated by the pandemic's impact on their lifestyles. Addressing these adverse effects post-pandemic by supporting preferred physical activities among young individuals is crucial. The aim of the study is to identify the status and trend of preferences for individually focused PA of young people in the context of the negative effects of the pandemic on the physical activity of young people.
Methods
Conducted between 2007 and 2020, this research encompassed 19,235 participants aged 15 to 26. Physical activity preferences were gauged using the Questionnaire on Physical Activity Preferences, while actual physical activity levels were measured through the International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Long Form.
Results
Among the participants, individual physical activities were favored by 24% of Czech and 25% of Polish boys, and 23% of Czech and 25% of Polish girls. Across all demographics, swimming and cycling emerged as preferred activities, with a notable increase in running. A positive correlation was found between the preference for running and higher levels of recreational, vigorous, and overall weekly physical activity. Additionally, an increased preference for running was associated with a higher likelihood of meeting weekly physical activity recommendations for both girls (OR = 1.82, CI = 1.62–2.04, p < 0.001) and boys (OR = 1.61, CI = 1.44–1.82, p < 0.001) in both countries.
Conclusions
The systematic and long-term monitoring of physical activity preferences is vital for effectively promoting and supporting a healthy lifestyle among youth, especially during periods of social and health crises.
