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402 International Forestry Review Vol.14(4), 2012
Domestication of native tree species for timber plantations:
key insights for tropical island nations
J.D. NICHOLS and J.K. VANCLAY
Forest Research Centre, School of Environment, Science and Engineering, Southern Cross University, PO Box 157, Lismore
NSW 2480, Australia
Email: doland.nichols@scu.edu.au and jerry.vanclay@scu.edu.au
SUMMARY
A review of tree domestication principles, practices and case studies illustrates the importance of a methodological approach to domestication.
Domestication of new species involves of the entire value chain from identification of candidate species, through production and management,
to uptake by communities and markets. Efforts to domesticate forest trees have often neglected the final step of adoption, with the result
that many projects have resulted in mature trees without markets. Ensuring adoption and marketability is important for the success of any
domestication effort, but especially in small island nations where local markets may be small, transport limited and transaction costs high.
Keywords: adoption, agroforestry, silviculture, species selection, tree breeding
Domestication d’espèces d’arbres indigènes pour les plantations de bois de construction:
enseignements principaux pour les nations insulaires tropicales
J.D. NICHOLS et J.K. VANCLAY
L’examen des principes, des pratiques et des études de cas dans le domaine de la domestication des arbres met en évidence l’importance de
l’adoption d’une approche méthodologique en matière de domestication. La domestication de nouvelles espèces concerne l’ensemble de la
chaîne de valeur, de l’identification des espèces potentielles à la production et gestion, en passant par la mise en oeuvre par les communautés
et les marchés. Les initiatives de domestication des arbres forestiers ont souvent négligé l’étape finale: l’adoption. Aussi beaucoup de projets
ont-ils abouti à la production d’arbres à maturité, sans débouchés. Pour garantir le succès de toute initiative de domestication, tout particulière-
ment dans les petites nations insulaires où les marchés locaux peuvent être petits, les transports limités et les frais de transactions élevés, il est
important de veiller à l’adoption et à la possibilité de commercialisation.
Domesticación de especies arbóreas nativas en plantaciones para madera: puntos claves para
naciones insulares tropicales
J.D. NICHOLS y J.K. VANCLAY
Una revisión de los principios, prácticas y estudios de caso de domesticación de árboles ilustra la importancia de un planteamiento metodológi-
co en cuanto a la domesticación. La domesticación de nuevas especies involucra a la totalidad de la cadena de valor: desde la identificación de
especies candidatas a la aceptación por parte de comunidades y mercados, pasando antes por la producción y el manejo. Los esfuerzos para
domesticar árboles forestales han descuidado a menudo el paso final de la adopción, resultando en muchos proyectos que logran árboles
maduros pero no consiguen crear mercados. El asegurar la adopción y la comerciabilidad es importante para el éxito de cualquier intento de
domesticación, pero más especialmente en pequeñas naciones insulares donde puede que los mercados locales sean pequeños, el transporte
limitado y los costos de transacción elevados.
Domestication of native tree species for timber plantations 403
INTRODUCTION
Small island states feature prominently amongst the least
developed nations, and many are economically vulnerable
(McGillivray et al. 2010, Wittersheim 2011). Sustainable
development may depend on adding value to local products
to create employment, to displace imports and to generate
exports. In many cases, especially in the tropics, opportunities
that exist in the agricultural and forestry sectors are hampered
by the poor state of knowledge of potential species and
markets. Forest products are of particular interest because
of their role in construction, in import substitution, and the
relative simplicity of their transport and storage. Despite this
potential role, there has been relatively little attention devoted
to the process and practice of domesticating tree species for
use in plantations, especially for non-industrial plantations.
Planted forests may take many forms, spanning a wide
range including extremes such as the near-natural Damar
(Shorea javanica) forests in Sumatra (e.g. Torquebiau 1985,
Michon et al. 2007), to short-rotation Eucalyptus monocul-
ture plantations in Brazil (Campinhos 1999) and to agrofor-
estry plantings such as Grevillea robusta over coffee in Kenya
(Lott et al. 2000). So it is appropriate to examine the broad
scope of silvicultural and industrial options available to sup-
port an emerging industry, particularly given the constraints
of small island States (Briguglio 1995). Wilkinson et al.
(2000) offered a useful classification of ‘plantation forestry’,
and discriminated between woodlots, sequential and inter-
cropping systems (such as taungya, Jordan et al. 1992), wide
row intercropping, dispersed trees and land rehabilitation.
This classification emphasises the reality that industrial
plantations with trees in straight lines may not be the pre-
ferred approach, and that a broader range of options warrant
consideration.
Here, we examine domestication of forest tree species in
the broad sense, considering the principles of domestication,
reviewing case studies from several regions, and offering
guidance specific to small island nations. We do not attempt a
comprehensive review of all aspects of tree domestication,
a considerable task not amenable to a journal article and
addressed comprehensively elsewhere in the case of indus-
trial plantations of exotic species (e.g., Libby 1973, Bradshaw
and Strauss 2001) and multipurpose trees for agroforestry
(e.g., Leakey et al. 1996, Leakey and Tomich 1999). Our
focus is on domestication of native timber species in situ, in
the humid tropics.
PRINCIPLES OF DOMESTICATION
Recent literature on domestication of forest trees is dominated
by research on biotechnology especially molecular genetics
(e.g., Boerjan 2005, Harfouche 2012), which, although
important, is but one aspect of domestication (Leakey et al.
2012). Much of the earlier literature also dwells on propaga-
tion (e.g. Leakey et al. 1982). More recently, Simons and
Leakey (2004) offered a more comprehensive assessment
addressing 14 aspects:
1. Reasons for domestication (home use, market, conserva-
tion of the species, agroecosystem diversification,
improved livelihood strategies)
2. Tree uses required (products and services)
3. History and scale of cultivation (as native and exotic)
4. Natural distribution, intraspecific variation and ecogeo-
graphic survey information
5. Species biology (reproductive botany, ecology, invasive-
ness)
6. Scale and profile of target groups and recommendation
domains (biophysical, market, cultural)
7. Collection, procurement or production of germplasm
and knowledge (including ownership, attribution, benefit
sharing, access and use)
8. Propagule types envisaged
9. Nursery production and multiplication
10. Tree productivity (biomass, timing, economics, risks)
11. Evaluation, both scientific and farmer participatory
12. Pests and diseases
13. Genetic gain and selection opportunities, methods and
intensities
14. Dissemination, scaling up, adoption and diffusion.
Simons and Leakey (2004) concluded that the prevailing
problem is that information is incomplete, and has led to
suboptimal tree domestication strategies. While tree domesti-
cation work has increased, the documentation of the logic
and the approach has been generally scant. Even when results
are shared or published, it is typically the positive outcomes
that are reported and not the successful processes. A few
case studies of tree domestication strategies have been docu-
mented (Simons and Leakey 2004), and decision-frameworks
have been offered for domestication of agroforestry fruit trees
(e.g., Leakey and Akinnifesi 2008), but clear guidance for
domestication of forest trees remains scarce.
Jamnadass et al. (2009) offered a useful ‘domestigram’
(Figure 1), indicating possible pathways for domestication. A
notable feature of this diagram is the central chain involving
identification, production, management and adoption, which
is key to the domestication process. A ‘whole of chain’
approach is essential, and success with the domestication
process may depend on the weakest link in this chain.
Kalinganire et al. (2005) have observed that over-emphasis
on a single aspect may lead to dysfunctional outcomes. For
instance, they offer anecdotes highlighting that identification
alone is not domestication, because there may be an inability
to provide sufficient seed, and that an overemphasis on man-
agement to the neglect of adoption, may result in guidelines
that are impractical in a large-scale situation, or which
produce a yield far in excess of market needs.
Underwood (2006) is one of the few who has commented
on the importance of encouragement: “incentives must be
identified which will attract investment, resolve technical
problems, enhance growth and development and lead to a
self-sustaining industry-driven commercial enterprise capable
of operating without direct financial input from governments”.
The challenge is to ensure that such incentives can be
sustained (Enters et al. 2009).
404 J.D. Nichols and J.K. Vanclay
FIGURE 1 Domestigram indicating possible pathways for domestication of tree species (Jamnadass et al. 2009).
Leakey and Newton’s (1994b) observations made two
decades ago remain pertinent:
“Opportunities are currently being lost because of a lack
of awareness of the potential to domesticate forest tree
species for the production of timber and non-timber prod-
ucts. What are the issues that have to be resolved to trigger
this new revolution? From the viewpoint of a farmer, there
are:
• the political and social issues, such as how to acquire
the right to own and protect a piece of land and the
trees on it, and the need for incentives to plant trees;
• the economic issues, such as what is the value of these
trees in terms of their wood, other products and
environmental services;
• the biological issues, such as how to grow the trees
wanted by farmers; how they can be made more
desirable and productive, to the extent of satisfying the
farmers’ needs and even providing a surplus which
could be sold to urban populations.”
Scherr et al. (2002) emphasised the importance of engaging
local business: “Private businesses including forestry indus-
try, community organizations, and private financial and
business service providers will necessarily play central roles.
Business attention should be attracted first to the more prom-
ising sustainable forestry management (SFM) opportunities.
Businesses that can identify the competitive advantages
of forming partnerships and working with local producers
will strengthen their long-term supply and cost position.
Innovative financing strategies can be pursued with socially
and environmentally responsible investors. Business leaders
can play an active role in governments’ policy reform.”
Sometimes simple solutions can be effective in empower-
ing the marketplace. In the Philippines, researchers observed
that the immaturity of the marketplace led to confusion,
unrealistic expectations, and created scope for excessive
rent-taking. In this situation, the simple action of placing
whiteboards in public spaces, and urging tree growers and log
buyers to share details of their needs and expectations, helped
the market to mature, and strengthened confidence and invest-
ment in forest products by both growers and processors
(Cedamon et al. 2011).
The small-scale forestry amenable to small island states
may preclude cost-effective participation in a commodity
market, and it may be desirable for growers to concentrate
on niche products. A recent review (Donovan et al. 2008)
highlighted the importance of niche markets in developing
Domestication of native tree species for timber plantations 405
community-based enterprises. Finally, it is important that the
broader community feels engaged in, and understands the
benefits of new initiatives. Leys and Vanclay (2011) discuss
ways to foster a shared understanding amongst the broader
community.
THE SCOPE FOR DOMESTICATION
Almost 7% of forests worldwide, some 271 million ha, are
industrial plantations (Carle et al. 2009), potentially able to
supply two-thirds of the world’s demand for wood, but at
potential risk of pests and disease because of the relatively
few species and in some cases, the rather narrow genetic base.
Amongst several thousand tree species in the world only
about 30 have been extensively planted. Tropical timber
plantations comprise some 50% Eucalyptus, 23% Pinus, 17%
Acacia and 10% Tectona (Evans and Turnbull 2004). Varmola
and Carle (2002) estimated that out of a net area of 56.3
million ha of tropical and subtropical plantations, there were
approximately 32.3 million ha in hardwood plantations.
Evans (2009) argued that the prospects for substantial
hardwood plantations in the tropics were “bleak” because of
the need for long rotations, the high costs of establishment
and maintenance, and potential disease risk. For instance,
Meliaceae are handicapped by Hypsipyla shoot borers
(Floyd and Hauxwell 1996, Mayhew and Newton 1998), and
Dipterocarpaceae suffer from difficult establishment and
erratic growth (Weinland 1998). The well-known exception
for cabinet grade timber is Tectona grandis but for the most
part tropical plantations are of the fast-growing “industrial”
species, in spite of the large number of tropical species with
premium timber.
For decades there have been calls for native rainforest
trees to be domesticated and planted (Leakey and Newton
1994a, Evans and Turnbull 2004), as an alternative to large-
scale monocultures which dominate in the tropics (Nichols
and Gonzalez 1992, Gonzalez and Fisher 1994, Lamb 1998),
but the norm remains a small number of exotic species grown
as monocultures, despite the associated risks (Jactel et al.
2009). Kanowski and Borralho (2004) estimated that some
200 tree species have been subject to one breeding cycle and
60 species have been worked on more intensively. Notwith-
standing continuing calls for greater diversity in planted for-
ests (Diaci et al. 2011), current market forces tend to favour
single species plantings (Nichols et al. 2006), and greater
diversity and resilience of plantations will not be achieved
without domesticating additional species.
Dramatic gains in productivity of plantations can be
achieved through genetic improvement programs and targeted
silvicultural techniques, such as use of fertilizers. For
instance, Campinhos (1991) observed that Eucalyptus gran-
dis productivity increased from 17.4 to 60 m
3
/ha/yr through
several stages of selection and vegetative propagation during
the period 1966–90. Aracruz Celulose S.A. achieved increase s
in dry pulp yield from 5.9 to 10.9 t/ha/yr (Campinhos 1999).
However, such genetic improvement programs are not always
feasible: Willan (1988) estimated that such genetic improve-
ment programs become profitable for forest enterprises with
an annual planting program of at least 1000 ha/yr.
General principles to be followed in initiating the selec-
tion process are described briefly in Barnes and Simons
(1994) and in detail in Zobel and Talbert (1984), Eldridge
et al. (1994) and White et al. (2007). Key aspects of the
process include the need for clarity about the traits to be
improved (based on best information on probable end-use),
and for comprehensive sampling of the existing resource. For
example, in eucalypts if the objective is pulpwood, then basic
density needs to be below 600 kg/m
3
and the wood should
contain a minimum of extractives (Eldridge et al. 1994).
Firewood needs to be produced close to where it will be
burned and should be assessed in terms of tonnes (or prefer-
ably calorific value) per unit area rather than on volume. Sawn
timber has its own requirements, including minimum sizes of
logs and manageable growth stresses; and poles need to be
straight, strong and not subject to splitting. Characteristics
that are often measured are: survival, growth and form, wood
density and fibre length (Eldridge et al. 1994) and, where
there are serious issues of pests or diseases, resistance to those
agencies. Case studies of intentional, organised domestica-
tion and recommended procedures include Triplochiton scler-
oxylon in Nigeria (Leakey et al. 1982), Acacia mearnsii and
Eucalyptus globulus in China (Raymond 1987, 1988), and
with hardwoods in low-rainfall areas (Harwood et al. 2001).
As Libby (1973) and Booth and Turnbull (1994) noted, the
use of many tree species still follows a pattern thousands of
years old, namely the use of “wild” seeds from existing native
forests, with little effort to improve seed quality. Harvesting
seed from desirable phenotypes can help to avoid truly poor
seed sources (Cornelius et al. 2011), but such phenotypic
selection is not always reliable. For instance, Weber et al.
(2009) tested low-intensity phenotypic selection in
Calycophyllum spruceanum in the Amazon, and found low
heritability amongst progeny from selected versus randomly
chosen trees. Thus a formal domestication strategy is always
preferable to haphazard selection.
Tree improvement programs often begin simply by
identifying a group of “mother trees”, which are of desirable
phenotypes, that have good form and appear to be healthy.
From these are then developed selected, breeding, and propa-
gation populations in a series of structured phases (White
et al. 2007). As an example, the SPRIG project (Thomson
et al. 2001, Thomson 2011) established a families and prov-
enances trial of the main species considered in this issue,
whitewood, Endospermum medullosum. They planted 6.25 ha
in 1998–99 at the Shark Bay Research Station on the east
coast of Santo Island, Vanuatu, with seedlings from seed
collected throughout the islands of Vanuatu (Vutilolo et al.
2005). Seedlots collected from 97 families of whitewood
were grouped into 11 provenances. Individual rows included
six trees from a given family, in a row-column design. This
layout enables, after initial assessment, an opportunity to
create a seed orchard in which the best-performing progeny
are able to cross fertilize each other. A preliminary analysis of
survival and height, diameter and volume increment was then
406 J.D. Nichols and J.K. Vanclay
published (Vutilolo et al. 2005) and confirmed high potential
of this species to benefit from breeding programs. A more
recent study from the same experiment focused on growth
and growth traits and wood density (Doran et al. 2012).
One aspect often neglected is the importance of conserv-
ing genetic resources during domestication efforts. Tree
breeders have long been aware of the need to conserve wild
gene resources (e.g., Zobel and Talbert 1984), but it is rela-
tively recently that the topic has been discussed explicitly in
the context of domestication efforts (e.g., Hollingsworth et al.
2005, Dawson et al. 2009). The SPRIG project found that
whitewood populations with the best performance (from east
and south Santo) were also the most threatened, because of
agricultural development, logging permits and improved road
access. Sadly, the whitewood population in Lorum Conserva-
tion Area was logged illegally not long after seeds were
collected for use in the Shark Bay trials, which now double
for conservation of genetic resources and for improvement. It
is evident that conservation of genetic resources may need to
be managed explicitly in domestication efforts.
EXAMPLES OF DOMESTICATION IN THE TROPICS
Since the progress and challenges of timber tree domestica-
tion varies with locality, it is insightful to review experience
in diverse geographic areas. Here we briefly survey selected
experience reported from Africa, the Americas, Asia, Austra-
lia and the Pacific, focussing on domestication in situ of
native species for wood production.
Africa
Tropical Africa has many valuable species with potential for
domestication. For example, Ghana has some 680 species of
trees (Hawthorne 1990), but amongst 50,000 ha of hardwood
plantations in Ghana, only 6,000 ha are of Meliaceae and
mixed hardwoods, whilst the majority are exotic species
including Tectona grandis (teak), Cedrela odorata (Mexican
cedar), Gmelina arborea (white teak) and Hevea brasiliensis
(rubberwood, Odoom 1998).
Milicia excelsa (iroko) occurs across the rainforest zones
of central Africa, from Tanzania to Senegal. Early generations
of foresters recognised its superior qualities as a strong,
attractive, multiple-use timber and described its ecological
requirements as well as basic characteristics of its fruit and
seeds, and experimented informally with nursery techniques
(Taylor 1960, White 1966). Milicia excelsa occurs in native
forests at low densities, only one or two trees per hectare,
likely because it is attacked by a gall-forming psyllid. Domes-
tication programs for Milicia excelsa have explored various
lines of inquiry, including specific ecological requirements
(Taylor 1960, Agyeman et al. 1999, Nichols et al. 1998,
1999a), ecophysiology (Appiah 2003), genetics (Ofori and
Cobbinah 2007), natural resistance (Nichols et al. 2002),
propagation (Ofori et al. 1996), performance in pure and
mixed plantations (Nichols 1999b, Bosu et al. 2006, Bosu and
Nkrumah 2011), silvicultural techniques (White 1966) and
methods of controlling psyllids (Wagner et al. 1991).
Many other highly-valued species are also attacked by
insect pests (e.g. Khaya senegalensis and other Meliaceae
attacked by Hypsipyla shoot borers), creating difficulties
for domesticating these species within their natural range
(Lunz et al. 2009). Problems with insect pests, particularly
Hypsipyla shoot borers, hamper large-scale uptake of Melia-
ceae in Africa, so plantings remain confined to research trials
and small-scale plantings, but research continues and shows
some promise (Nair 2007). Khaya senegalensis shows prom-
ise abroad, and extensive provenance trials have commenced
in northern Australia (Nikles et al. 2008), but the species is
rarely planted within its natural range in Africa.
Tropical Americas
Countries in tropical America which are large (e.g., Brazil)
or diverse (e.g., Costa Rica), contain many rainforest tree spe-
cies that are considered economically valuable. For instance,
Costa Rica has 150 valuable timber species (Carpio-M 1992),
most of them native, amongst a total of 1600 tree species.
Considerable research has been done on native species in
plantations in Costa Rica and Panama (Gonzalez and Fisher
1994, Newton et al. 1994, Haggar et al. 1998, Wishnie et al.
2007, Petit and Montagnini 2006, Hall et al. 2011a, 2011b),
particularly on initial growth and behaviour in both pure and
mixed stands, and on potential for carbon sequestration
and environmental services. However, it appears that few
operational plantings have been stimulated as a result of this
research, and it remains unclear how best to empower uptake
of early domestication research.
Streed et al. (2006) estimated that small scale plantings of
native species on the southwest coast of Costa Rica could be
profitable within fifteen years after plantation establishment.
Piotto et al. (2010) reached the same conclusion after evaluat-
ing silvicultural and economic aspects of pure and mixed
plantations in the Atlantic region of Costa Rica, and recorded
the best growth after 15–16 years, amongst Vochysia guate-
malensis, Virola koschnyi, Jacaranda copaia, Terminalia
amazonia and Hieronyma alchorneoides. Although long-term
tree improvement programs are not evident for these species,
several have been planted at the scale of hundreds of hectares,
with Sollis and Moya (2004a,b,c) recording 807 ha of Hiero-
nyma alchorneoides, 947 ha of Vochysia guatemalensis, and
2282 ha of Terminalia amazonia.
Terminalia amazonia has long been regarded a premium
species throughout its natural range within Mexico, Central
America, the Caribbean and Brazil. As is often the case indig-
enous peoples and colonial foresters were well aware of the
desirable properties of this and other native species and the
ecology and silviculture of this species are well established
(e.g., Marshall 1939). Since this is a long-lived pioneer
species it has long seemed a candidate for domestication
(Nichols 1994).
Hoch et al. (2012) offered a more pessimistic view of
smallholder plantations, concluding that smallholder produc-
tion of timber is generally unprofitable. This conclusion was
drawn from the observation that only one percent of small-
holders in externally promoted tree-planting programs in the
Domestication of native tree species for timber plantations 407
Amazon were ultimately able to produce and commercialize
any plantation timber. These findings serve as a timely
reminder to be realistic about benefits projected from affores-
tation projects. However, they also highlight the important
distinction that those who participate in externally-funded
programs may not be interested primarily in timber produc-
tion. Byron (2001) emphasised that many assistance schemes
have been ineffective because of an inaccurate view of small-
holder decision-making and priorities.
Perhaps the most advanced case of “native timber species”
domestication in the neotropics in recent years is provided by
Pachira quinata (previously known as Bombacopsis quinata)
an important broadleaf tree, deciduous in dry seasons, native
from Central America and northern South America. The
CAMCORE cooperative, based at North Carolina State
University, USA, has collected seed since the mid-1980s and
sampled populations in Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica,
Colombia and Venezuela (Kane et al. 1993, CAMCORE
2012). Nevertheless it is difficult to determine if significant
areas have had operational plantations established.
Some species may function well in one system but fail
totally in another, as the process of domestication proceeds.
The widespread neotropical rainforest tree Calophyllum
brasiliense was thought to have great potential in reforesta-
tion (Redondo-Brenes and Montagnini 2006) until pure plan-
tations of the species suffered 100% mortality at 15 years of
age (Piotto et al. 2010). Earlier indications of poor survival
and slow growth on degraded pastures in southern Costa Rica
(Carpenter et al. 2004) had apparently been disregarded. It
appears that this species is best managed under a system of
enrichment planting under secondary forest (Nelson et al.
2011).
Southeast Asia
There are more than 3000 tree species in southeast Asia,
including about 470 species of dipterocarps (Kammesheidt
2011). Appanah and Weinland (1993) described many species
with commercial potential for Malaysia, and Sosef et al.
(1998) depicted some 1550 species in 309 genera for all of
southeast Asia. With large areas of forest cleared entirely or
partially and a substantial estate of monocultural plantations
of Acacia mangium, A. auriculiformis and Tectona grandis,
there are significant opportunities for planting native species.
This has sometimes been done in line or “enrichment”
plantings, notably the case of the Innoprise FACE Project in
Sabah, Malaysia which is a large-scale line planting project of
dipterocarps on 25,000 ha of degraded land, with a focus on
carbon credits rather than timber production.
Vietnam naturally contains hundreds of rainforest tree
species, including some highly-valued ones, particularly in
the Diptocarpaceae (Chien 2006). Given the large-scale loss
of forest due to war, agricultural development and population
growth, some of these species are in fact endangered
(Nghia 2000). In Vietnam large areas of degraded land have
been planted to several Australian Acacia species, namely
A. mangium, A. auriculiformis and a hybrid of these two
species. These were planted in difficult situations, eroded
sites in pastures dominated by Imperata cylindrica, where
establishment of native trees would have been problematic,
but the Acacia plantations succeeded and now provide a more
hospitable environment for rainforest seedlings, with shade
and improved nutrient status. Forest restoration projects con-
tinue to offer an opportunity to domesticate some of the many
native rainforest tree species of Vietnam by underplanting
them in plantations. In central Vietnam 8-year old stands of
Acacia auriculiformis were thinned and the stands under-
planted with commercially valuable native species, including
Dipterocarpus alatus, Hopea odorata, Parashorea chinensis,
P. stellata, Scaphium lynchophorum and Tarrietia javanica
(McNamara et al. 2006, Lamb 2011). Understorey response
to the Acacia nurse crop has varied among the native species,
and will influence the rate at which the nitrogen-fixing treess
are removed. This approach has proved popular, and several
hundred hectares of forest have been established in this way.
Australia
Out of a continental area of greater than 750 million ha,
perhaps two million ha of Australia were in rainforest in 1788
when European colonisation began, of which approximately
one million remains as intact forest. High-value rainforest
timbers from native forest were no longer available after tree
harvesting ceased in 1988 in far north Queensland (Lamb
et al. 2005). Interest in developing plantations of rainforest
timbers, coupled with the desire to employ displaced timber
workers led to the Community Rainforest Reforestation
Program, but a general lack of knowledge and experience
hampered these efforts (Vanclay 2006) and the outcome
was at best 6800 ha of plantings, many of which were subse-
quently abandoned or neglected (Vize and Sexton 2005).
Native conifers have received some attention, but most rain-
forest species in Australia have been neglected. One success
story is the conifer Araucaria cunninghamii (Dieters et al.
2007), some 44,000 ha of which was planted by the Queensland
Forest Service from the early 1900s, and which was recently
sold into private management. During 1930–60, efforts were
made to domesticate Agathis robusta, and some 780 ha were
planted, but problems with thrips and coccid scale led to a
cessation of this work in 1967 (Huth and Holzworth 2005).
Published information on growth rates and basic silviculture
indicate potential for species such as Elaeocarpus grandis
and Flindersia brayleyana (Cameron and Jermyn 1991,
Huynh 2002, Glencross and Nichols 2005, Grant et al. 2006,
Lamb 2011) but to date there appears to have been little sys-
tematic work on the domestication and genetic improvement
for most Australian rainforest species.
Booth and Turnbull (1994) describe an interesting case
study of domestication over a period of more than 50 years,
that of Acacia auriculiformis, native to Australia and Papua
New Guinea. Early domestication efforts were haphazard,
but by the 1980s several international organisations became
involved in tree improvement and silviculture, and seed
was eventually collected systematically throughout the range
of the species by the Australian Tree Seed Centre with 3000
seedlots distributed to researchers (Gunn and Midgley 1991).
Subsequently a system of seed orchards in Australia and Asia
408 J.D. Nichols and J.K. Vanclay
was established and tree improvement programmes devel-
oped. Today A. auriculiformis, either as a pure species or in
hybrids with A. mangium, is a major component of the 3.8
million ha of Acacia plantations in Asia (FAO 2005). A recent
analysis of the benefits of domestication research, not of
A. auriculiformis, but of Australian trees for forestry and
agroforestry in general, indicated an internal rate of return
exceeding 50% (Lindner 2011), reflecting the value of
considered and continuing domestication work.
In contrast, the demise of many Eucalyptus dunnii planta-
tions in Australia reflects the importance of the ‘whole
of chain’ approach indicated in the domestigram (Figure 1).
Efforts to domesticate this species focused on the identifica-
tion, production and management (e.g., Henson and Vanclay
2004, Smith and Henson 2007, Grant et al. 2010, Cassidy
et al. 2012), but neglected key aspects of adoption (e.g.,
Leys and Vanclay 2010, 2011), creating marketing and social
issues that ultimately contributed to the demise of many
plantations.
South Pacific
Agroforestry gardens in Polynesia and Melanesia are noted
for their rich diversity in plant species, including multipur-
pose trees, particularly nut and fruit trees (Thomson et al.
2001, Walter and Lebot 2007, Butaud et al. 2008, Thomson
2011). During 1996–2006, the South Pacific Regional Initia-
tive on Forest Genetic Resources (SPRIG) project drew on
this diversity and focussed on the domestication of key tree
species in five countries: Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Samoa,
Fiji and Tonga (Thomson et al. 2001, Thomson 2006, 2011).
SPRIG investigated and initiated tree improvement activities
in many species including two Canarium species, Terminalia
richii as well as T. catappa (beach almond), the latter with
potential to supply large quantities of nuts as well as valuable
timber and bark with medicinal properties, Santalum
austrocaledonicum, Flueggea flexuosa, and a major effort in
Vanuatu on whitewood, Endospermum medullosum, the focus
of this special issue.
Some of the main lessons from the domestication work by
SPRIG (Thomson et al. 2001) are:
• Selection of species is critical, and should be based on
an inclusive process of interested parties, and selected
from species already widely planted. The decision
should be informed by biological characteristics
such as intra-specific variation, early growth, early
flowering and seed set, and ease of propagation.
• For developing countries, greater benefits accrue from
the early phases of domesticating a greater number
of promising species, than from a focus on intensive
tree breeding of a single species. This is because the
greatest single-step gains in improvement arise from
selection of the best provenance or seed source.
• Indigenous species have several potential advantages
over exotics, including familiarity and ready accep-
tance by local people; proven adaptation to local con-
ditions; and contribution to biodiversity conservation
values.
• The greatest progress in domesticating tree species
will be made through a multidisciplinary, collaborative
approach involving biological and social sciences.
• The involvement of research and development partners
in all phases of the domestication process, including
provision practical training, enhances the prospects for
sustaining domestication work.
• High levels of trust and goodwill are needed between
forestry research organizations with access to different
parts of the natural range of shared species.
LESSONS FOR ISLAND NATIONS
In contrast to agroforestry, domestication efforts in plantation
forestry appear to neglect adoption (Figure 1) rather too
frequently, in contrast to contemporary agroforestry efforts
where this adoption is emphasised (Scherr 1995, Mercer
2004, Simons and Leakey 2004, Asaah et al. 2011). Although
there are examples where the forest product value chain is
examined (e.g. Herbohn et al. 2009, Grant et al. 2012), these
are the exception rather than the rule. Although long rotations
in forestry make adoption research difficult, it also makes it
more important, especially in the context of small island states
that may lack economies of scale and efficient transportation,
and experience other impediments that create friction in the
marketplace.
Timber plantations are a long-term endeavour, and this
means that domestication efforts require sustained commit-
ment. Domestication of timber trees requires a brave but
thoughtful ‘best bet’ in choice of species, requires adaptive
management to adjust management to new situations (both
biological and economic), requires innovation in gathering
data and synthesising insights from diverse sources, and above
all, requires sustained effort and investment to corral resource s
and maintain progress. Although there are examples where
domestication has not yet succeeded (e.g., Agathis robusta),
the evidence with other species suggests that sustained effort
leads to success.
Perhaps the key lesson for island nations arising from this
review is the need to take a holistic view of the whole stake-
holder chain, and not to focus merely on the technological
aspects of genetics and silviculture. In the long run, the less
technical aspects such as smallholder attitudes to forestry, the
competition for land, government policies and incentives, and
the opportunities for processing, value-adding and export
may all play a greater role in uptake and success of a viable
enterprise. Proponents should not overlook the importance of
conserving wild genetic resources.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by ACIAR project FST/2005/089
Improved silvicultural management of Endospermum medul-
losum (whitewood) for enhanced plantation forestry outcomes
in Vanuatu. Drs Roger Leakey, Lex Thomson, and two anony-
mous referees offered many helpful suggestions.
Domestication of native tree species for timber plantations 409
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