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Introduction
There has been recently an explosion of consumer interest
in the health enhancing role of specific foods, containing
physiologically/biologically active components in addition to
the nutrients, so-called functional foods, designer foods or
nutraceuticals [25]. Clearly, all foods are functional, as they
provide taste, aroma, or nutritive value. Within the last two
decades, however, the term functional as it applies to food
has adopted a different connotation: that of providing an
additional physiological benefit beyond that of meeting basic
nutritional needs [26].
As the food industry has responded to consumer demand
for a more healthful food supply, the variety of functional
foods that are currently available to consumers has grown
tremendously, and functional foods are becoming an increa-
sing percentage of all new products [3, 10]. These functional
products should have pre-approved health claims {e.g. in
USA, by Food and Drug Administration (FDA)}, which are
based on scientific evidence and agreement among scientists
in the field of food and nutrition, and appear in the market
with labels providing a reliable source of applicable nutrition
information for consumers.
Health professionals, based on the increasing scientific
evidence, are gradually recognising the role of biologically
active food components in health enhancement [1, 29]. The
scientific evidence for functional foods and their physiologi-
cally active components can be categorised into four distinct
SYNTHÈSES SCIENTIFIQUES
Functional foods from animal sources and their
physiologically active components
J.A. MESTRE PRATES* and CRISTINA M.R.P. MATEUS
Secção de Bioquímica, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária - CIISA, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, Rua Professor Cid dos Santos, Pólo Universitário do Alto da Ajuda, 1300-477
Lisboa, Portugal; Tel.: 351 21 365 28 00 ; Fax: 351 21 365 28 82
* Corresponding author (japrates@fmv.utl.pt)
SUMMARY
Functional foods are foods that, by virtue of their physiologically active
components, provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Although the
vast number of naturally occurring health-enhancing substances are of plant
origin, there are also a number of physiologically active components in ani-
mal products that deserve attention for their potential role in health promo-
tion. The aim of this paper was to review the literature for those animal food
components that have been linked with human physiological benefits, in
order to contribute for the dissemination of this new topic among veterina-
rians and other animal and food scientists. These components, which poten-
tial health benefits and their scientific evidence are described, include: cal-
cium, probiotics, whey proteins and whey peptides, from dairy products;
n-3 fatty acids, from fish; conjugated linoleic acid, from beef and lamb meat ;
sphingolipids, from eggs; and, the conditionally-essential nutrients L-carni-
tine, coenzyme Q10, α-lipoic acid, choline and taurine, widely diffused in
animal products. In spite of the infancy of functional foods field, increasing
evidence supports the observation that functional foods from animal sources
may enhance human health.
KEY-WORDS: human alimentation - functional foods -
physiologically active components - dairy products - fish
- meat - eggs.
RÉSUMÉ
Les aliments fonctionnels d’origine animale et leurs composants ayant
une activité physiologique. Par J.A. MESTRE PRATES et CRISTINA
M.R.P. MATEUS.
Les aliments fonctionnels sont des aliments qui, par leurs composants
physiologiquement actifs, ont des effets sur la santé, au-delà de leur simple
rôle nutritionnel de base. Bien que la plupart des substances présentant cette
activité sur l'homme soit d'origine végétale, il y a aussi un certain nombre
de composants d'origine animale qui méritent qu'on leur prête attention à
cause de leur activité bénéfique sur la santé. L'objet de ce travail est une
revue de la littérature existante sur ce sujet, afin de le divulguer parmi les
vétérinaires et d'autres scientifiques des animaux et des aliments. Les com-
posants, dont une éventuelle activité positive sur la santé a été montrée
scientifiquement, sont: le calcium, les probiotiques, des protéines et pep-
tides du lactoserum, des produits laitiers; les acides gras n-3, composants
des matières grasses du poisson; l'acide linoléique conjugué, de la viande de
boeuf et de mouton; les sphingolipides des œufs; et, les nutriments essen-
tiels sous certaines conditions, L-carnitine, coenzyme Q10, α-acide lipoic,
choline et taurine, très répandus parmi les produits d'origine animale. Bien
qu'on commence à peine à parler des aliments fonctionnels, ils deviennent
un sujet de plus en plus important, compte tenu de la démonstration scien-
tifique de leur action sur la santé humaine.
MOTS-CLÉS: alimentation humaine - aliments fonction-
nels - nutriments essentiels - produits laitiers - poisson -
viande - œufs.
Revue Méd. Vét., 2002, 153, 3, 155-160
areas: a) clinical trials; b) animal studies; c) experimental in
vitro laboratory studies; d) and epidemiological studies.
Much of the current evidence for functional foods lacks well-
designed clinical trials ; however, the foundational evidence
provided through the other types of scientific investigation is
substantial for several of the functional foods and their
health-promoting components. The potential of functional
foods to mitigate disease, promote health, and reduce health
care costs, can be even more significant than the market
value of functional foods [25].
The position of the American Dietetic Association (ADA)
is that functional foods, including whole foods and fortified,
enriched, or enhanced foods, have a potentially beneficial
effect on health when consumed as part of a varied diet on a
regular basis, at effective levels [2]. ADA [2] refers also that
the knowledge of the role of physiologically active food
components, both from plant and animal sources, has chan-
ged the role of diet in health. Functional foods have evolved
as food and nutrition science has advanced beyond the treat-
ment of deficiency syndromes to reduction of disease risk.
However, each functional food should be evaluated on the
basis of scientific evidence to ensure appropriate integration
into a varied diet.
Foods can no longer be evaluated only in terms of macro-
nutrient and micronutrient intake, but the analysis of other
physiologically active components will be necessary [2]. In
addition, research into the emerging area of functional foods
should be more widely and effectively communicated to the
scientific community and consumers in order to advance
public health [18]. Although the majority of physiologically
active food components are of plant origin (for review, see
e.g. [37]), animal products also have several substances with
a potential role in health promotion. This paper reviews the
literature concerning animal food components that have been
linked with human physiological benefits. The spread of this
new topic is very important among veterinarians and other
animal and food scientists, in order to optimise public health,
through healthier food products, by improving animal nutri-
tion and food processing.
1. Definition of functional foods
The designation of functional foods was first introduced in
Japan, in the 1980s, and refers to processed foods containing
ingredients that aid specific bodily functions in addition to
being nutritious. To date, Japan is the only country that has
formulated a specific regulatory approval process for func-
tional foods [6]. In the USA and Europe, the functional foods
category is not yet recognised legally. Irrespective of this,
many organisations have proposed definitions for this new
and emerging area of the food and nutrition sciences. The
International Food Information Council (IFIC) defines func-
tional foods as "foods that provide health benefits beyond
basic nutrition" [30]. This definition is similar to that of the
International Life Sciences Institute of North America
(ILSI), which has defined functional foods as "foods that, by
virtue of physiologically active components, provide health
benefits beyond basic nutrition" [13]. The Institute of
Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences of USA
(IMNAS) limits functional foods to "those in which the
concentrations of one or more ingredients have been manipu-
lated or modified to enhance their contribution to a healthful
diet" [31].
According to the wide definitions, unmodified whole foods
such as fish and beef represent the simplest example of a
functional food, since they are rich in such physiologically
active components as n-3 fatty acids and conjugated linoleic
acid, respectively. Modified foods, namely those that have
been enhanced with physiologically active components, from
plant (phytochemicals) or animal (zoochemicals) sources,
also fall within the realm of functional foods. In addition,
food biotechnology will continue to provide new venues for
functional food development.
Although the term functional foods may not be the ideal
descriptor for this emerging food category, recent focus-
group research conducted by IFIC showed that this term was
recognised more readily and was also preferred by consu-
mers over other commonly used terms such as nutraceutical
or designer foods [50]. Recent broad use and acceptance of
the term functional foods by media, scientists, and consumers
makes convenient to work within this framework rather than
introduce a new, more descriptive term, because of concern
that new terminology could lead to further confusion among
consumers [2].
2. Dairy products
There is no doubt that dairy products are functional foods.
They are one of the best sources of calcium, an essential
nutrient which can prevent osteoporosis and possibly colon
cancer. In view of the former, the National Academy of
Sciences of USA recently increased recommendations for
this nutrient for most human age groups. In addition to cal-
cium, however, recent research has focused specifically on
other components in dairy products, particularly fermented
dairy products, known as probiotics. Probiotics are defined as
"live microbial feed supplements which beneficially affect
the host animal by improving its intestinal microbial
balance" [19].
It is estimated that over 400 species of bacteria, separated
into two broad categories, inhabit the human gastrointestinal
tract. The categories are: those considered to be beneficial
(e.g. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus) and those conside-
red detrimental (e.g. Enterobacteriaceae and Clostridium
spp.). Of the beneficial micro-organisms traditionally used in
food fermentation, lactic acid bacteria have attracted the
most attention [49]. Although a variety of health benefits
have been attributed to probiotics, their anticarcinogenic,
hypocholesterolemic and antagonistic actions against enteric
pathogens and other intestinal organisms have received the
most attention [44].
The hypocholesterolemic effect of fermented milk was dis-
covered more than 30 years ago during studies conducted in
Maasai tribesmen in Africa [40]. The Maasai have low levels
of serum cholesterol and clinical coronary heart disease des-
pite a high meat diet. However, they consume daily 4 to 5 L
of fermented whole milk. Although a number of human clini-
cal studies have assessed the cholesterol-lowering effects of
Revue Méd. Vét., 2002, 153, 3, 155-160
156 MESTRE PRATES (J.A.) AND CRISTINA MATEUS (M.R.P.)
fermented milk products [49], results are equivocal. Study
outcomes have been complicated by inadequate sample sizes,
failure to control nutrient intake and energy expenditure, and
variations in baseline blood lipids.
More evidence supports the role of probiotics in cancer risk
reduction, particularly colon cancer [44]. This observation
may be due to the fact that lactic acid cultures can decrease
the activity of faecal enzymes (e.g. β-glucuronidase, azore-
ductase, nitroreductase) that are thought to play a role in the
development of colon cancer. Relatively less attention has
been focused on the consumption of fermented milk products
and breast cancer risk, although an inverse relationship has
been observed in some studies [53, 55].
In addition to probiotics, there is growing interest in fer-
mentable carbohydrates that feed the good microflora of the
gut. These carbohydrates, called prebiotics, were defined by
GIBSON and ROBERFROID [20] as "nondigestible food
ingredients that beneficially affect the host by selectively sti-
mulating the growth and/or activity of one or a limited num-
ber of bacteria in the colon and thus improves host health".
Prebiotics include starches, dietary fibres, other non-absor-
bable sugars, sugar alcohols and oligosaccharides [21]. Of
these, oligosaccharides have received the most attention, and
numerous health benefits have been attributed to them [54].
Oligosaccharides consist of short chain polysaccharides
composed of three to ten simple sugars linked together. They
are found naturally in many fruits and vegetables (including
banana, garlic, onions, milk, honey and artichokes). The pre-
biotic concept has been further extended to encompass the
concept of synbiotics, a mixture of pro- and prebiotics [20].
Many synbiotic products are currently on the market in
Europe.
Recently, it was found that whey proteins have a putative
anti-cancer activity [43]. It was shown that these proteins are
efficacious in retardation of colon cancer in young rats, com-
pared with other dietary proteins (meat and soy), which can
be a basis for their inclusion as ingredients in functional
foods. Additionally, the foods containing whey proteins are
generally highly acceptable in taste trials. A recent field of
research are biological active peptide sequences of whey,
which become effective during digestion and are of impor-
tance for secretion of entero hormones as well as for immune
enhancing effects [9].
3. Fish
Omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids are an essential class of poly-
unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) derived primarily from fish
oil. The major PUFA are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA ;
C20:5, n-3) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA; C22:6, n-3).
Canada has established the Canadian Recommended
Nutrient Intake (CRNI) of n-3 PUFA at 0.5 % of energy (e.g.
1.1 g/2000 kcal). It has been suggested that the Western-type
diet is currently deficient in n-3 fatty acids, which is reflected
in the current estimated n-6 to n-3 dietary ratio of 20:25-1,
compared to the estimated 1:1 ratio on which humans evol-
ved [51]. This has prompted researchers to examine the role
of n-3 fatty acids in a number of diseases - particularly can-
cer and cardiovascular diseases (CVD) - and more recently,
in early human development.
That n-3 fatty acids may play an important role in CVD
was first brought to light in the 1970s when BANG and
DYERBERG [8] reported that Eskimos had low rates of this
disease despite consuming a diet which was high in fat. The
cardioprotective effect of fish consumption has been obser-
ved in some prospective investigations [36], but not in others
[7]. Negative results could be explained by the fact that
although n-3 fatty acids have been shown to lower triglyce-
rides by 25-30 %, they do not lower LDL cholesterol. In fact,
a recent review of 72 placebo-controlled human trials, sho-
wed that n-3 fatty acids increased LDL cholesterol [24].
Although eating large amounts of fish has not unequivo-
cally been shown to reduce CVD risk in healthy men,
consumption of 35 g or more of fish daily has been shown to
reduce the risk of death from non-sudden myocardial infarc-
tion in the Chicago Western Electric Study [14], and as little
as one serving of fish per week was associated with a signifi-
cantly reduced risk of total cardiovascular mortality after
11 years in more than 20,000 USA male physicians [5].
4. Meat
Beef and lamb meat have been suffered from a negative
health image related to the nature of their lipid fraction.
Rumen lipid metabolism, through microbial hydrogenation,
originates the presence of saturated lipids and trans-fatty
acids in ruminant tissues [16]. Actually, scientific evidence
has been accumulated that meat itself is not a risk factor for
Western lifestyle diseases such as CVD, but rather the risk
stems from the excessive fat and particularly saturated fat
associated with the meat of modern domesticated animals. In
fact, MANN [41] reported that diets high in lean red meat can
actually lower plasma cholesterol, contribute significantly to
tissue n-3 fatty acids and provide a good source of iron, zinc
and vitamin B12. It was concluded that lean meat is a healthy
and beneficial component of any well-balanced diet as long
as it is fat trimmed and consumed as part of a varied diet.
Additionally, an anti-carcinogenic fatty acid known as
conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) was first isolated from grilled
beef in 1987 [23]. CLA refers to a mixture of positional and
geometric isomers of linoleic acid (C18:2, n-6) in which the
double bonds are conjugated instead of existing in the typical
methylene interrupted configuration. Nine different isomers
of CLA have been reported as occurring naturally in food.
CLA is unique in that it is found in highest concentrations in
fat from ruminant animals (e.g. beef, dairy and lamb). Beef
fat contains 3.1 to 8.5 mg CLA/g with the 9-cis and 11-trans
isomers contributing 57-85 % of the total CLA [36].
Interestingly, CLA increases in foods that are cooked and/or
otherwise processed. This is significant in view of the fact
that many mutagens and carcinogens have been identified in
cooked meats.
Over the past decade, CLA has been shown to be effective
in suppressing forestomach tumors in mice, aberrant colonic
crypt foci in rats, and mammary carcinogenesis in rats [32].
In the mammary tumour model, CLA is an effective anti-car-
cinogen in the range of 0.1-1 % in the diet, which is higher
than the estimated consumption of approximately 1 g
CLA/person/day in the USA [25]. These results are not due
Revue Méd. Vét., 2002, 153, 3, 155-160
FUNCTIONAL FOODS FROM ANIMAL SOURCES AND THEIR PHYSIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE COMPONENTS 157
to displacement of linoleic acid in cells, suggesting that there
may be unique mechanisms by which CLA modulates tumor
development. Thus, there has been research designed to
increase the CLA content in dairy cow milk through dietary
modification of the cow regimen [34].
CLA isomers exhibit a protective effect also in atheroscle-
rotic disease at a concentration similar to that found in food
[11]. Studies are being carried out to assess the health protec-
ting effect of CLA in humans.
More recently, CLA has been investigated for its ability to
change body composition, suggesting a role as a weight-
reduction agent. Mice fed CLA-supplemented diets (0.5 %)
exhibited 60 % lower body fat and 14 % increased lean body
mass relative to controls [47], possibly by reducing fat depo-
sition and increasing lipolysis in adipocytes.
5. Eggs
Eggs have not traditionally been regarded as a functional
food, primarily due to concerns about their adverse effects on
serum cholesterol levels. Furthermore, it is now known that
there is little if any connection between dietary cholesterol
and blood cholesterol levels and consuming up to one or
more eggs per day does not adversely affect blood choleste-
rol levels [27]. Finally, eggs are an excellent dietary source of
many essential (e.g. protein, sphingolipids, choline and n-3
PUFA) and non-essential (e.g. lutein/zeaxanthin) compo-
nents which may promote optimal health. Thus, the egg will
continue to play an important role in the changing face of
functional foods [27].
The major food sources of sphingolipids, containing seve-
ral mmol per kg of edible food, are eggs, dairy products and
soybeans [56]. There is no known nutritional requirement for
sphingolipids; nonetheless, they are hydrolyzed throughout
the gastrointestinal tract to the same categories of metabolites
(ceramides and sphingoid bases) that are used by cells to
regulate growth, differentiation, apoptosis and other cellular
functions. Studies with experimental animals have shown
that feeding sphingolipids inhibits colon carcinogenesis,
reduces serum LDL cholesterol and elevates HDL, sugges-
ting that sphingolipids represent a functional constituent of
food [56].
N-3 PUFA-enriched eggs can be produced by modifying
hens diets [39]. Each one of these modified eggs contain
about 350 mg of n-3 PUFA, relatively to the standard eggs
that contain about 60 mg, and three of the enriched eggs pro-
vide approximately the same amount of n-3 PUFA as one
meal with fish. When individuals are fed four n-3 PUFA-
enriched eggs a day for four weeks, plasma total cholesterol
levels and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) do
not increase significantly [52]. Plasma triglycerides are
decreased by addition of n-3 PUFA-enriched eggs to the diet.
N-3 PUFA may influence LDL particle size, causing a shift
toward a less atherogenic particle. Blood platelet aggregation
is significantly decreased in participants consuming n-3
PUFA-enriched eggs. Overall results of studies to date
demonstrate positive effects and no negative effects from
consumption of n-3-enriched eggs.
6. Animal foods
Several compounds widely diffused in animal foods have
been suggested as possible physiologically active compo-
nents. Among them, the conditionally-essential nutrients,
also known as vitamin-like substances, L-carnitine, coen-
zyme Q10, α-lipoic acid, choline and taurine, are deserving
an increasing attention.
L-carnitine, a betaine derivative of β-hydroxybutyrate, is
synthesised almost exclusively in animal liver and exists in
animal derived foods [48]. Skeletal muscles constitute the
main reservoir of carnitine in the body and have a carnitine
concentration at least 200 times higher than blood plasma.
Carnitine has a fundamental biological role as a long-chain
fatty acid carrier across the mitochondrial membrane and in
ketone body formation. Several considerations suggest that
carnitine is a truly essential nutrient in infancy and in other
situations where the energy requirement is particularly high,
e.g. pregnancy and breast feeding [22].
Carnitine and choline are putative ergogenic agents [33].
Choline supplementation reduces urinary carnitine excretion
in humans [17]. Carnitine purportedly enhances lipid oxida-
tion, increases VO2max, and decreases plasma lactate accu-
mulation during exercise. Choline supplements have been
advocated as a means of preventing the decline in acetylcho-
line production purported to occur during exercise; this
decline may reduce the transmission of contraction-genera-
ting impulses across the skeletal muscle, an effect that could
impair one's ability to perform muscular work. Dietary sup-
plementation with carnitine seems to have an immunomodu-
lation effect in chickens [42] and, together with lipoic acid,
seems also to delay ageing [4]. Further studies are required to
better evaluate possible effects of oral supplementations of
carnitine on energy metabolism, cardiac functions and physi-
cal performance at rest and during exercise, and to perhaps
better characterise the conditions under which carnitine may
be beneficial [57].
Coenzyme Q10, or ubiquinone, is a vitamin-like substance
which plays a crucial role in the generation of cellular energy
and in free radical scavenging in the human body [45, 28].
After the age of 35 to 40, the organism begins to lose its abi-
lity to synthesise coenzyme Q10 from food and its deficiency
develops. Ageing, poor eating habits, stress and infection -
they all affect our ability to provide adequate amounts of
coenzyme Q10. Therefore, coenzyme Q10 supplementation
may be very helpful for the organism [28]. Favourable car-
diovascular effects have been reported with the use of condi-
tionally-essential nutrients, coenzyme Q10, carnitine and tau-
rine [35].
α-Lipoic acid, which plays an essential role in mitochon-
drial dehydrogenase reactions, has recently gained conside-
rable attention as an antioxidant [46]. Lipoate, or its reduced
form, dihydrolipoate, reacts with reactive oxygen species
such as superoxide radicals, hydroxyl radicals, hypochlorous
acid, peroxyl radicals and singlet oxygen. In addition to its
antioxidant activities, dihydrolipoate may exert pro-oxidant
actions through reduction of iron. Lipoic acid administration
has been shown to be beneficial in a number of oxidative
Revue Méd. Vét., 2002, 153, 3, 155-160
158 MESTRE PRATES (J.A.) AND CRISTINA MATEUS (M.R.P.)
stress models such as ischemia-reperfusion injury, diabetes,
cataract formation, HIV activation, neurodegeneration and
radiation injury [46]. Furthermore, lipoate can function as a
redox regulator of proteins such as myoglobin, prolactin,
thioredoxin and NF-kappa B transcription factor.
Choline is involved in methyl group metabolism and lipid
transport and is a component of a number of important biolo-
gical compounds including the membrane phospholipids
lecithin, sphingomyelin and plasmalogen, the neurotransmit-
ter acetylcholine, and the platelet activating factor [12].
Although a required nutrient for several animal species, cho-
line is not currently designated as essential for humans.
However, recent clinical studies show it to be essential for
normal liver function. Additionally, a large body of evidence
from the fields of molecular and cell biology shows that cer-
tain phospholipids play a critical role in generating second
messengers for cell membrane signal transduction. These
recent findings may be appropriate in the consideration of
choline as an essential nutrient for humans [12].
In healthy adult humans, eight amino acids (isoleucine,
leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, trypto-
phan and valine) were shown classically by nitrogen balance
studies to be indispensable. However, evidence for the indis-
pensability of taurine has been also suggested [38] and
favourable cardiovascular effects have been reported with the
diet supplementation of this conditionally-essential nutrient
[35].
7. Safety issues
Although increasing the availability of healthful foods,
including functional foods, in the diet is critical to ensuring a
healthier population [1], safety is a critical issue. The optimal
levels of the majority of the biologically active components
currently under investigation have yet to be determined.
Thus, Paracelsus' 15th century doctrine that "all substances
are poisons ... the right dose differentiates a poison from a
remedy" is even more pertinent today given the proclivity for
dietary supplements. The benefits and risks to individuals
and populations as a whole must be weighed carefully when
considering the widespread use of physiologically active
functional foods. Knowledge of toxicity of functional food
components is crucial to decrease the risk/benefit ratio.
Table I summarises the putative physiologically active
components of foods from animal sources described in the
text and their suggested benefits for human health. Selected
functional foods from animal sources with health claim sub-
mitted or approved by FDA and their key components, as
well as the scientific evidence supporting their health bene-
fits, is presented in Table II.
Conclusion
Increasing evidence supports the observation that foods
from animal sources containing physiologically active com-
ponents may enhance human health. These biologically
active components include: calcium, probiotics, whey pro-
teins and whey peptides, from dairy products; n-3 fatty acids,
from fish; conjugated linoleic acid, from beef and lamb meat ;
sphingolipids, from eggs; and, the conditionally-essential
nutrients L-carnitine, coenzyme Q10, α-lipoic acid, choline
and taurine, widely diffused in animal products. However,
the field of functional foods is in its infancy. Furthermore, a
number of factors complicate the establishment of a strong
scientific foundation. These factors include the complexity of
the food substance, effects on the food, compensatory meta-
bolic changes that may occur with dietary changes, and, lack
of surrogate markers of disease development. Additional
research is necessary to substantiate the potential health
benefits of those foods for which the diet-health relationships
are not sufficiently scientifically validated.
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Revue Méd. Vét., 2002, 153, 3, 155-160
FUNCTIONAL FOODS FROM ANIMAL SOURCES AND THEIR PHYSIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE COMPONENTS 159
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160 MESTRE PRATES (J.A.) AND CRISTINA MATEUS (M.R.P.)
