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Cross-Cultural Code-Switching: The Psychological Challenges of Adapting Behavior in Foreign Cultural Interactions
Abstract
Previous research on cultural adaptation has focused on the challenges and outcomes associated with long-term adaptation to a foreign culture. Little has focused on the dynamics of cultural adaptation within single interactions, which are the building blocks of these long-term patterns. I fill this gap by introducing the concept of cross-cultural code-switching and providing an account of the psychological chal- lenges people face in successfully adapting their behavior in foreign cultural inter- actions. A critical practical challenge that organiza- tions face in the increasingly interdependent global economy is the ability to function effec- tively across national cultural boundaries. In- stead of operating exclusively within the cul- tural setting in which they were born and raised, individuals must now be capable of functioning appropriately in a wide variety of foreign cul- tural situations, many of which have different cultural norms for appropriate behavior that may conflict with their core values and beliefs. In response to this challenge, a growing number of management scholars have examined the antecedents and consequences of successful long-term adaptation to a foreign culture. Re- searchers have identified the interpersonal, intrapersonal, and technical skills required for long-term expatriate success (Black & Gre- gersen, 1999; Black, Mendenhall, & Oddou,
... Speaking about cross-cultural behavior codes, Molinsky [3] pointed on psychological challenges of foreign managers and employees: they may lack cultural skills (or feel that they lack cultural skills) to successfully produce the required appropriate behavior for the foreign interaction, resulting in performance anxiety, or even embarrassment, in front of a critical, evaluative audience from the native culture [3]. In this case, a deficient linguistic vocabulary of non-native speakers may play a significant role to produce such confusions. ...
... Speaking about cross-cultural behavior codes, Molinsky [3] pointed on psychological challenges of foreign managers and employees: they may lack cultural skills (or feel that they lack cultural skills) to successfully produce the required appropriate behavior for the foreign interaction, resulting in performance anxiety, or even embarrassment, in front of a critical, evaluative audience from the native culture [3]. In this case, a deficient linguistic vocabulary of non-native speakers may play a significant role to produce such confusions. ...
... Behavioral CS. Behavioral CS references Molinsky's (2007) notion of cultural adaptation as "cross-cultural code-switching," to signal "changes from one form of behavior to another for the purpose of creating a desired social impression" (p. 623). ...
... Consistent with Molinsky (2007), the need to belong by conveying the "correct" social impressions shaped all participants' perceptions of music education overall. As a tenured music education professor, JC's experiences in academia involved behavioral compartmentalizing to move from a Latina/o/x cultural mindset to a more rigid majority one: ...
Musical codeswitching (CS) entails mixing musical ideas and genres. The term CS originated in linguistics, based on language alternations attested in bilinguals. Switches in sociocultural behaviors also now receive scholarly attention as CS. The current multiple case study explores CS domains (music, language, and behavior) in the context of music education programs, where CS remains under-researched. This study also fills a gap by examining historically underrepresented individuals’ (HURIs) participation in music education. Here, a CS-based account provides a deeper understanding of the complex sociocultural capital, linguistic resources and lived experiences that HURIs navigate. As part of an interpretive qualitative study design, semi-structured interviews were carried out with a HURI subpopulation (bilingual, [Afro]Latina/o/x faculty, and students) in music education. Findings show participants perceive CS to be mandatory for accessing dominant U.S. music school culture. Additional findings reveal HURIs must master CS in musical, linguistic, and behavioral domains to avoid negative outcomes, yet sustained multi-CS scenarios may have psychological and even physical costs. Insights from CS are thus critical for pinpointing institutional barriers to greater HURI involvement in music education.
... Wagner, 2003;Lichtman, 2017). The location, setting, and language within which the IK was elicited, which can influence cultural-linguistic code-switching (Molinsky, 2007;Wehi et al., 2009). For example, interviewing an IK-holder at a sacred site in their native language may produce very different responses than an interview conducted in an office setting in English (Wehi et al., 2009). ...
There are increasing calls to incorporate indigenous knowledge (IK) into climate adaptation planning (CAP) and related projects. However, given unique attributes of IK and the positionality of tribal communities to scientific research, several considerations are important to ensure CAP efforts with IK are ethical and effective. While such topics have been thoroughly explored conceptually, incorporation of IK into CAP is a nascent field only beginning to report findings and improve science production and delivery. Based on recent work with Ute Mountain Ute (UMU) resource managers and knowledge holders, we reflect on key considerations for incorporating IK into CAP: the importance of sustained and multi-level tribal engagement, operational approaches to IK incorporation, cross-cultural challenges with risk-based approaches, and how CAP can support existing tribal priorities. We hope exploring these considerations can help set appropriate expectations, promote ethical interactions, and increase the effectiveness of tribal CAP and related efforts.
... This cultural awareness, in turn, may inform culturally suitable modes of presentation, scaffolding the confidence to manage the encounter with prospective employers and signal fit (Tazzyman, 2020), that is, ISE. From a CSM perspective, cultural capital signifies the sociocultural influence theorised to increase self-efficacy beliefs, as it represents the learning experience that instructs new entrants' performance during job interviews by indirectly modelling their actions (Lent & Brown, 2013;Molinsky, 2007). We advance an indirect relationship between career identity and ISE through cultural capital. ...
Purpose
This study aims to understand how employability capitals’ dynamics foster self-perceived employability (SPE) among students and graduates, which is still being empirically explored. Building upon the Employability Capital Growth Model and the Social Cognitive Career Theory’s career self-management model, we aimed to understand how different capitals associate by testing a serial mediation model connecting career identity (reflecting career identity capital) and SPE through the serial mediation of cultural capital and job interview self-efficacy (ISE) (an element of psychological capital).
Design/methodology/approach
We adopted a two-wave design involving 227 Italian University students and graduates. We recruited participants through multi-channel communication. The hypothesised relationships were analysed employing the structural equation modelling approach with the SPSS AMOS statistical package.
Findings
The results indicated that career identity, cultural capital, ISE and SPE are meaningfully related. In particular, in line with our expectations, we observed that career identity predicts cultural capital, which is positively associated with ISE which, ultimately, impacts SPE.
Originality/value
Our work adds to existing research by advancing the understanding of employability capitals, explaining how they interact and influence SPE, which is crucial for a sustainable transition into the workforce. At a practical level, our findings call upon, and guide, efforts from various stakeholders in the graduate career ecosystem (i.e. universities and their partners) to offer students and graduates meaningful experiences to form and use their employability capitals.
... The discomfort increases when existing cultural frameworks fail to provide adequate guidance for interpreting these new situations. Experiencing uncertainty can raise stress levels as individuals grapple with the challenges of navigating ambiguous or unfamiliar situations (Molinsky, 2007). 72 Generally, IC has been linked to the discussion on addressing uncertainty and stress. ...
In the rapidly evolving higher education landscape of the 21st century, cultivating intercultural competence has become a crucial prerequisite for students‘ success in our highly interconnected world. While intercultural competence has traditionally been associated with internationalization in higher education, its impact transcends international boundaries. This dissertation delves into the influence of intercultural competence education on students’ adaptability and success within culturally diverse environments. It aims to foster a context-specific understanding of intercultural competence in higher education, promoting a more transcultural perspective of this competence. The research findings illuminate the critical factors that shape students’ adaptability and success, including the recognition and utilization of diverse perspectives, the application of transcultural understanding, the engagement in collective spaces and interactions, and the comprehension of the developmental process associated with this competence. By equipping students with these essential elements, higher education institutions prepare them to navigate the multifaceted challenges of their academic journeys and thrive in their future careers within our interconnected world.
... Literature on code-switching provides one framework for analysing the use of language in the professional context. Code switching is defined as an adjustment in behaviour that allows an individual to achieve desired goals (Anicich & Hirsh, 2017;Molinsky, 2007;Morton, 2014) and involves changes in speech and language to meet expectations (Goffman, 1981). This strategy can be used to avoid others' stereotyping and be perceived as more professional at work (McCluney et al., 2021), but it comes with costs (Dickens & Chavez, 2018). ...
Gay men who believe to sound ‘gay’ expect to be discriminated against because of their voices and gay‐sounding men are discriminated against in the hiring process. We examined whether uttering an agency‐based message decreased discrimination expectancy and enactment. In Study 1a ( N = 256; gay and bisexual men) and Study 1b ( N = 216; gay men), speakers uttered agentic (vs. neutral) messages. We assessed their self‐perception as gay sounding, agency self‐attribution and discrimination expectancy. Uttering agentic (vs. neutral) messages made the speakers self‐perceive as more agentic and this decreased discrimination expectancy. Additionally, self‐perception as gay sounding predicted discrimination expectancy. In Study 2 ( N = 466), heterosexual participants listened to gay‐ and straight‐sounding speakers uttering either neutral or agentic messages and rated them in terms of agency and employability. Gay‐sounding speakers uttering agentic messages were less likely to be discriminated against than when uttering neutral messages. Results show the positive impact of linguistic strategies involving agentic messages to reduce discrimination expectancy and hiring biases.
... It should be emphasised that understanding and accepting cultural differences are key aspects of intercultural management (e.g. Backmann, Kanitz, Tian, Hoffmann & Hoegl, 2020;Behfar, Kern & Brett, 2006;Browaeys & Price, 2008;Coote-Martin, 2014;Dixon-Fyle, Dolan, Hunt & Prince, 2020;Halverson & Tirmizi, 2008;Schneider & Barsoux, 2003;Knap-Stefaniuk, 2021;Knap-Stefaniuk & Sorribes, 2022;McFarlin & Sweeney, 2011;Molinsky, 2007;or Stahl, Maznevski, Voigt & Jonsen, 2010), which play a crucial role in integrating employees from different cultures around common principles and values within one organisational culture. ...
Organisational culture has been studied by researchers for decades. Their avid interest in this issue is primarily related to its considerable impact on various areas of organisational life and on a company’s relations with its environment. The importance of organisational culture is of particular relevance in multicultural work environments, in which managers’ daily work consists in dealing with employees from various national cultures and with multicultural teams pursuing a company’s goals. Organisational culture is directed at eliminating organisational behavioural ambiguity and promoting employees’ pro-effective behaviours, which seems particularly pertinent in case of a culturally diverse workforce. In the theoretical part of the article, the Authors define the term organisational culture, discuss the functions of this culture, and present the Cameron and Quinn competing values model, while in the research part, they describe the methodology of the study, report the results of the interviews, and draw the conclusions. The Authors conducted the interviews analysed in the article with the Polish, Spanish and Portuguese managers in 2022. The analysis of both the literature and the results of the study allowed them to demonstrate the importance of organisational culture in contemporary management, especially in the context of managing people in multicultural work environments.
... In all cases, this instinct to restrict the expression of sensitivity first occurred in childhood or adolescence as a means for participants to protect themselves from potential bullying or marginalization by peers and adults. Molinsky (2007) described cross-cultural code-switching as "the act of purposefully modifying one's behavior in an interaction in a foreign setting in order to accommodate different cultural norms for appropriate behavior" (p. 624), and this aptly describes the experiences depicted by participants. ...
High sensory processing sensitivity is a genetic temperament trait inherited by up to 30% of the population. Individuals with the trait, called highly sensitive persons, possess distinctive temperamental characteristics including increased depth of cognitive processing, overarousability, increased empathy and emotional responsiveness, and sensitivity to subtleties. Many of the traits associated with high sensory processing sensitivity conflict with dominant hegemonic masculine ideology in the United States. Despite this evident contradiction, there has been no research into the gender socialization experiences of highly sensitive men. This study sought to develop a greater understanding of the masculine socialization experiences of highly sensitive men through the use of interpretive phenomenological analysis. Fourteen highly sensitive men aged 25–79, M = 47, participated in a series of three semistructured interviews that focused on (a) their experiences with gender socialization as a highly sensitive boy/man, (b) their present experiences with gender norms, and (c) the personal meaning of their identity as a highly sensitive man. Analysis indicated four themes from participants’ experiences: (a) gender role conflict, (b) negative self-evaluation and mental health concerns, (c) sensitive intersection with race and ethnicity, (d) sensitive code-switching. These findings suggest that highly sensitive men may face unique difficulties in relation to traditional masculine socialization, which lead to various psychological concerns. Additionally, these findings imply that hegemonic masculine norms create an inherently unsupportive environment for highly sensitive boys and men and that sensory processing sensitivity should be taken into consideration by researchers and clinicians in understanding the intersectional experiences of men.
... Languages constitute a pivotal element of any community's culture. In the context of an intensely competitive global environment, individuals or organisations possessing proficiency in multiple languages enjoy a distinct advantage in participating in global trade and exchanges (Emmendoerfer et al., 2023;Li & Kalynaraman, 2012;Molinsky, 2007). The ability to navigate linguistic diversity enhances opportunities and effectiveness in international business endeavours. ...
In international advertising, foreign languages often serve symbolic purposes, each associated with distinct characteristics. This study explores whether recognising the language in advertising messages influences the company's perceived image and Word-of-Mouth (WOM). We used a between-subjects experimental design to selectfive languages as independent variables: Italian, Turkish, Russian, English, and French. An audio-only advertising message for a fictional company was created and translated into these languages. Native Spanish-speaking participants listened to the message in a foreign language and responded to inquiries about the advertised firm. The findings clearly demonstrate that recognising the language significantly impactsboth company image and WOM. This underscores the nuanced role of language in shaping perceptions in international advertising. The study provides valuable insights into effective language choices for global advertising strategies, emphasising the necessity of linguistic considerations beyond mere comprehension. Recognising and leveraging the symbolic nature of languages can profoundly influence consumer perceptions and communication strategies across diverse linguistic contexts, contributing to the overall effectiveness of internationaladvertising campaigns.
... However, it is crucial to acknowledge the physical and psychological toll that code-switching can have on URMs, and address how it can propagate systemic biases and inequities (Rolle et al., 2021). Continuously adapting and suppressing one's authentic behavior and personality can lead to increased burnout, stress, anxiety, and perpetuate a sense of alienation (Molinsky, 2007). Moreover, the pressure to code-switch may inadvertently reinforce the idea that the dominant culture's norms and values are superior, further marginalizing URM groups and preserving the vicious cycle of know-your-place aggression and white superiority. ...
Diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) initiatives are critical for fostering growth, innovation, and collaboration in science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and medicine (STEMM). This article focuses on four key topics that have impacted many Black individuals in STEMM: know-your-place aggression, environmental microaggressions, peer mediocrity, and code-switching. We provide a comprehensive background on these issues, discuss current statistics, and provide references that support their existence, as well as offer solutions to recognize and address these problems in the STEMM which can be expanded to all historically underrepresented individuals.
... This is additional to all other challenges being experienced. When acquiring the ability to switch, knowledge of what is expected is the first step; then identifying whether the switch is right for the context and timing all come with practice [42]. This study found, however, that even with knowledge and practice, default cultural codes took over when IMGs were stressed or tired and, when this occurred, the likelihood of complaints increased. ...
Background
New Zealand relies on International Medical Graduates (IMGs); however, the retention of IMGs is not optimal. This research uses a lens of cross-cultural code-switching to explore how professional and cultural differences impact on International Medical Graduates’ (IMGs’) journeys to practise effectively and remain in New Zealand.
Methods
Utilising theory-informing inductive analysis within a constructivist approach, framework analysis was conducted following 14 face-to-face interviews with IMGs. The analysis then explored the degree to which their experiences could be explained by cross-cultural code-switching’s psychological challenges (authenticity, competence, and resentment).
Results
Analysis showed there was an expectation for IMGs to code-switch. The greater the cultural and professional difference of IMGs (compared to New Zealand), the greater the intensity of psychological challenges experienced when switching. Moreover, IMGs received minimal support, making it difficult to overcome psychological challenges, especially the competence challenge. This led to feelings of frustration and vulnerability. Code-switching could also explain why complaints about IMGs were more likely when IMGs were stressed or tired.
Conclusion
Cross-cultural code-switching can be used to explain and identify how cultural differences cause psychological challenges. These findings inform how programmes can better support IMGs in orientation and ongoing training. Additionally, establishing, and allocating IMG cultural mentors would assist in addressing IMGs’ vulnerability and isolation. With this support, the journey may prove more manageable and encourage IMGs to continue practising in their adopted country.
... The defense stage learner may resist adaptation as they feel their own way is the best way (Bennett, 2008). Also, cross-cultural code-switching might be psychologically taxing due to performance difficulty, face threat or identity conflict (Molinsky, 2007). ...
Higher education institutions have the potential to significantly contribute to students’ intercultural competence development through internationalization at home. However, the intercultural
competence literature lacks empirical research on how students learn and the process of intercultural learning. This study investigates in-depth learning experiences in a six-week cross-cultural management course at a Dutch research university in which a blended learning tool was incorporated to enhance students’ intercultural competence. Thematic analysis of the data from qualitative semi-structured interviews resulted in an inductive explanatory model. This shows that facilitating factors for learning were teaching tools, intercultural contact (teamwork, multicultural classroom, cultural informants), motivational factors and intercultural experiences. Learning happened through experience, reflection, abstract conceptualization and experimentation. Learning dilemmas occurred around adaptation and stereotyping/generalizing. Pivotal for intercultural learning is dissonance: this needs to be sufficient to stimulate learning, but may also lead to learning dilemmas. The study concludes with recommendations for intercultural course design.
... The high dropout rate of international students has also become a major challenge for international education growth in some countries (Lamb et al., 2011). On the contrary, if international students overcome these difficulties and challenges, they can successfully adapt to the new environment and achieve their goals (Earley & Ang, 2003;Molinsky, 2007). For example, they can get higher diplomas, get cross-cultural experience and improve their language skills. ...
With the accelerating process of globalisation, studying abroad has gradually become a common phenomenon. China is the world's largest source of international students, and Chinese students’ adaptation to a foreign country has always been the focus of scholars. Although Chinese students have become the second-largest group of international students in Malaysia, few studies concentrated on the cross-cultural adaptation of this group in Malaysia. This literature review further confirms this situation. From 2010 to 2021, only 14 articles were obtained through both Google Scholar and Scopus databases and manual search. Among the limited literature,4 articles took Chinese international students as samples. In other research, the samples were international students from all over the world, and Chinese students only accounted for a part. Moreover, most of the studies only selected samples from one location, affecting the results' representative. In addition, the research topic was relatively unitary; the 14 studies mainly discussed the factors affecting the cross-cultural adaptation of Chinese students in Malaysia and suggested suggestions to improve their adaptation. In terms of research design, 12 articles applied a cross-sectional survey but onlyinvolved independent and dependent variables without moderating or mediating variables; the research framework was relatively simple. However, cross-sectional studies cannot determine causal relationships between variables and are insufficient to show the dynamic process of cross-cultural adaptation. On this basis, some suggestions for future research are put forward. Keywords: Cross-Cultural Adaptation; Psychological Adaptation; Sociocultural Adaptation; Academic Adaptation, International Students
... Cabe destacar que es de especial importancia para aquellas empresas u organizaciones con una visión global del mercado. En un entorno competitivo global, las personas u organizaciones que dominen esos idiomas, conseguirán esta ventaja en términos de participación en el comercio e intercambios a nivel mundial (Li y Kalynaraman, 2012;Molinsky, 2007). ...
Na publicidade internacional, um idioma estrangeiro é frequentemente utilizado com fins simbólicos. O presente estudo analisa quais as características que estão associadas ao estudo de idiomas, a que setor de produção estão associadas as línguas e qual a imagem da empresa gerada através da linguagem. Para atingir este objetivo, escolhemos um desenho experimental entre sujeitos usando três idiomas, nomeadamente italiano (L1), turco e russo. Concebemos um slogan (apenas com audio), traduzido nas diferentes línguas. A amostra total que foi exposta ao slogan foi constituída por 184 sujeitos. Os resultados mostram que a língua mais identificada é também a que está mais associada às características positivas da mensagem publicitária e a que projeta uma imagem mais favorável. Isto proporciona soluções comerciais no campo da publicidade e o uso de línguas estrangeiras para aumentar a eficácia e a persuasão da mesma.
... Based on these findings, we reason from the socially embedded perspective that culturally intelligent AEs with the apposite social skills can easily seek for and obtain support from their local communities despite the culturally dissimilar context (Farh et al., 2010) to thrive at work. Our argument aligns with Molinsky's (2007) assertion that with greater cultural intelligence, AEs can display higher cognitive and behavioural knowledge to quicken their learning of the host country's language and act in conducts that respect the cultural values of their new localities (Dimitrova, 2020;Farh et al., 2010). Cultivating social skills can easily help AEs to attract the support systems they need from the informal local networks and establish meaningful connections with the local nationals (Tharenou, 2015;Toh and DeNisi, 2005). ...
Compared to other intergroup contexts, gendered contact is more prevalent yet relatively understudied in contact research. We critically review available studies examining cross-gender contact—including contact between women and men, and contact involving genders outside of the gender binary—and its impact on outgroup attitudes and support for social change. We then outline future directions for gendered contact research with a focus on (a) assessing interpersonal and intergroup dynamics within cross-gendered relationships; (b) understanding the conditions that facilitate gendered contact that is both harmonious and support social change toward gender equality; and (c) conceptual and methodological considerations necessary to study gendered contact. Finally, we discuss the theoretical and practical importance of gendered contact research for advancing intergroup contact theory and gender equality.
Research on language proficiency and cultural intelligence (CQ) has developed somewhat independently, resulting in a partial understanding of the personal resources required to facilitate job performance and adaptation in a foreign culture. Our meta‐analysis synthesizes the two constructs by drawing on the overt‐covert model of culture and the conservation of resources (COR) theory. Specifically, we propose that language proficiency and CQ complement each other by overcoming resource losses arising from overt (i.e., explicit language differences) and covert (i.e., implicit rules) cultural differences, respectively. We further propose that the host‐country communication context (i.e., higher vs. lower context dependence) moderates the effects of language proficiency and CQ. Meta‐analytic results based on 355 field samples ( N = 128,358) support our hypotheses and show that (1) both language proficiency and CQ are positively related to job performance and cultural adaptation, (2) the effects of language proficiency are accentuated in cultures with lower communication‐context dependence, while (3) the effects of CQ are accentuated in cultures with higher communication‐context dependence. We discuss the implications of these findings for future research and practice.
Past research has noted that assigned expatriates (AEs) face challenges that often lead to premature termination when dispatched by the parent organisation to live and work abroad. However, recent statistics show that most AEs have no knowledge on how to overcome these cultural challenges prior to sending them abroad. Guided by the socially embedded model of thriving at work, we explain how cultural intelligence leads to local embeddedness and the latter’s effect on AEs thriving at work. Further, the relationship between local embeddedness and AEs’ thriving at work differs across varying levels of relational attachment. Our unique three-month time-lagged data from 234 AEs in eight multinational corporations (MNCs) with subsidiaries in Ghana offered support to our hypotheses. Cultural intelligence promotes local embeddedness, which, in turn, stimulates AEs thriving at work. Additionally, higher levels of relational attachment prompt AEs to leverage their local embeddedness to learn novel things that make them feel alive, energised, and awake at work. Implications for theory and practice, limitations and future research directions are discussed.
Background: Service-learning (SL) is an experiential educational approach integrating community service with academic study and personal growth. It is valued in higher education for enhancing student learning and development. Including intergenerational and cross-cultural engagement can promote social interaction between students and the community, although it also comes with challenges. Purpose: This paper reports on an investigation of the benefits and challenges of implementing SL projects with intergenerational and cross-cultural communication. Methodology/Approach: This study employed a mixed method combining quantitative and qualitative approaches to analyze survey results, student reflective reports for the course, and interview data. Findings/Conclusions: The outcomes encompassed enhancing professional skills, practical experience, and exploration of career options. Additionally, the analysis highlighted the positive impact of SL on students’ personal development. Furthermore, implementing SL projects with intergenerational and cross-cultural social interaction presented several challenges, including communication barriers among generations, resistance from interviewees who may be distracted, and cultural barriers for international students. Implications: In conclusion, this paper provides discussion and suggestions regarding designing and implementing SL projects within the human-computer interaction course. These insights are beneficial for enhancing the delivery of SL practice, particularly within the dynamic contexts of intergenerational and cross-cultural social interaction.
This research investigates the experiences of cultural code-switching among Black middle-class professionals in post-apartheid South Africa. By virtue of the unjust and inhumane laws imposed during South Africa’s discriminatory apartheid regime, salient dominant and minority cultures have prevailed in the post-apartheid era. The discrimination against and hegemony over previously oppressed cultures have engendered layers of trauma and unhealed scars in contemporary South African society. Using in-depth interviews with a sample of professionals, the research shows how the dominant Western culture has shaped the perceived hierarchy of professionalism in the South African workplace and an unconscious demand has been placed on Black individuals to adapt their cultural beliefs, values, and norms. This study is the first to clearly identify a taxonomy of specific codes like lifestyle and appearance, and critically examine the psychological states and experienced emotions that influence code-switching among Black middle-class professionals. The qualitative findings were used to create a framework that includes the relationship between formative influences, internal and external pressures, and coping strategies. The study supports a core argument that South African Black middle-class professionals have presented as a quintessential example demonstrating the concept of cultural code-switching, although there was also strong evidence of change as the country has evolved, which has allowed for greater cultural authenticity.
This quasi-experimental study investigated the effectiveness of code-switching in enhancing the reading comprehension skills of ABEL (Alternative Basic Education for Literacy) students at Agusan del Sur State College of Agriculture and Technology. A two-group design was implemented, with one group receiving instruction incorporating code-switching and the other using traditional English-only methods. Standardized tests assessed reading comprehension, and data analysis included frequency, percentage, mean scores, t-tests, and ANCOVA. Results showed that students in the code-switching group achieved a significantly higher average score (7.48, "Very Satisfactory") compared to the control group (6.22, "Satisfactory"). This significant difference (p-value = .002) demonstrates that code-switching led to markedly improved reading comprehension skills. The study concludes that code-switching is a highly effective strategy for enhancing reading comprehension in ABEL students, offering a more impactful approach than traditional English-only instruction. The research recommends integrating code-switching into teaching practices to facilitate understanding of complex topics and language structures, ultimately contributing to a more accessible and effective learning experience for students. Future research is encouraged to explore the broader applicability of code-switching across diverse educational contexts to further inform pedagogical best practices.
This quasi-experimental study investigated the effectiveness of code-switching in enhancing the reading comprehension skills of ABEL (Alternative Basic Education for Literacy) students at Agusan del Sur State College of Agriculture and Technology. A two-group design was implemented, with one group receiving instruction incorporating code-switching and the other using traditional English-only methods. Standardized tests assessed reading comprehension, and data analysis included frequency, percentage, mean scores, t-tests, and ANCOVA. Results showed that students in the code-switching group achieved a significantly higher average score (7.48, "Very Satisfactory") compared to the control group (6.22, "Satisfactory"). This significant difference (p-value = .002) demonstrates that code-switching led to markedly improved reading comprehension skills. The study concludes that code-switching is a highly effective strategy for enhancing reading comprehension in ABEL students, offering a more impactful approach than traditional English-only instruction. The research recommends integrating code-switching into teaching practices to facilitate understanding of complex topics and language structures, ultimately contributing to a more accessible and effective learning experience for students. Future research is encouraged to explore the broader applicability of code-switching across diverse educational contexts to further inform pedagogical best practices.
The objective of this research paper is to present a conceptual model of authentic leadership in a cross-cultural context, aimed at exploring how cultural elements influence the development and perception of leaders’ authenticity. This model draws upon authentic leadership development model and incorporates a followership perspective to study authentic leadership. It posits that culture assumes three critical roles within this framework: expanding, enabling, and encoding. In the expanding role, the concept of authentic leadership is broadened in scope due to varying self-concepts across cultures as individuals from different cultural backgrounds express diverse expectations of what an authentic leader should be. In the enabling role, exposure to different cultures through international experiences enable leaders to enhance their cross-cultural psychological capital and cultural intelligence, allowing them to navigate variations in authenticity effectively. Finally, for the encoding role, the perception of leader’s authenticity, which is related to behavioral integrity, value congruence, and emotional authenticity, becomes intricate as the three factors are encoded due to the differences between leader’s and follower’s cultural norms and values.
Just as animals forage for food, humans forage for social connections. People often face a decision between exploring new relationships versus deepening existing ones. This trade-off, known in optimal foraging theory as the exploration–exploitation trade-off, is featured prominently in other disciplines such as animal foraging, learning, and organizational behavior. Many of the framework’s principles can be applied to humans’ choices about their social resources, which we call social exploration/exploitation. Using known principles in the domain of social exploration/exploitation can help social psychologists better understand how and why people choose their relationships, which ultimately affect their health and well-being. In this article, we discuss the costs and benefits of social exploration and social exploitation. We then synthesize known person- and situation-level predictors of social decision making, reframing them in the language of the explore–exploit trade-off. We propose that people explore more when they find it more rewarding and less costly, and when the environment has many opportunities to do so. We conclude by discussing hypotheses generated by applying optimal foraging theory to social decision making.
In recent years, research has recognised the significant role of gender and culture in linking emotions with health outcomes. Despite increasing interest in the topic of shame, less effort is devoted to cross-fertilising various studies related to gender and specific types of emotions (e.g. shame), different types of cultural contexts (e.g. organisational), and health. An organisation in the Fifth Industrial Revolution (5IR) incorporates automation and efficiency, as well as a personal human touch, to achieve its goals. It is a complex social environment in which people experience different discrete emotions, such as guilt, anger, and happiness. Among these emotions, shame is one of the discrete emotions prevalent in the workplace and organisational life. The focus is to provide a holistic view of gender facets incorporating different nested cultural contexts, organisational shame, and health outcomes. The concept of organisational shame is introduced, and its two key domains are explained: conformity and status/competition. Prior studies on gender facets of organisational shame as transformational resource for health and well-being in the 5IR are comprehensively reviewed. Resource-oriented concepts, such as resilience, happiness, fortitude, and locus of control, are contextualised in the current processes of social upheaval and the 5IR transformation. The aim of the chapter is to provide an in-depth insight into gender facets of organisational shame as transformational resource within and across the new cultures created by current 5IR transformation processes in the new world of work. A qualitative approach is followed by means of a systematic review of contemporary research on the themes of gender facets of organisational shame as transformational resource for health and well-being in the 5IR. This approach will allow the author to evaluate documented research on the topic.
Participatory design (PD) often prioritises being vocal and equal as signs of empowerment in enabling social change. But what can such preference inadvertently ignore, like silence and passivity? What relationships might be prevented or put at risk when hierarchies are flattened? This paper examines the subtle and relational power dynamics experienced as various hierarchies that shape multitudinous interactions. We identify hierarchies that embody relationalities such as respect, intimacy, and learning, configured through cultural structures and commitments. We distinguish these plural ‘respectful hierarchies’ to contrast with ‘disempowering hierarchy’ to prevent collapsing vertical power structures. We share discoveries from reflexively attending to unspoken, overshadowed dimensions in a transcultural mentoring program that brought together women in Asia and Australia to support their personal and professional development. In recasting hierarchy, we join with emerging movements to expand PD's intersectionally situated practices that support social change, as part of embracing plurality of worldviews.
Purpose
This study aims to develop an extended social attachment model for expatriates, integrating a multiple stakeholder perspective, to understand evacuation decisions during disasters.
Design/methodology/approach
Through interviews with 12 Tokyo-based expatriates who experienced the 2011 Tohoku earthquake, tsunami and nuclear disasters, this study collects the lived experiences of a diverse set of expatriates. This data is analyzed abductively to map relevant evacuation factors and to propose a reaction typology.
Findings
While the 2011 Tohoku disasters caused regional destruction and fears of nuclear fallout, Tokyo remained largely unscathed. Still, many expatriates based in Tokyo chose to leave the country. Evacuation decisions were shaped by an interplay of threat assessment, location of attachment figures and cross-cultural adjustment. The study also discusses the influence of expatriate types.
Practical implications
Disaster planning is often overlooked or designed primarily with host country nationals in mind. Expatriates often lack the disaster experience and readiness of host country nationals in disaster-prone regions in Asia and beyond, and thus might need special attention when disaster strikes. This study provides advice for how to do so.
Originality/value
By unpacking the under-researched and complex phenomenon of expatriate reactions to disasters, this study contributes to the fields of international human resource and disaster management. Specifically, seven proposition on casual links leading to expatriate evacuation are suggested, paving the way for future research.
Purpose
The stand-alone scholarly conversations on host-country nationals (HCNs) and cultural intelligence (CQ) have developed over decades but have remained distant from each other. This paper aims to bridge them and explain why such a link can offer an initial understanding of HCNs’ CQ and yield new insights that could enrich and extend existing knowledge in the two literature streams.
Design/methodology/approach
This conceptual paper establishes a set of arguments that explain why and how the scholarly conversations on HCNs and CQ can be bridged. The authors supplement these arguments with three specific avenues for research that can guide new scholarly inquiry. Each avenue is accompanied with specific research questions that the authors find promising for generating new insights into issues related to HCNs’ CQ.
Findings
The two scholarly conversations that the authors link are strong, vibrant and mature. Each has yielded substantial conceptual and theoretical insights and produced rich empirical evidence. They have, however, remained relatively separate from each other. To bring them together, the authors propose three avenues by considering the role of HCNs’ CQ: in their cultural adjustment, for knowledge sharing and when supporting expatriates. The authors outline the implications of such studies for HCNs’ careers, performance and well-being, for the subsidiaries that constitute their immediate work environment and, for multinational corporations as HCNs’ broader organizational settings.
Originality/value
CQ is an important enabler of effective intercultural interactions in culturally diverse settings, precisely the types of encounters that HCNs have with their expatriate colleagues. Surprisingly, the HCN literature has not crossed paths with CQ research in a substantial manner. The authors rectify this by establishing that bridging the two conversations is meaningful and has a high potential for deepening the understanding of HCNs’ CQ as an under-researched but important phenomenon.
Scholars have explored individual, organisation and external factors impacting career sustainability and framed these as part of a career ecosystem. While productivity is considered pivotal for career sustainability according to conceptual frameworks, there remains a gap in understanding its practical implications for occupations involving Intercultural Service Encounters (ICSEs). Culture significantly influences the attitudes and behaviours of service employees and shapes customers’ perceptions of service quality, thereby making cultural intelligence (CQ) a key competency for employees working in ICSEs settings such as in cultural tourism and the airline industry. This paper adopts De Vos, Van der Heijden, and Akkermans (2020) conceptual framework to underscore the significance of CQ in ICSEs and its connection to performance, thus fostering career sustainability in such contexts. Data from an ethnographic case study in Thai Airways, comprising semi-structured interviews with cabin crew employees, observations, and company records, were collected. Our study highlights the significance of CQ competencies in expanding the understanding of sustainable careers in ICSEs settings and aligns with the Career Ecosystem theory by emphasising the interplay between individuals, organisations, and national culture in shaping sustainable careers in such settings.
This volume provides the most comprehensive and up-to-date compendium of theory and research in the field of human intelligence. Each of the 42 chapters is written by world-renowned experts in their respective fields, and collectively, they cover the full range of topics of contemporary interest in the study of intelligence. The handbook is divided into nine parts: Part I covers intelligence and its measurement; Part II deals with the development of intelligence; Part III discusses intelligence and group differences; Part IV concerns the biology of intelligence; Part V is about intelligence and information processing; Part VI discusses different kinds of intelligence; Part VII covers intelligence and society; Part VIII concerns intelligence in relation to allied constructs; and Part IX is the concluding chapter, which reflects on where the field is currently and where it still needs to go.
This volume provides the most comprehensive and up-to-date compendium of theory and research in the field of human intelligence. Each of the 42 chapters is written by world-renowned experts in their respective fields, and collectively, they cover the full range of topics of contemporary interest in the study of intelligence. The handbook is divided into nine parts: Part I covers intelligence and its measurement; Part II deals with the development of intelligence; Part III discusses intelligence and group differences; Part IV concerns the biology of intelligence; Part V is about intelligence and information processing; Part VI discusses different kinds of intelligence; Part VII covers intelligence and society; Part VIII concerns intelligence in relation to allied constructs; and Part IX is the concluding chapter, which reflects on where the field is currently and where it still needs to go.
This volume provides the most comprehensive and up-to-date compendium of theory and research in the field of human intelligence. Each of the 42 chapters is written by world-renowned experts in their respective fields, and collectively, they cover the full range of topics of contemporary interest in the study of intelligence. The handbook is divided into nine parts: Part I covers intelligence and its measurement; Part II deals with the development of intelligence; Part III discusses intelligence and group differences; Part IV concerns the biology of intelligence; Part V is about intelligence and information processing; Part VI discusses different kinds of intelligence; Part VII covers intelligence and society; Part VIII concerns intelligence in relation to allied constructs; and Part IX is the concluding chapter, which reflects on where the field is currently and where it still needs to go.
Purpose
This case study, within the context of boundaryless and protean career development frameworks, investigates linguistic profiling and how code-switching is used to mitigate its impact on Black leaders during their careers. The experiences of Black women coaches and the coaching support they offered Black women clients in code-switching, leadership and career advancement are described. The value of leadership coaching when used to navigate these career progression challenges is emphasized.
Design/methodology/approach
The study employed a multiple-case study approach of two Black women leadership coaches.
Findings
The findings of this study illustrate the understanding of code-switching and the coaching techniques employed by two Black women leadership coaches. Sage focused on educational strategies, offering historical contexts and resources, while Khadijah leaned on empathy-driven methods, using storytelling to evoke reflection. Both coaches emphasized creating safe spaces for open dialog, encouraged clients to reconsider their actions and values regarding code-switching challenges and sought to prompt clients towards authenticity while navigating career spaces effectively.
Practical implications
Additional strategies for coach practitioners include cultivating trust and a safe environment; active listening; challenging biases and assumptions; contextual understanding; empowering authentic self-expression; fostering skill development; challenging stereotypes; promoting autonomy and flexibility and adopting cross-cultural sensitivity, humility and competence. These practical coaching strategies bridge the gap in career development research by demonstrating how race-conscious strategies can promote workplace inclusivity and promulgate career development.
Originality/value
The study underscores the problem of linguistic profiling, the complexity of code-switching and implications for Black women navigating their career journey within professional spaces. It highlights the significance and value of tailored leadership coaching strategies to promote career advancement. This study addresses the gap in career development research related to linguistic profiling avoidance strategies for workplace inclusivity.
Preparing student affairs and international education professionals to support international students may seem daunting considering the cultural diversity of the international student population in the United States. However, one does not necessarily need to be an expert on international students to support them, nor do they need to have had extensive intercultural experiences to appear competent when working with students from various cultural backgrounds. Cultural humility, the process of understanding others by first critically examining our own beliefs and identities, is core to the student affairs ethos. This chapter posits that training staff to approach situations through a lens of cultural humility can be an effective way to prepare student affairs and international education professionals for working with international students.
In cross-cultural encounters, employees may adjust their culturally normative communication style to reduce anxiety, to fit in, and to be understood. We discuss theoretical perspectives on cross-cultural communication adaptation and highlight social, cognitive, emotional, motivational, behavioral, and identity factors that influence how and why intercultural communicators adapt to one another. We focus on workplace communication and suggest that future research more closely examine adaptation in nonverbal communication cues that often do not translate across cultures.
In this introduction to the volume “What isn’t being said: Culture and communication at work,” we provide an overview of how culture and communication are inextricably linked, focusing on nonverbal cues in the communication context. We provide an outline and overview of the chapters in the book covering an ecological model of culture and communication, cross-cultural communication adaptation, culture, and communication in six organizational domains, and a model of pathways to effective cross-cultural workplace communication and collaboration.
This study aims to investigate the experiences and outcomes of intercultural service encounters between hotel employees and customers, including the underlying factors attributed to these outcomes. A qualitative research approach using the critical incident technique was adopted by conducting 20 semi-structured interviews with hotel employees who frequently engaged in intercultural service encounters with Chinese tourists. The findings revealed that critical incidents were mainly attributed to cultural differences in language, customs, and preferences. These cultural differences with Chinese guests can lead to outcomes such as service failures, which can be a stressor for hotel employees in Australia and trigger emotions such as frustration and intimidation. The study found that non-cultural factors such as the characteristics of customers and service employees can impact the outcome of an intercultural service encounter. This study contributes to intercultural service encounters literature by offering a new perspective from service providers’ viewpoint on their intercultural interactions. It is imperative for hotels to comprehend and work through these cultural differences to succeed in the global hospitality market. Moreover, this study offers important practical implications for hotels regarding how to best facilitate intercultural service encounters to ensure positive outcomes for both customers and service employees.
Intercultural trust in global contexts plays a central role in helping people from different cultures to communicate comfortably, which is essential for cooperation. Attempting to construct a framework that might foster international cooperation, and thus be helpful for coping with global emergencies, we relate a Western nomological approach to an Eastern systems approach to analyse intercultural trust in global contexts. Considering cultural impacts on intercultural trust and the nomological framework of cultural differences, we propose an intercultural trust model to interpret how cultural differences influence trust. A qualitative study of Chinese-Irish interactions was conducted to interpret this model. We organized 10 seminars on intercultural trust, and interviewed 16 people to further explore the respondents’ deeper feelings and experiences about intercultural trust in global contexts. Through this study, we have identified factors impacting on intercultural trust, and found that intercultural trust can be developed and improved in various ways. To illustrate these ways, we have provided tactics and methods for building intercultural trust in global contexts. Implications are highlighted for organizations to avoid cultural clashes and relevant political or economic risks.
Sexuality professionals (sexologists) often communicate from a broad perspective of sexuality based on unique training. Cross-cultural code-switching is useful for sexologists to communicate with those who have different sexological worldviews. We discuss the concept of cross-cultural code-switching and its usefulness for sexuality professionals. We consider the theories behind the usefulness of this tactic in one’s work as a sexologist and offer practical considerations for effective code-switching across cultures. We observe the power dynamics in code-switching and offer this theoretical work as a way to raise one’s awareness to these realities of communication in the roles sexuality professionals hold in the world.
The Oxford Handbook of Cross-Cultural Organizational Behavior comprises 28 chapters organized in six sections that provide the most recent and compelling evidence that cross-cultural and global perspectives are essential to understanding organizational behavior. Part I of the Handbook begins with a discussion of fundamental theoretical and methodological issues in cross-cultural OB research. Part II focuses on Culture and Organizational Entry, including culture and recruitment and selection, training and development, appraisal and management of performance, and careers across the lifespan. Part III turns to Culture and Individual Behavior in Organizations, focusing on cultural influences on motivation, job attitudes, justice, creativity, deviance, and stress and well-being. Part IV moves to Social Dynamics in Organizations, with chapters on cultural influences on trust, leadership, teams, communication, and conflict and negotiation. Part V examines Culture at the Organizational Level, including culture and social networks, strategic management, and organizational change and development. Part VI turns to the Cross-Cultural Organizational Interface, including culture and consumer behavior, work–family dynamics, global mobility, joint ventures and alliances, multinational enterprises and Global HRM (human resource management), corporate social responsibility and sustainability, and cultural intelligence and global identity. The final chapter analyzes the research–practice interface and gaps within cross-cultural OB. The authors reflect on our seminal theories and empirical discoveries and provide a thoughtful window into the future of research in cross-cultural OB for decades to come. With a science–practitioner model in mind, they also identify key practical insights for managers operating in this brave new globalized world.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of vigilance, everyday discrimination, and well-being among medical students. Vigilance, the daily burden of anticipating discrimination, can negatively impact the mental and physical health of racially minoritized individuals. Little research has been conducted on vigilance, and its relationship to everyday discrimination, well-being, or self-perception of academic success.
This cross-sectional study used a survey-based design to evaluate vigilance, everyday discrimination, well-being, and self-perception of academic performance. Data were collected at a midwestern medical school via a Qualtrics survey distributed in June of 2021. A total of 690 medical students were invited to participate in this study.
A total of 334 students completed the survey (48% response rate). Most respondents were females (n = 204, 61.63%) and White (n = 218; 60.06%). Two-sample t tests show a significant difference in vigilance scores was found between White medical students (M = 7.34, SD = 3.83) and racially minoritized (underrepresented in medicine and Asian) medical students (M = 9.0, SD = 3.91); t(310) = − 3.69, p = [0.0003]. The mean vigilance score among URiM/Asian students were 18.5% higher than White students. Well-being scores were not significantly different between White medical students (M = 53.0, SD = 19.26) and URiM/Asian medical students (M = 53.43, SD = 20.70; t(311) = − 0.16 p = [0.871]. Vigilance scores were negatively correlated with well-being scores (R = − 0.37; p = 0.000). Discrimination was positively correlated with vigilance (R = 0.62; p = 0.000) and negatively correlated with well-being (R = − 0.30; p = 0.000).
Higher vigilance among URiM/Asian students correlated with heightened experiences of discrimination. Our two groups of interest, URiM/Asian and White students, did not show significant differences in well-being despite a significant negative correlation between vigilance and well-being. A broader medical school support system may reduce vigilance and positively impact URiM/Asian student success.
What is the structure of emotion? Emotion is too broad a class of events to be a single scientific category, and no one structure suffices. As an illustration, core affect is distinguished from prototypical emotional episode. Core affect refers to consciously accessible elemental processes of pleasure and activation, has many causes, and is always present. Its structure involves two bipolar dimensions. Prototypical emotional episode refers to a complex process that unfolds over time, involves causally connected subevents (antecedent; appraisal; physiological, affective, and cognitive changes; behavioral response; self-categorization), has one perceived cause, and is rare. Its structure involves categories (anger, fear, shame, jealousy, etc.) vertically organized as a fuzzy hierarchy and horizontally organized as part of a circumplex.
Predictions from interpersonal traits to affect were examined in the context of 3 models. In the global trait model, traits were used to predict affect aggregated over a 20-day period. In the situational congruence model, traits were used to predict affect in trait-relevant situations. In the behavioral concordance model, the co-occurrence between behaviors and affect was examined for individual participants, and then traits were used to predict the degree to which behavior and affect co-occurred. No support was found for the global trait and situational congruence models. Support was found for the behavioral concordance model for 3 of the 4 traits. Individuals high on agreeableness and quarrelsomeness experienced pleasant affect when they engaged in behaviors concordant with their traits. Individuals high on agreeableness, quarrelsomeness, and dominance experienced unpleasant affect when they engaged in behaviors opposite to their traits.
Extrapolating from B. L. Fredrickson's (1998, 2001) broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions, the authors hypothesized that positive emotions are active ingredients within trait resilience. U.S. college students (18 men and 28 women) were tested in early 2001 and again in the weeks following the September 11th terrorist attacks. Mediational analyses showed that positive emotions experienced in the wake of the attacks - gratitude, interest, love, and so forth - fully accounted for the relations between (a) precrisis resilience and later development of depressive symptoms and (b) precrisis resilience and postcrisis growth in psychological resources. Findings suggest that positive emotions in the aftermath of crises buffer resilient people against depression and fuel thriving, consistent with the broaden-and-build theory. Discussion touches on implications for coping.
People experience regulatory fit (E. T. Higgins, 2000) when the strategic manner of their goal pursuit suits their regulatory orientation, and this regulatory fit feels right. Fit violation feels wrong. Four studies tested the proposal that experiences of fit can transfer to moral evaluations. The authors examined transfer of feeling wrong from fit violation by having participants in a promotion or prevention focus recall transgressions of commission or omission (Studies 1 and 2). Both studies found that when the type of transgression was a fit violation, participants expressed more guilt. Studies 3 and 4 examined transfer of feeling right from regulatory fit. Participants evaluated conflict resolutions (Study 3) and public policies (Study 4) as more right when the means pursued had fit.
Several independent lines of research bear on the question of why individuals avoid decisions by postponing them, failing to act, or accepting the status quo. This review relates findings across several different disciplines and uncovers 4 decision avoidance effects that offer insight into this common but troubling behavior: choice deferral, status quo bias, omission bias, and inaction inertia. These findings are related by common antecedents and consequences in a rational-emotional model of the factors that predispose humans to do nothing. Prominent components of the model include cost-benefit calculations, anticipated regret, and selection difficulty. Other factors affecting decision avoidance through these key components, such as anticipatory negative emotions, decision strategies, counterfactual thinking, and preference uncertainty, are also discussed.
This study compared the negotiation behaviors of Japanese and U.S. managers in intra- and intercultural settings. Transcripts from an integrative bargaining task were coded and analyzed with ogistic and linear regression. U.S. negotiators exchanged information directly and avoided influence when negotiating intra- and interculturally. Japanese negotiators exchanged information indirectly and used influence when negotiating intraculturally but adapted their behaviors when negotiating interculturally. Culturally normative negotiation behaviors partially account for the lower joint gains generated by intercultural, relative to intracultural, dyads. The behavioral data inform motivational and skill-based explanations for elusive joint gains when cultures clash.
Within- and between-nations differences in norms for experiencing emotions were analyzed in a cross-cultural study with 1,846 respondents from 2 individualistic (United States, Australia) and 2 collectivistic (China, Taiwan) countries. A multigroup latent class analysis revealed that there were both universal and culture-specific types of norms for experiencing emotions. Moreover, strong intranational variability in norms for affect could be detected, particularly for collectivistic nations. Unexpectedly, individualistic nations were most uniform in norms, particularly with regard to pleasant affect. Individualistic and collectivistic nations differed most strongly in norms for self-reflective emotions (e.g., pride and guilt). Norms for emotions were related to emotional experiences within nations. Furthermore, there were strong national differences in reported emotional experiences, even when norms were held constant.
Emotional labor is the display of expected emotions by service agents during service encounters. It is performed through surface acting, deep acting, or the expression of genuine emotion. Emotional labor may facilitate task effectiveness and self-expression, but it also may prime customer expectations that cannot be met and may trigger emotive dissonance and self-alienation. However, following social identity theory, we argue that some effects of emotional labor are moderated by one's social and personal identities and that emotional labor stimulates pressures for the person to identify with the service role. Research implications for the micro, meso, and macro levels of organizations are discussed.
An integrative model of the conative process, which has important ramifications for psychological need satisfaction and hence for individuals’ well-being, is presented. The self-concordance of goals (i.e., their consistency with the person’s developing interests and core values) plays a dual role in the model. First, those pursuing self-concordant goals put more sustained effort into achieving those goals and thus are more likely to attain them. Second, those who attain self-concordant goals reap greater well-being benefits from their attainment. Attainment-to-well-being effects are mediated by need satisfaction, i.e., daily activity-based experiences of autonomy, competence, and relatedness that accumulate during the period of striving. The model is shown to provide a satisfactory fit to 3 longitudinal data sets and to be independent of the effects of self-efficacy, implementation intentions, avoidance framing, and life skills.
Individualism, hierarchy, polychronicity, and explicit-contracting values explain why managers from Germany, Japan, and the United States use a different mix of strategies to negotiate workplace conflict. Hypotheses extend prior research in showing that conflict behavior is multiply determined and that each culture uses a variety of interests, regulations, and power-based conflict management strategies. Results of actual (rather than survey-based) conflict resolution behavior suggest several fruitful avenues for future research, including examining the inferred meaning of negotiation arguments, analyzing interaction effects of cultural value dimensions, studying the effectiveness of different strategies across cultures, and examining whether strategic adjustments are made during intercultural conflict management.
In this study, we propose that culture provides scripts and schemas for negotiation. The implications for negotiation of two cultural values, individualism/collectivism and hierarchy/egalitarianism, are discussed. The primary hypothesis, that joint gains will be lower in intercultural negotiations between U.S. and Japanese negotiators than in intracultural negotiations between either U.S. or Japanese negotiators, was confirmed with data from 30 intercultural, 47 U.S.-U.S. intracultural, and 18 Japanese-Japanese intracultural simulated negotiations. Tests of secondary hypotheses indicated that there was less understanding of the priorities of the other party and the utility of a compatible issue in inter-than in intracultural negotiations. When information about priorities was available, intercultural negotiators were less able than intracultural negotiators to use it to generate joint gains.
Research dealing with various aspects of* the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985,
1987) is reviewed, and some unresolved issues are discussed. In broad terms, the theory is
found to be well supported by empirical evidence. Intentions to perform behaviors of different
kinds can be predicted with high accuracy from attitudes toward the behavior, subjective
norms, and perceived behavioral control; and these intentions, together with perceptions of
behavioral control, account for considerable variance in actual behavior. Attitudes, subjective
norms, and perceived behavioral control are shown to be related to appropriate sets of salient
behavioral, normative, and control beliefs about the behavior, but the exact nature of these
relations is still uncertain. Expectancy value formulations are found to be only partly
successful in dealing with these relations. Optimal rescaling of expectancy and value
measures is offered as a means of dealing with measurement limitations. Finally, inclusion of
past behavior in the prediction equation is shown to provide a means of testing the theory*s
sufficiency, another issue that remains unresolved. The limited available evidence concerning
this question shows that the theory is predicting behavior quite well in comparison to the
ceiling imposed by behavioral reliability.
In this article, the author describes a new theoretical perspective on positive emotions and situates this new perspective within the emerging field of positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory posits that experiences of positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought-action repertoires, which in turn serves to build their enduring personal resources, ranging from physical and intellectual resources to social and psychological resources. Preliminary empirical evidence supporting the broaden-and-build theory is reviewed, and open empirical questions that remain to be tested are identified. The theory and findings suggest that the capacity to experience positive emotions may be a fundamental human strength central to the study of human flourishing.
Face, Harmony, and Social Structure continues author P. Christopher Earley's investigations of the differences among people within organizations in different cultures. In this study, Earley develops a mid-range theory of individual behaviour, self-concept, and interpersonal process in predicting cultural differences in organizational settings. This work represents a new theory of self-presentation and face within a cross-cultural context, integrating a cross-level approach ranging from the individual to the organization and to the societal levels of discussion.
Culture shock tends to be an occupational disease of people who have been suddenly transplanted abroad. Like most ailments, it has its own symptoms, cause, and cure. Many missionaries have suffered from it. Some never recovered, and left their field. Some live in a constant state of such shock. Many recover beautifully. As will be clear from the implications of Dr. Oberg's article, the state of culture shock in which a Christian lives will have great bearing on his temperament and witness.
Psychology has increasingly turned to the study of psychosocial resources in the examination of well-being. How resources are being studied and resource models that have been proffered are considered, and an attempt is made to examine elements that bridge across models. As resource models span health, community, cognitive, and clinical psychology, the question is raised of whether there is overuse of the resource metaphor or whether there exists some underlying principles that can be gleaned and incorporated to advance research. The contribution of resources for understanding multicultural and pan-historical adaptation in the face of challenge is considered.
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Primarily because of the significant rate and costs of failed international assignments, the attention paid by scholars to the topic of international adjustment has increased recently. Unfortunately, most of the work has been without substantial theoretical grounding. In an effort to move toward a theoretical framework for guiding future research, this article integrates theoretical and empirical work of both the international and the domestic adjustment literatures. This integration provides a more comprehensive framework than might be obtained from either of the literatures alone.
The topics of guilt, shame, and embarrassment evoke wide recognition and are everyday experiences. Theorists have suggested adaptive roles for guilt (e.g., Hoffman, 1976; Wright, 1971), shame (e.g., Lewis, 1986), and embarrassment (e.g., Edelmann, 1987). These emotions may encourage self-regulation and socially desirable behavior and also inhibit undesirable conduct. On the other hand, clinical observers have implicated high levels of guilt, shame, and embarrassment in a variety of psychological difficulties. These emotions have bearing on social anxiety in that they have aversive motivational properties and often inhibit social behavior. Moreover, one presumed source of guilt, shame, and embarrassment is interpersonal learning experiences in which violations of norms and standards were met with punishment, especially social rejection and disapproval. (Presumably, even if the potential for these emotions is innate, the particular eliciting stimuli within any culture or subculture are acquired in socialization about violations of specific norms and standards.) In addition, there are striking individual differences both in the specific events that occasion these emotions and also in their pervasiveness.
What was noted by E. J. Langer (1978) remains true today; that much of contemporary psychological research is based on the assumption that people are consciously and systematically processing incoming information in order to construe and interpret their world and to plan and engage in courses of action. As did E. J. Langer, the authors question this assumption. First, they review evidence that the ability to exercise such conscious, intentional control is actually quite limited, so that most of moment-to-moment psychological life must occur through nonconscious means if it is to occur at all. The authors then describe the different possible mechanisms that produce automatic, environmental control over these various phenomena and review evidence establishing both the existence of these mechanisms as well as their consequences for judgments, emotions, and behavior. Three major forms of automatic self-regulation are identified: an automatic effect of perception on action, automatic goal pursuit, and a continual automatic evaluation of one's experience. From the accumulating evidence, the authors conclude that these various nonconscious mental systems perform the lion's share of the self-regulatory burden, beneficently keeping the individual grounded in his or her current environment.
Cross-cultural psychology has demonstrated important links between cultural context and individual behavioural development. Given this relationship, cross-cultural research has increasingly investigated what happens to individuals who have developed in one cultural context when they attempt to re-establish their lives in another one. The long-term psychological consequences of this process of acculturation are highly variable, depending on social and personal variables that reside in the society of origin, the society of settlement, and phenomena that both exist prior to, and arise during, the course of acculturation. This article outlines a conceptual framework within which acculturation and adaptation can be investigated, and then presents some general findings and conclusions based on a sample of empirical studies.
The culture assimilator is a procedure designed to train persons from one culture to improve their interpersonal behavior with persons from another culture. The approach is based on the idea that interpersonal effectiveness is optimized when members of 2 cultures make similar attributions concerning the causes of a person's behavior. A laboratory test of an assimilator for training Whites to interact with Blacks is reported. Ss were 128 White male paid volunteers. A multimethod assessment of the effects of this training showed a number of hypothesized changes in attributional tendencies and cognitions; however, these changes did not lead to differences on behavioral measures. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
A scenario study and a field survey were used to investigate why managers often lay off employees in a curt, abrupt fashion. The extent to which mismanagement (versus external conditions) caused the need for layoffs was found to affect managers' reported feelings of discomfort and the time designated for dismissal meetings with employees. Further results showed that mismanagement was also related to managers' anticipation of negative consequences from actions by layoff victims, such as hostile confrontations and sabotage.
This paper presents a cognitive categorization model of intercultural management that focuses on interaction between an expatriate manager and a host country subordinate. The paper outlines some of the effects that culture may have upon the content and structure of schemas, the extent to which automatic versus controlled information processing occurs, and the use of the model to examine convergence of cognitive structures through intercultural dynamics.
A longitudinal design was used to explore the relation between a measure of nonverbal synchrony and self-report indications of rapport in a sample of college classrooms. Results show that posture sharing and rapport are positively related and that this relation is significant across time. Application of the cross-lag panel technique revealed no significant difference, but the direction of the effect suggests the hypothesis that posture sharing may be influential in establishing rapport.