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Occurrence of microplastics in the gastrointestinal tract of pelagic and demersal fish from the English Channel
... Microplastics are ingested by fish either directly or indirectly through the consumption of smaller prey that has already ingested microplastics. Once inside the fish, microplastics can accumulate in the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and other organs, leading to physical damage, inflammation, and potential disruption of biological processes [13]. The extent of microplastic contamination varies by species and geographical region, with higher levels often found in areas close to urban centers or heavily polluted coastal waters [1]. ...
... Quantitative data on microplastic contamination in seafood vary widely depending on geographical location, species, and the methodology used for detection. In Europe, a study conducted in the North Sea reported an average of 1-2 microplastic particles per individual fish, with species such as cod and haddock being particularly affected [13]. In contrast, species from the more polluted Mediterranean waters showed significantly higher contamination levels, with up to 9 microplastic particles detected per fish in some cases [21]. ...
Microplastic contamination in food has emerged as a significant global concern, with potential implications for human health. Microplastics, defined as plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, originate from various sources, including plastic waste fragmentation, synthetic textiles, and industrial processes. These particles have been detected in multiple food products, particularly seafood, drinking water, salt, honey, and processed foods, posing a risk of chronic exposure through ingestion. The small size of microplastics allows them to penetrate tissues and potentially enter systemic circulation, raising concerns about their bioaccumulation and toxicological effects. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the pathways through which microplastics enter the food chain, focusing on contamination in aquatic ecosystems and food packaging. We also examine the analytical techniques used for detecting microplastics in food, including spectroscopic methods, and discuss the challenges of standardizing detection protocols. Finally, the potential health risks, including toxicity and chemical leaching, are explored, alongside recommendations for future research and regulatory strategies.
... The buildup of MPs in the intestine can alter the gut microbiome, resulting in dysbiosis, inflammation, and impaired nutrient uptake (Jovanović et al.., 2018). Our findings align with Lusher et al. (2013), who highlighted the challenges posed by MPs bioaccumulation along the food chain and its implications for human consumption. According to Brandts et al. (2018) fish may consume smaller MPs that accumulate into the gut and harm its structure. ...
Microplastics (MPs) have become a pressing concern due to their pervasive presence in the environment and bioaccumulation in fish organs, potentially threatening ecosystem health. This study examined the impact of polystyrene (PS) MPs on Labeo rohita fingerlings (7.15 ± 0.02 g/fish) by exploring histopathological changes in intestine, altered mineral composition in muscles, bioaccumulation and modulated antioxidant enzyme activity. This study utilized six test diets comprising sunflower meal with varying polystyrene microplastic (PS-MP) levels. The control diet (I) contained 0% PS-MPs, while diets II-VI had 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, and 2.5% PS-MPs, respectively, over a 90-day feeding trial. The fish were fed their respective test diets twice daily with a feeding rate of 5% wet body weight per day. The findings elucidated that the antioxidant enzyme activity and bioaccumulation were substantially altered by increased PS-MPs exposure. Moreover, histopathology examination revealed intestinal structural abnormalities, which worsened with escalating PS-MPs concentrations. Notably, test diet VI (2.5% PS-MPs) showed lower mineral content (P < 0.05) in fingerlings muscles when compared with control. In conclusion, results indicate that PS-MPs may negatively impact the L. rohita fingerlings, affecting histopathology of intestine, mineral composition, bioaccumulation, and antioxidant enzyme function.
Graphical Abstract
... It is fair to expect a big amount of untreated garbage to be found in land lls, which would be a huge source of contamination to the ecosystem (Yu et al., 2020). Water organisms may directly or indirectly consume MP/NP from their surroundings (Lusher et al., 2013). MP/NP are well-known for being consumed by marine organisms, biomagni ed, and bioaccumulated in the food chain (Zhang et al., 2019;Avio et al., 2020). ...
Plastic products particularly personal protection equipment (PPE) played a pivotal role in safeguarding public health amid the COVID-19 pandemic. The frequent utilization of PPE disrupted the waste management practices and supply chain systems. The enormous volume of disposable plastic commodities, encompassing masks, gloves, aprons, sanitizer, and food packaging materials have been discharged indiscriminately into the environment, contributing to already accumulated plastic debris on the ocean floor and around coastal regions. Knowing how much plastic garbage is produced and how different nations are handling their plastic waste management is especially more important in the current pandemic situation. In this chapter, we have thoroughly covered the usage of plastics besides types and amount of plastic waste generated during the COVID-19 pandemic. This chapter also discusses the impact of plastic pollution on humans as well as the environment. Further we have stressed to necessitate circular economy for proper management of pandemic generated plastic waste, underlining the disadvantages of linear economy. Lastly, the effectiveness concerning the circular economy for handling plastic garbage in different countries during the COVID-19 epidemic have been discussed. When managed judiciously and synergistically integrated with circular economy initiatives focusing on3Rs, plastic can act as a protector, avoiding leakage into the environment during these tough times.
... Information on invertebrate feeding ecology is critical to understanding the distribution of MD in the ocean, 82 being more commonly available for commercial species and fish. 43,83,84 Despite only representing a third of the species surveyed in our study, deposit-feeding was the feeding mode which concentrated the highest portion of fibers (37/85, 43.53%), a similar result found by Bour et al. (2018) 85 85 however, we did not observe a comparably high percentage of fiber ingestion in (epi) benthic predators, which could be related to differences in food type and abundance, and availability of MD between that region and our study area. Echinoderms, represented by the sea cucumbers E. koehleri, H. steineni, M. violacea, Protelpidia murrayi and S. globosa, and the brittle stars A. peregrinator, O. gigas and O. victoriae, contained 84.7% of all fibers found in our study, further indicating the role of this phylum as a reservoir for historical anthropogenic debris. ...
Anthropogenic debris has been documented in Antarctica for the past 40 years. Upon breakdown, large pieces become microdebris, which reaches the seafloor through a variety of physical and biological processes. The Antarctic benthos, deeply reliant on sinking organic particles, is thus vulnerable to ingesting microdebris. By using benthic specimens sampled between 1986 and 2016 and deposited in biological collections, we provide the first record of microdebris in Southern Ocean deep-sea invertebrates. Specimens from 15 species (n = 169 organisms) had their gut content examined, with 13 species yielding microdebris in the shape of fibers (n = 85 fibers). The highest ingestion percentages were recorded in the sea cucumbers Heterocucumis steineni (100%), Molpadia violacea (83%) and Scotoplanes globosa (75%), and in the brittle star Amphioplus peregrinator (53%). Deposit-and suspension-feeding were the strategies which yielded the most fibers, accounting for 83.53% of particles. Seven fibers were identified as microplastics, composed of polyamide, polycarbonate, polyester, polyethylene terephthalate, polyisoprene and polysulfone. We also provide the earliest record of a microplastic in Antarctica, a polysulfone fiber ingested by a Boreomysis sp. mysid caught in 1986. The occurrence of fibers in the world's most remote continental margin renews concerns of pollution in seemingly isolated regions.
... This study revealed that commercially significant fish from Kota mangroves ingest MPs. Premature fish death can occur due to false satiation caused by MP ingestion (Lusher et al., 2013). Ingested MPs can lead to oxidative stress, disruption of gene expression, reduced mobility, and organ damage in fish (Mu et al., 2022;Zhang et al., 2022;Zhao et al., 2021). ...
Microplastics are minute plastic particles ranging from 1 µm to 5 mm in size. Mangroves are crucial ecosystems with roles in carbon sequestration, shoreline protection, and habitat for diverse species. Despite their significance, the extent of microplastic pollution in mangroves, especially in India, remains inadequately understood. To address this gap, we conducted a seasonal sampling in the Kota mangrove ecosystem at different water column depths. Our analysis revealed average microplastic abundances of 0.93 (monsoon), 3.71 (post-monsoon), and 2.92 MPs/L (pre-monsoon). The average microplastic abundances were 19.88 and 15.86 microplastics/individual for Gerres filamentosus and Sillago sihama, respectively. Fibrous microplastics smaller than 1 mm were dominant. Transparent microplastics dominated the water column (28.57% in monsoon, 77.45% in post-monsoon, and 49.24% in pre-monsoon), and they were also prevalent in S. sihama (49.55%) and G. filamentosus (41.51%). This points towards greater bioavailability and suggests that transparent microplastics are often mistaken for prey. Anthropogenic influence is a major factor that governs microplastic distribution than season in Kota mangroves. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed that polypropylene was the dominant polymer in both water column as well as in S. sihama and G. filamentosus. We identified aquaculture, tourism, and local activities as probable sources of microplastic pollution. The monitoring data is crucial as it provides insights into microplastics pollution in two economically important fish species that are largely consumed by the local population. Exposure to microplastics from the consumption of these fish may cause serious health issues for human beings.
... Mikroplastik yang terakumulasi ke dalam tubuh organisme akan mengakibatkan kerusakan fisika dan kimia seperti kerusakan organ internal dan penyumbatan saluran pencernaan, bersifat karsinogenik dan menyebabkan gangguan endokrin (Oehlmann et al. 2009). Sebagian besar ikan demersal dan pelagis telah terkontaminasi mikroplastik yang ditemukan dalam saluran pencernaannya (Lusher et al. 2013). ...
Mikroplastik adalah partikel plastik yang memiliki ukuran <5 mm. Ukuran yang kecil menyebabkannya bisa ditransportasikan ke semua perairan dan biota termasuk ikan. Sumber limbah mikroplastik di perairan antara lain dari industri, pertanian, dan aktivitas antropogenik di mana keseluruhannya dapat menjadi sumber pencemaran mikroplastik di laut. Ikan kakap merah (Lutjanus malabaricus) merupakan salah satu jenis ikan demersal yang hidup secara berkelompok di dasar karang atau terumbu karang. Ikan kakap merah adalah salah satu kategori produk perikanan yang memiliki nilai ekonomis penting dan banyak diminati masyarakat. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi jenis, warna, kelimpahan, dan ukuran mikroplastik pada ikan kakap merah. Pengambilan sampel dilaksanakan pada Bulan September-Oktober 2022 dengan total sampel yang dikaji sebanyak 50 ekor ikan. Identifikasi mikroplastik berdasarkan bentuk, ukuran, dan warna pada partikel mikroplastik. Hasil penelitian menemukan sebanyak 1.593 partikel mikroplastik pada sampel ikan kakap merah yang terdiri dari jenis fiber, fragmen, film, dan granula. Kelimpahan mikroplastik paling tinggi didominasi jenis fiber yaitu 17,98 partikel/individu pada insang dan 11,66 partikel/individu pada usus. Kelimpahan mikroplastik paling rendah secara keseluruhan yaitu pada insang dengan jenis film 0,28 partikel/individu dan jenis granula ditemukan 0,3 partikel/individu. Warna mikroplastik yang ditemui yaitu warna putih, hitam, merah, kuning, biru, transparan, dan hijau. Warna mikroplastik tertinggi yang ditemukan secara keseluruhan didominasi oleh warna putih, baik pada insang (52,45%) maupun pada usus (48,74%), sedangkan yang paling rendah adalah warna hijau yang ditemui pada insang (0,42%) dan pada usus (0,79%). Mikroplastik yang ditemui memiliki ukuran yang bervariasi yaitu <0,25 mm - >2 mm. Mikroplastik yang ditemukan pada kedua organ ikan paling banyak berukuran 0,50 mm - 2 mm. Mikroplastik berukuran <0,25 mm ditemukan sangat sedikit, baik pada usus maupun insang.
... Microplastics pose a more serious threat than larger plastic materials. Microplastics can be eaten by all marine organisms if one particle of microplastics can be shaped like food (Boerger et al., 2010), (Browne et al., 2008), (Lusher, McHugh and Thompson, 2013). ...
Plastic waste pollution in the ocean can compromise food safety for the community in the world. One of the most dangerous polution today is microplastics. Microplastics are plastic particles that are ≤ 5 μm in size and cannot dissolve in water. Fish is one of the important foodstuffs that is often consumed by humans because, besides its delicious taste, fish also has good nutritional value. The presence of microplastic contamination in fish consumed by humans will certainly be very detrimental to humans. The purpose of this study was to determine the type and abundance of microplastics in fish Euthynnus affinis in the Kedonganan area, Kuta, Badung, Bali. This study was conducted from April to May 2023. The fish samples used were 30 samples with descriptive qualitative analysis. Microplastic particles were extracted first for further analysis. The results showed the types of microplastics found in Euthynnus affinis, namely film, fibre, and fragment types. While the abundance of microplastics in Euthynnus affinis, the fibre type is the most common type of microplastics found at 2.1 particles/individual followed by fragment and film types at 1.1 particles/individual and 0.8 particles/individual respectively.
... The p resence of microplastics in organisms that live in this ecosystem has also been revealed, such as corals (Syakti et al., 2019), cephalopods , shells (Ilham et al., 2023b;Mawaddha and Tahir, 2020;Tahir et al., 2019), sea urchins and fish Ningrum et al., 2023). More specifically, it is known that more than a third of demersal and pelagic fish p opulations are contaminated with microplastic p articles that accumulate in their digestive tracts (Lusher et al., 2013). ...
Highlight Research 1. Microplastics were counted and identified based on their shape, size, and color 2. The particles were clarified using FTIR and confirmed to be microplastics based on the type of polymer. 3. The tissue destruction method is more effective with heating treatment. 4. Methods to prevent contamination are implemented so that the research results are guaranteed to be accurate. Abstract Microplastics can be ingested by marine organisms, including fish. Although it has been widely reported, further information regarding microplastic contamination in commercial fish is still needed. This study aimed to analyze the presence and concentration of microplastics in the digestive tract of the mackerel R. kanaguarta and red snapper L. gibbus and to identify the shape, size, color, and type of microplastic polymer. Digestion of the organic materials was performed using a 10% KOH solution, which was then filtered using a vacuum filtration system. The particles were observed using an Olympus microscope and clarified using FTIR. The results of the research showed that R. kanaguarta and L. gibbus landed at the Beba Fish Landing Base (PPI Beba) Takalar were contaminated with microplastics with a microplastic concentration in R. kanaguarta 0.21 ± 0.06 particles/g and L. gibbus 0.11 ± 0.04 particles/g. The microplastics found were fiber and fragment of varying colors, such as black, white, red, and yellow. The size of microplastics was dominant in the size class < 2 mm. The FTIR analysis confirmed the presence of polypropylene (PP), Ethylene/Propylene Copolymer, Nylon, Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polyester (PES). This study showed that both commercial fish species were contaminated with microplastics. These findings suggest that microplastics are widespread and contaminate commercial fish caught from Takalar waters. Further research is still needed on other seafood from this region, and analysis of polymer types such as FTIR is important to carry out as one of the standard methods in microplastic research.
... (< 5 mm diameter) are created. These microplastics are sometimes mistaken for food and consumed by aquatic life, including different fish species and mammals [8][9][10][11] . Besides consumption, entanglement by macroplastics and fishing nets is a big risk for sea life 12,13 . ...
Remote sensing technologies have the potential to support monitoring of floating plastic litter in aquatic environments. An experimental campaign was carried out in a large-scale hydrodynamic test facility to explore the detectability of floating plastics in ocean waves, comparing and contrasting different microwave and optical remote sensing technologies. The extensive experiments revealed that detection of plastics was feasible with microwave measurement techniques using X and Ku-bands with VV polarization at a plastic threshold concentration of 1 item/m² or 1–10 g/m². The optical measurements further revealed that spectral and polarization properties in the visible and infrared spectrum had diagnostic information unique to the floating plastics. This assessment presents a crucial step towards enabling the detection of aquatic plastics using advanced remote sensing technologies. We demonstrate that remote sensing has the potential for global targeting of plastic litter hotspots, which is needed for supporting effective clean-up efforts and scientific evidence-based policy making.
... The ingestion of microfibers by marine and freshwater organisms has been observed numerous times, and certain colors are more commonly ingested. For example, microfibers were predominantly (68.3%) found in the gastrointestinal tract of dermal and pelagic fish in the English Channel, United Kingdom, and the majority of the fibers were black (45.4%) in color [32]. As discussed earlier, darker-colored plastics have a greater energy absorption potential due to solar infrared absorption, potentially altering the temperature of the surrounding water. ...
Synthetic fibers are widely used in daily life due to their durability, elasticity, low cost, and ease of use. The textile industry is the primary source of synthetic microfibers, as these materials are mostly used in production processes. Globally, plastic pollution has been identified as a major environmental threat in this era, since plastics are not degradable but break down into smaller particles such as mesoplastics, microplastics, and microfibers. Synthetic microfiber pollution is a significant issue in aquatic ecosystems, including oceans and rivers, with laundry wastewater being a major source. This problem is particularly pressing in cities like Galle, Sri Lanka, where numerous tourist hotels are located. Despite the urgency, there has been a lack of scientific and systematic analysis to fully understand the extent of the issue. This study addresses this gap by analyzing the generation of microfibers from laundry activities at a selected hotel and evaluating the efficiency of a laundry wastewater filtration system. This study focused on a fully automatic front-loading washing machine (23 kg capacity) with a load of 12 kg of polyester-cotton blend serviettes (black and red). Samples (1 L each) were taken from both treated and untreated wastewater during four wash cycles, with a total of 100 L of water used for the process. The samples were filtered through a 100 µm sieve and catalytic wet oxidation along with density separation were employed to extract the microfibers, which were then collected on a membrane filter paper (0.45 µm). Microfibers were observed and analyzed for shapes, colors and sizes under a stereo microscope. Results revealed that untreated laundry wastewater contained 10,028.7 ± 1420.8 microfibers per liter (n = 4), while treated wastewater samples recorded 191.5 ± 109.4 microfibers per liter (n = 4). Most of the microfibers observed were black and white/transparent colors. Further analysis revealed that 1 kg of polyester-cotton blend fabric can generate 336,833 microfibers per wash, which was reduced to 6367 microfibers after treatment. The filtration unit recorded an impressive efficiency of 98.09%, indicating a remarkably high capacity for removing microfibers from wastewater. These findings highlight the potential of such filtration techniques to significantly reduce microfiber emissions from laundry wastewater, presenting a promising approach to mitigating environmental pollution from microfibers.
... Rayon, PET and PP were observed in the gills in minor percentages, while more polymer types were observed in the fish gut. Previous research results confirmed that polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), rayon [100], polyamide (PA) and visually reported blue nylon fragments were the predominant polymer types ingested by fish on a global scale [94]. These results were expected, given the widespread presence of these polymers in both marine and freshwater ecosystems. ...
Microplastics have emerged as a significant global environmental concern in the recent decade. The aim of this study was to elucidate microplastic contamination of commercial fish species in a natural lagoon environment. Microplastic contamination was examined in the gastrointestinal tracts and gills of 157 commercial fish from 18 species with varying feeding habits in a vital and sensitive lagoon ecosystem, which connects to the Indian ocean. Microplastics were extracted using digestion, followed by stereomicroscopic inspection using Nile Red stain, and identified via µ-FTIR analysis. Over half of studied fishes ingested microplastics (54.14%). Filaments (50%) and blue items (43%) were the most commonly ingested. Of all the fish species, Eubleekeria splendens had the highest average concentration of microplastics in GIT (1.41 ± 2.52 items/g w.w. tissues), although no statistically significant difference in amount of ingested microplastics (items/g w.w. tissues) was observed among species. The highest concentrations of inhaled microplastics were recorded in Sillago vincenti (1.38 ± 1.30 items/g w.w. tissues). The majority of the extracted microplastics (33%) belonged in the size class 500-1500 µm with rayon, polyethylene terephthalate, and polypropylene as the primary polymers. This study found no correlation between microplastic ingestion and fish species and feeding habits, but a positive correlation with fish size was observed. These findings reveal widespread microplastic contamination in edible fish, posing potential risks to commercially important species due to increasing pollution in lagoon ecosystems.
... The accumulation of microfibers and microplastics in the environment also raises concerns related to their potential impact on the health of animals or humans that inadvertently consume them [26][27][28], related both to the microplastics on their own and potential sorption of toxic chemicals to the microplastics [29,30]. Microfiber field contamination studies, particularly those examining contamination in water systems, are often limited to synthetic microfragments; however, several animal ingestion studies have reported the recovery of microfibers from natural fibers [23,31]. Still, the impact of naturally sourced microfibers on environmental contamination is not as well established. ...
Microfibers are small fiber particles that separate from larger textiles through wear abrasion or home laundering. Pervasive accumulation of synthetic microfibers in the environment is motivating efforts to quantify them, and to gain a better understanding of the factors that lead to their release from garments. Automated imaging systems have been previously employed for the quantification of synthetic and natural microfibers. In the current study, a rayon standard and microfibers sourced from scoured cotton HVI calibration standards were examined with the Fiber Quality Analyzer-360 (FQA) automated imaging system. Mechanically stirred suspensions of six cotton microfiber standards showed significantly lower fiber counts than those obtained with a rayon standard. Probe sonication of the sample suspensions significantly increased observed fiber counts for the cotton standard samples, by 105% on average. Mean length determinations decreased by, on average, 5% for the sonicated samples, an indication that count increases were not due to sample fragmentation. No significant change was observed for the fiber counts or length measurements of the sonicated rayon samples. The sonicated cotton samples showed an average of 95% detection by the FQA. These results highlight the importance of proper microfiber suspension for accurate detection and quantification using the FQA system.
... Sediments and sea ice contain significant microplastic amounts, ingested by seabirds and other fauna (Amélineau et al., 2016;Munari et al., 2017). Lusher et al. (2013) found comparable concentrations of microplastic fragments in fish and sea ice samples. In the Arctic, declining sea ice reduces ice algae levels, affecting zooplankton, Arctic cod, seals, and polar bears. ...
Plastics—macro, micro, or nano—have become persistent, pervasive, and potentially hazardous pollutants infiltrating the global environment. Microplastics (<5 mm) owing to their increased surface area as compared to their mass and small size are considered more harmful than larger plastics. The issue of their environmental presence has gained momentum due to their ability to act as sources and sinks for toxic substances, and also due to the intensification of climate change. Climate change stimulates their deterioration, dispersal, and the interaction with the environmental compartments. In turn the plastic debris contributes directly or indirectly to greenhouse gas emissions during its life cycle. Plastics account for 3.3% of the global GHG emissions. Thus, microplastics and climate change share a mutually reinforcing relationship. For effective management of both these issues, it is imperative to understand the nature and dynamics of this complex relationship. This chapter aims to discuss the long-term ecological impacts of microplastics and climate change on each other.
... The small size of MPs often resembles a prey item for many organisms that range from small crustaceans to whales (Besseling et al., 2015;Cole et al., 2013;Neves et al., 2015). Therefore, the high prevalence of MPs in oceans leads to accidental ingestion in many organisms that have non-selective feeding strategies (Cole et al., 2013;Doshi et al., 2024;Lusher et al., 2013;Zhao et al., 2024). Furthermore, MPs can adsorb various pollutants in the marine environment (i.e., Persistent Organic Pollutants); thus, MPs act as a vector to transfer pollutants from the environment to create indirect impacts of MPs on biota (Goswami et al., 2023;Liu et al., 2023). ...
... The amount of mean MP in Merlangius merlangus was found to be 1.8 MP fish −1 in the present study which was above the reported mean values of 1.33 MP fish −1 and 1 MP fish −1 from two recent studies in Black Sea and Galway Bay, respectively (Pagter et al. 2020;Aytan et al. 2022b). On the other hand, with the mean of 1.9 MP fish −1 , similar levels of MP were determined from the English Channel (Lusher et al. 2013). ...
Microplastic studies investigating concentrations in water are numerous, but the majority of microplastics settle and are retained in sediment, and higher concentrations are regularly reported in sediments. Thus, MPs accumulation may be more threatening to benthic fish living in sediments than to pelagic fish. The presence, abundance and diversity of microplastics were investigated by collecting samples from two pelagic, European anchovy, and horse mackerel and two benthic fish species, red mullet, and whiting that are popularly consumed in Giresun province of Türkiye, located on the southern coast of the Black Sea. Visual classification and chemical compositions of microplastics was performed using a light microscope and ATR-FTIR spectrophotometry, consecutively. The overall incidence and mean microplastics abundance in sampled fishes were 17 and 1.7 ± 0.18 MP fish⁻¹, respectively. MPs were within the range of 0.026–5 mm in size. In most of the cases, the MP was black in color with 41%. With the rates of 56%, polypropylene was the predominant polymer type. The most dominant MP type was identified as fiber followed by fragments and pellets. The relationship between MP amounts in fish and Fulton condition factor was not strong enough to establish a cause-effect relationship.
... Despite the concept of biodegradability of natural and semisynthetic fibers, their potential environmental impacts are comparable with those of synthetic fibers (Athey & Erdle, 2022). Moreover, natural and regenerated cellulose fibers have already been found in a range of environmental matrixes and organisms, including atmospheric fallout (Dris et al., 2016), rivers (Dris et al., 2018), macrofauna (Remy et al., 2015), marine sediment, and fish Lusher et al., 2013). We recommend further research in this direction to identify their multifaceted impacts on ecosystems, because natural microfibers can adsorb and release cocktails of chemicals into the environment (Bakir et al., 2014;Ladewig et al., 2015). ...
Microfibers are thread‐like structures shorter than 5 mm and have natural, semisynthetic, or synthetic origins. These micropollutants are ubiquitous and are emerging in the environment, living organisms, and food sources. Textile laundering is a prominent source of microfibers, but limited research has been conducted on microfiber pollution from domestic washing machines in emerging economies such as India, where consumption and production rates are exorbitantly high. This study aimed to assess the abundance and size distribution of microfibers from the effluent of a semiautomatic domestic washing machine using three categories of “not‐new” textiles: cotton, blended, and synthetic under “with” and “without” detergent conditions. Although most Indians still rely on hand washing, this study focused on washing machines due to their increasing use in India driven by improving socioeconomic factors. This study also developed annual emission estimation and forecasting models for India to understand pollution trends. The results revealed that microfibers were highly abundant in washing machine effluent, with a mean abundance of cotton, blended, and synthetic in “with detergent” conditions of 6476.67, 3766.67, and 8645/L, respectively, whereas in “without detergent,” it was lower. All identified microfibers were divided into five size classes. The study also found that powdered detergent increased the abundance and emission of tiny fibers. The overall annual emissions estimate was 1.23 × 10 ¹¹ microfibers, with cotton, synthetic, and blended categories accounting for 2.11 × 10 ¹⁰ , 1.40 × 10 ¹⁰ , and 6.15 × 10 ⁹ microfibers, respectively. Time‐series‐based future estimates (autoregressive integrated moving average [ARIMA] and error‐trend‐seasonality [ETS]) showed an alarming increase in microfiber emissions, with forecasted annual emission reaching 1.90 × 10 ¹¹ by 2030. Synthetic and cotton textiles are the most significant contributors to microfiber pollution. This study emphasized the urgent need to address the issue of microfiber pollution caused by washing machine laundering in developing countries, such as India, where sociodemographic factors intensify the problem. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2024;00:1–12. © 2024 SETAC
Infrared spectroscopy is a widely used tool for studying microplastics and identifying microparticles. Researchers rely on spectral libraries to differentiate between synthetic and natural materials. Unfortunately, spectral library matching is not perfect, and best practices require researchers to use time consuming, manual peak matching to assess spectral matches. Moving toward automated matching requires increased confidence in the matching process. Using spectra matching software may increase the efficiency of particle identification, however some matching strategies may confuse natural materials such as cotton, silk, and plant matter with common classes of synthetics such as polyesters and polyamides. In this experiment, we prepared 22 pristine sample materials from natural and synthetic sources and measured micro-Fourier transform infrared (µFTIR) spectra in transmission mode for each sample using a Thermo Nicolet iN10 MX instrument. The collected spectra were then input into two spectral library matching systems (Omnic Picta and Open Specy), using a total of five identification routines. Next, we placed a subset of four pristine microplastic materials in a biologically active river system for two weeks to simulate environmental samples. These simulated environmental samples were processed using 10% hydrogen peroxide for 24 h to remove organic contamination and then identified using the strongest performing library. We found that libraries with fewer sample spectra produced lower correlation matches and that using derivative correction greatly reduced the number of inaccuracies in identifying materials as either natural or synthetic. We also found that environmental fouling reduced the correlation value of library matches when compared to pristine particles, however the effect was not consistent across the four materials tested. Overall, we found that the accuracy of automated library matching in the tested systems and processing routines varied from 64.1 to 98.0% for distinguishing between natural and synthetic materials, and that a high Hit Quality Index (HQI) did not always correlate with accuracy. These results are important for the microplastic field, demonstrating a need to rigorously test spectral libraries and processing routines with known materials to ensure identification accuracy.
Plastics, colloquially also referred to as plastic (not to be confused with a sculpture or sculpture of a sculptor), are used extensively due to their durability. This results in problems with environmentally friendly disposal, with microplastics playing a particularly important role.
Microplastics are tiny plastic particles with a usual diameter ranging from ~ 1 μ to 5 µm. Recently, microplastic pollution has raised the attention of the worldwide environmental and human concerns. In human beings, digestive system illness, respiratory system disorders, sleep disturbances, obesity, diabetes, and even cancer have been reported after microplastic exposure either through food, air, or skin. Similarly, microplastics are also having negative impacts on the plant health, soil microorganisms, aquatic lives, and other animals. Policies and initiatives have already been in the pipeline to address this problem to deal with microplastic pollution. However, many obstacles are also being observed such as lack of knowledge, lack of research, and also absence of regulatory frameworks. This article has covered the distribution of microplastics in water, soil, food and air. Application of multimodel strategies including fewer plastic item consumption, developing low-cost novel technologies using microorganisms, biofilm, and genetic modified microorganisms has been used to reduce microplastics from the environment. Researchers, academician, policy-makers, and environmentalists should work jointly to cope up with microplastic contamination and their effect on the ecosystem as a whole which can be reduced in the coming years and also to make earth clean.
Graphical abstract
Biobased plastics are sometimes promoted as “environmentally friendly” compared to their conventional petrochemical-based counterparts, but their ecotoxicity is only partially understood. Biobased fibers are widely used in clothing and wet wipes and can accumulate in soils through the application of biosolid fertilizers. This study examined the lethal thresholds and sublethal toxicity of chemically characterized, additive-free, biobased (viscose and lyocell) compared to petrochemical-based (polyester) fibers on the key ecosystem engineer, Esenia fetida. Viscose and lyocell had LC20 values of 14.00 and 22.66 mg·L–1, respectively, and no observed effect concentrations (NOEC) of 0–2.8 mg·L–1 (72 h, OECD TG207 filter paper method), while for polyester these were LC20 15.6–31.3 mg·L–1 and NOEC 0–15.6 mg·L–1. Following 28 days of exposure to soils (OECD TG222) contaminated with environmentally relevant concentrations (100 mg kg–1), viscose significantly reduced the mass of progeny compared to polyester. Earthworms exposed to lyocell had a marginal growth reduction (−18%; compared to −11% to −13% in other treatments) linked to increased bioturbation activity. The biobased fibers examined here have greater acute toxicity at high concentrations and broadly similar sublethal effects on E. fetida compared to polyester. Our study highlights the importance of detailed testing before advocating specific materials as plastic alternatives/substitutes to conventional plastics.
Gorgan Bay is located along the southeast Caspian Sea and surrounded with significant agricultural and urban areas. Plastic pollution is a significant issue that affects aquatic ecosystems globally. The accumulation and degradation of plastics into microplastics in aquatic ecosystems highlight the importance of studying them to assess pollution risks. So, an investigation was conducted for the assessment of MicroPlastics pollution (MPs) in water and sediment of this ecosystem. The study involved collecting water and sediment samples from 40 stations within the Bay. Microplastics (MPs) extracted from these samples were identified using microscopic detection methods, specifically visual observation under polarized light to SEM–EDX, and µ-Raman. A total of 16,360 MP particles per kilogram of sediment, and 211 particles per liter of water were detected. The research demonstrated that the river inlets situated within agriculturally intensive regions of the watershed exhibited the highest levels of microplastics (MPs) in both water and sediment samples. Fiber MPs were the most frequent (> 50%) shape in sediment and water. The size of mostly MPs (> 90%) was smaller than 1,000 µm. The dominant polymer within MPs in Gorgan Bay sediment identified as polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), and polystyrene (PS), while polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE) were the frequent polymer in water, respectively. The most amount of MPs was found in the areas close to the rivers and agricultural fields (including stations S4, S12, S13, S14, S22).
Microplastics are emerging pollutants of global concern, and their presence in the aquatic environment poses a serious risk for aquatic biota. While many studies have been conducted on the presence of microplastics in marine habitats, little research has been done in freshwater African reservoirs on microplastic pollution and their impacts on fish within the subtropical regions. To bridge this gap, the current study investigated microplastic abundances and distribution in freshwater fish within Nandoni reservoir, South Africa, across two seasons (i.e., hot–wet, cool–dry). Fish were randomly sampled using seine and gill nets from seven sites within the reservoir. In the laboratory, fish were then sorted according to taxa before dissecting them to remove the gills and the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The organs were digested using hot hydrochloric acid and hydrogen peroxide, and the microplastics were classified according to their colours and shapes. Among the 94 fishes (i.e., 8 species) examined, microplastics were detected in 86.6% of the eight species caught. Microplastics were dominant in the gills and GIT during the cool–dry and hot–wet seasons, respectively. High microplastic abundances were found in the gills of Micropterus salmoides and the GIT of Coptodon rendalli, where fibres and the transparent colour were the most dominant. The results further showed high microplastic abundances in benthopelagic feeders highlighting that habitat influences fish consumption of microplastics whether directly or indirectly. Significant differences were observed in the feeding zone and season for all microplastic types. Microplastic sources in the reservoirs could be due to anthropogenic activities such as illegal dumping, fishing, and agriculture. Thus, there is a need for further investigation into the relation of fish weight, fish sex and body in relation to microplastic pollution. The highlighted ecological factors should be taken into consideration for future research and management actions aimed at mitigating and protecting the negative impacts of microplastic pollution on environmental and human health.
Micro/nanoplastic pollution is, without a doubt, one of the most acute and daunting environmental problems worldwide. This chapter, therefore, uses a comprehensive bibliometric analysis as the method to present the research status of micro/nanoplastic pollution. With respect to broader aspects, first, the data are collected from the Scopus database. Therefore, advanced bibliometric methodologies are used to detect publication patterns and citation fronts. The results show that the number of publications has tended to increase in recent years, and most of them are about marine problems. Second, according to the thematic analysis of the available publications, the focus should be on thematic areas such as sources of micro/nanopolluction, distribution, ecological damage and determination, and further expansion. Importantly, a few thematic networks are identified, as they are easy to recognize in relation to the problems concerned. Finally, it becomes clear from the analysis that the research is global, not only local, and is almost not limited to one country.
The purpose of this paper is to review and evaluate published literature on the production, management and impact of microplastic contamination on marine species and marine environments. A systematic method was utilized to access research works of literature on "production, management and impact of microplastic contamination on marine species and marine environments". A total of Sixty-two (62) research papers published between the years 1972 to 2022 was accumulated and used for this review. A subjective approach was used to select the topics: production, management and impact of microplastic contamination. In this paper, four (4) effects of microplastics on organisms and the environment was assessed. Additionally, the formation and classification of microplastics were evaluated. Subsequently, the paper delves into the production and the management of global plastic production as well as the sources of contamination. Further, this review assessed the quantity of microplastics in the gastrointestinal tract and edible muscles of various fish species. A mini checklist of sixty-one (61) fish species from thirty (30) families dwelling in nine (9) different marine habitats, all contaminated by microplastics was also presented in this review. Moreover, possible solutions to overcome the impact of microplastics on organisms and aquatic environments were also mentioned in this article. The published works of literature established that the global plastic production is constantly increasing with a growing world population thus leading to mismanagement of plastic resources and introducing them to the environment. Microplastics can cause serious complications in humans, marine organisms such as fishes, crustaceans, marine mammals and sea birds and even contribute to the degradation of mangrove forests and the coastal environment. This review highlights the fact that more extensive studies on the impact of microplastic contamination in organisms and the environment should be done in neotropical countries since there is a dearth and gaps of such information on research and published data in these biodiversity rich regions.
Microplastics (MPs) are impacting coastal and ocean ecosystem and also have been linked with ‘blue economy’, which accounts major portion to the total economy of a nation. The ocean serves as a sink for MPs, receiving them from rivers, runoff, industrial effluents, and direct waste discharge. Consequently, marine organisms are impacted, leading to indirect economic losses, and causing irreparable damage to the blue economy. In addition, the presence of chemicals and microorganisms on MPs is causing detrimental effects on marine organisms, leading to economic repercussions. Coastal tourism, a key aspect of the blue economy, relies on a sustainable and visually appealing environment, which is being threatened by rising marine debris, primarily plastic waste generated by tourists. The clean-up cost is very high, whereas the existing removal technologies do not have higher efficiency and are not that much cost effective. Thus, this study reviews the country wise economic effect of plastic pollution, along with existing policies, regulations and the management strategies to control MPs in marine system considering its potential impacts on sectors associated with marine resources vis-à-vis blue economy.
The term ‘microplastics’ is defined as a category of pollutants that are highly prevalent in aquatic environments and have the potential to exert adverse consequences on biological systems. In this study, the presence and diversity of microplastics in the muscle, liver and digestive systems of the fish species Barbus anatolicus , Cyprinus carpio and Capoeta tinca , collected from the River Kızılırmak (Nevşehir), were examined in detail. This waterway flows through densely populated areas and empties into the Black Sea. Eighty‐two microplastics were identified in the muscle tissue of the fish, 74 in the liver and 208 in the digestive system. The majority of these microplastics were white and fibre‐shaped. The microplastics detected were of various plastic types, including polyamide, polypropylene, nylon, polyethylene and polyester. The findings of this study demonstrate the significant impact of human activity on the environment, with the presence of microplastics in aquatic ecosystems and living tissues.
Since 1950, there has been a notable surge in plastic production, with approximately 381 million tons of plastics being produced by 2015, sparking global apprehension regarding plastic pollution. Microplastics, which are plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, result from the degradation of plastic-based products across various ecosystems. These particles accumulate in freshwater and seawater bodies, urban and rural areas, as well as ocean in sediments. The primary and secondary sources of microplastics in water bodies include plastic pellets, fragmentation of plastic objects, fishing activities, and offshore drilling, with ocean seabeds serving as significant repositories for plastics. Various analytical techniques, including Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and near-infrared spectroscopy, are discussed in this chapter as effective tools for the identification and quantification of microplastics in water. Concerns about the ecosystem impacts of microplastics in both freshwater and marine environments, as well as their diverse effects on aquatic life such as marine invertebrates, fish, algae, zooplankton, and sea turtles, highlight potential risks to human health through microplastic ingestion and the presence of plastic constituents in human tissues. To address microplastic pollution sustainably, management strategies should encompass regulations and policies to control plastic production and usage, with a focus on regional collaboration, public awareness campaigns, and educational initiatives. Implementing preventive measures such as the 3Rs (reduce, reuse, recycle) is crucial, and international cooperation is imperative to tackle the global issue of microplastic pollution. Sustainable waste management practices and removal technologies are vital for mitigating microplastic pollution in aquatic environments, given the persistence and low degradability of microplastics. The lack of research on microplastics in less affluent nations underscores the need for comprehensive studies, particularly in freshwater settings. Challenges include the difficulty in detecting and quantifying microplastics, the absence of standardized reporting, and the necessity for enhanced methodologies in wastewater treatment facilities. Sustainable strategies for plastic waste management, adherence to circular economy principles, and active public engagement are recommended to diminish plastic and microplastic pollution.
The presence of microplastics in the world's water bodies is an urgent and pressing issue that must be addressed immediately. The increasing amounts of microplastics found in water bodies and sediments highlight the crucial need for comprehensive waste management strategies that can reduce plastic consumption while also improving recycling and waste disposal systems. The prevalence of microplastics in water raises serious concerns about their potential influence on both aquatic ecosystems and human health. According to research, a wide variety of aquatic animals, including fish, shellfish, and plankton, can swallow microplastics. Ingestion of microplastics is thought to increase the risk of physical injury, disrupting feeding and digestive processes, and transferring hazardous compounds. However, the specific implications of microplastic consumption are still being investigated. The major goal of this chapter is to provide a complete overview of the origins, classification, and environmental prevalence of microplastics in India and around the world. This chapter aims to shed light on the complex character of the microplastics problem by investigating the numerous types and sources of microplastics, as well as their distribution and abundance in various environmental contexts. It also seeks to understand the intricate relationships between environmental dynamics, human activities, and the spread of microplastics. It also aims to catalyze future research into microplastic mitigation and management by identifying significant research gaps and emphasizing critical research needs. Finally, this chapter aims to serve as a catalyst for educated decision-making, policy formulation, and collective action to address the growing worldwide challenge of microplastic contamination.
Twenty years after the first publication using the term microplastics, we review current understanding, refine definitions and consider future prospects. Microplastics arise from multiple sources including tires, textiles, cosmetics, paint and the fragmentation of larger items. They are widely distributed throughout the natural environment with evidence of harm at multiple levels of biological organization. They are pervasive in food and drink and have been detected throughout the human body, with emerging evidence of negative effects. Environmental contamination could double by 2040 and widescale harm has been predicted. Public concern is increasing and diverse measures to address microplastics pollution are being considered in international negotiations. Clear evidence on the efficacy of potential solutions is now needed to address the issue and to minimize the risks of unintended consequences.
Son otuz yılda deniz ürünleri tüketimi hızla artmış, ancak bu artış mikroplastik (MP) kirliliğiyle tehlikeye girmiştir. Plastiklerin çevresel kalıcılığı, su kaynaklarında büyük bir kirliliğe yol açmaktadır. MP'ler, boyutlarına göre mikro, makro ve nano olarak sınıflandırılmakta ve akuatik ekosistemlere karasal, endüstriyel ve evsel kaynaklardan girmektedir. Birincil MP'ler endüstriyel üretimden, ikincil MP'ler ise büyük plastiklerin doğada parçalanması sonucu oluşmaktadır. Akuatik canlılar MP'leri yutarak besin zincirine katmakta, bu da insan sağlığı üzerinde ciddi tehditler oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmalar, MP maruziyetinin gelişimsel, üreme ve nörotoksisite gibi sağlık etkilerine yol açtığını göstermektedir. MP'lerin gıda zincirine girişi ve insanlara taşınması, özellikle akuatik ürünlerin tüketimi yoluyla gerçekleşmektedir. Balık, kabuklu deniz ürünleri ve diğer akuatik kaynaklar bu kirliliğe maruz kalmaktadır. Ayrıca, işleme ve ambalajlama süreçlerinde kullanılan plastikler de MP kontaminasyonuna yol açmaktadır. Gıda işleme aşamalarında kullanılan koruyucu kıyafetler, ekipmanlar ve ortam havası da MP bulaşma riskini artırır. MP'lerin sağlık üzerindeki etkileri arasında immünotoksisite, genotoksisite ve oksidatif stres bulunmaktadır. Plastiklerin absorbe ettiği kimyasal kirleticiler de ek sağlık riskleri oluşturur. Çözüm önerileri arasında, plastik kullanımının azaltılması, plastik atıkların çevreye ulaşmasının engellenmesi ve MP'lerin doğru tespiti için standart ölçüm tekniklerinin geliştirilmesi yer almaktadır. Ayrıca, biyolojik malzemelerden üretilen biyo-ambalaj materyalleri geliştirilmelidir. Sürdürülebilir ve güvenli gıda üretimi için kontrollü ve sürdürülebilir gıda üretim modelleri olan akuaponik ve IMTA (Entegre Multi-Trofik Akuakültür) sistemleri gibi çevre dostu yöntemlerin yaygınlaştırılması gerekmektedir. Bu sistemler, su kalitesini koruma ve MP riskini azaltma potansiyeline sahiptir. Küresel farkındalık, eğitim ve iş birlikleri, MP kirliliğinin azaltılmasında kritik öneme sahiptir.
This research critically reviewed the influence of textile characteristics, including textile content (fiber composition), yarn construction, material structure, and treatment type, on microplastic release from textile products during washing. To date, the predominant focus of research has been on the washing parameters rather than the intrinsic characteristics of textiles. The findings of this review revealed that natural, man-made, and mixed-composition fabrics tend to release more microfibers compared to pure synthetic fabrics. Divergent results have been observed in studies on the release of microplastics from recycled synthetic fabrics. Woven fabrics release less microplastic compared to knitted fabrics. However, it is evident that yarn construction has more impact on microplastic release than textile composition or structure, and high-twist filament yarns reduce microplastic formation. Mechanical finishes tend to enhance microplastic release, while synthetic and biodegradable reduce it, but their sustainability and durability aspects need further investigation. The impact of different types of dyes on microplastic release remains unclear. All of the textile characteristics specified in this article are of pivotal importance in microplastic research. Overlooking the significance of any of these details can complicate the development of microplastic mitigation strategies.
Marine ecosystems are the final sinks for plastic debris and microplastics (MPs) arising from inland sources. Despite the findings from research studies, the overall MPs in all oceans are not completely illustrated. This review summarizes MPs’ data (2015–2023) from 2068 locations in all five oceans, including bays/gulfs, seas, mid-oceans, and 202 marine fish species. Varying concentrations were recorded in the surface waters and mainly the gastrointestinal tract of the fishes, with sizes mostly from 0.1 to 5 mm. Polyethylene (PE; 30.3%), polypropylene (PP; 18.7%), and PE terephthalate (PET; 11.8%) were the major polymers, whereas fragments (41%) and fibers (38%) were the dominant shapes in water. Fishes were mainly documented with PE (36%), PP (17.6%), and polyamide (PA; 8%), which were in the form of fibers (55.5%) and fragments (30%). These MPs are considered to be a threat to the biota and must be controlled at the source. Strategies such as wetlands to reduce the flow of storm waters, the addition of clumping agents/algae in wastewater treatment plants to trap MPs, and the replacement of plastic goods with biodegradable or sustainable products are discussed in this review that can significantly reduce the accumulation of inland MPs in the seawaters. Relatively, challenges in the path of plastic waste and MPs’ management are analyzed to direct future research and policies. This review may help illustrate their migratory and distribution patterns from the coastal areas to the mid-ocean. It will further provide a consistent data set for marine plastic waste management.
Microplastics are a growing concern as pollutants that impact both public health and the environment. However, the toxic effects of polypropylene microplastics (PP‐MPs) are not well understood. This study aimed to investigate the effects of PP‐MPs on cardiotoxicity and its underlying mechanisms. The cardiotoxicity of exposure to different amounts of PP‐MPs were investigated in both ICR mice and H9C2 cells. Our results demonstrated that sub‐chronic exposure to 5 and 50 mg/L PP‐MPs led to myocardial structural damage, apoptosis, and fibrosis in mice cardiomyocytes. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that PP‐MPs could decrease mitochondrial membrane potential and induce apoptosis in H9C2 cells. Western blotting revealed decreased expression of Bcl‐2, poly(ADP‐ribose) polymerase (PARP) and caspase 3 and increased expression of Bax, cleaved‐PARP, and cleaved‐caspase 3 in PP‐MPs‐treated cardiac tissue and H9C2 cells. These results confirmed the apoptotic effects induced by PP‐MPs. Moreover, PP‐MPs treatment triggered oxidative stress, as evidenced by the increased levels of malondialdehyde; reduction in glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and catalase activities in mice cardiac tissues; and increased reactive oxygen species levels in H9C2 cells. Finally, western blotting demonstrated that exposure to PP‐MPs significantly reduced the expression levels of Nrf2 and p‐ERK proteins associated with MAPK‐Nrf2 pathway in both cardiac tissue and H9C2 cells. Overall, our findings indicate that PP‐MPs can induce cardiomyocyte apoptosis through MAPK‐Nrf2 signaling pathway, which is triggered by oxidative stress. This study provides a foundation for determining the effects of PP‐MPs on cardiotoxicity and their underlying mechanisms.
Microplastic (MP) research faces challenges due to costly, time-consuming, and error-prone analysis techniques. Additionally, the variability in data quality across studies limits their comparability. This study addresses the critical need for reliable and cost-effective MP analysis methods through validation of a semi-automated workflow, where environmentally relevant MP were spiked into and recovered from marine fish gastrointestinal tracts (GITs) and blue mussel tissue, using Nile red staining and machine learning automated analysis of different polymers. Parameters validated include trueness, precision, uncertainty, limit of quantification, specificity, sensitivity, selectivity, and method robustness. For fish GITs a 95 ± 9 % recovery rate was achieved, and 87 ± 11 % for mussels. Polymer identification accuracies were 76 ± 8 % for fish GITs and 80 ± 13 % for mussels. Polyethylene terephthalate fragments showed more variability with lower accuracies. The proposed validation parameters offer a step towards quality management guidelines, as such aiding future researchers and fostering cross-study comparability.
The existence of plastic in marine environment is a current reality. The increasing presence of this anthropogenic material in the oceans is due to improper waste disposal. The contaminant can sometimes be ingested by marine animals, either primarily or through the consumption of animals that have ingested plastic. The impact of plastic residues ingestion includes gastrointestinal tract obstruction, malnutrition, and even intoxication. Considering that plastic ingestion is a significant cause of death among marine animals, a methodology for quantifying the ingestion of this pollutant is necessary to determine the extent of marine pollution. The methodology presented in the study is simple, low-cost, and reproducible in less equipped laboratories. The technique was conducted for the qualitative identification of plastic presence in the gastrointestinal tract of fish originated from Ubatuba-SP region, demonstrating effectiveness. The sampling included 104 specimens from 15 species and the pollutant was observed in 17.3% of the total.
Microplastics (MPs), a growing environmental concern with potential ecotoxicological risks, are ubiquitous in aquatic environment. This study investigated the organ-specific distribution and variation of MPs in commercially caught fishes (7 species, 140 individuals) collected from Dhaka's two main fish distribution hubs (Uttara and Jatrabari). Additionally, the impact of different-sized MPs on fish growth (Anabas testudineus) was examined in a control experiment. Results revealed that kidneys of market fish bioaccumulated the highest concentration of MPs (average, 59.1 MPs/g), followed by liver (24.6 MPs/g) and intestine (18.6 MPs/g). On average, fish from Uttara had a higher MPs concentration (36 MPs/g) compared to Jatrabari (25 MPs/g). Among fish species, Glossogobius giuris showed the highest MPs bioaccumulation due to its feeding habits and morphology. Fiber-shaped MPs were most prevalent in all fishes (79–93%) except Glossogobius giuris (fragments, 51%). Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis identified 19 different polymer types, with high density polyethylene (HDPE), ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) and polyamide (PA) being commonly found in all organs. The experimental study confirmed that large-sized PVC MPs (1.18 mm-300 μm) had a greater negative impact on fish growth (length) and caused more physical deformities (particularly intestinal injuries) compared to small-sized PVC MPs (150 μm–75 μm). Moreover, fish exposed to larger diameter MPs experienced highest physical weight and depth loss among exposed groups. Large-sized PVC MPs bioaccumulated highest in fish compared to small-sized PVC MPs. Similar to market fish, kidney in the experimental fish had the highest MPs bioaccumulation (6.5 MPs/g), followed by liver (5.2 MPs/g) and intestine (4.8 MPs/g), with a dominance of fibers despite the presence of high concentration of fragments in the food source. Statistical analysis also supported a clear correlation between increasing MPs size and adverse effects on fish growth and health. Urgent action is needed to curb microplastic pollution and protect ecosystems and human health.
The distribution and composition of microplastics (MPs) in sediments provide a useful reflection of overall MP pollution for urban river systems. Sediment samples were collected from the Jinjiang River, the main tributary of the Minjiang River, to articulate the sources, distribution, and risk status of MPs. The results showed that the MPs in Jinjiang sediments were composed of polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), polyethylene glycol terephthalate (PET), polystyrene (PS), and Rayon, with per kilogram of dry sediment (n/kg) ranged from 21 to 924 particles, and PP and PE were accounted for more than. MPs varied in colour, shape and size (100–5000 µm), although those observed were predominantly green, fragmented and about 1,000–5,000 µm. The dominant sources of MPs in sediments could be domestic waste and laundry effluents. The risk assessment for MPs showed that upstream and downstream were at moderate risk, while midstream was at low risk. This study can provide a reference for the management and control of MP pollution in urban rivers.
To date, ingestion of plastic pollutants has been recorded in 50 species of marine birds from around the world. Procelariiform birds ingest plastic most frequently, and phalaropes and some alcids also have relatively high rates of ingestion. Penguins, pelecaniform birds, larids, and most alcids ingest little or no plastic. Species feeding primarily by surface-seizing or pursuit-diving have the highest frequencies of plastic ingestion. Species feeding primarily on crustaceans or.cephalopods have the highest frequencies of plastic ingestion;secondary ingestion of plastics via fish appears to be unimportant. Although some species ingest plastic randomly, most, exhibit selective preferences for certain types of plastic. Monomorphic seabird species show no sexual differences in rates of plastic ingestion. Subadult seabirds ingest more pieces of plastic than do adult seabirds. Geographic and seasonal variations in plastic ingestion have been recorded. Plastic ingestion has increased since it began in the early 1960’s: Limited detrimental effects of ingested plastic on the physical condition of seabirds have been documented, although red phalaropes, Laysan albatrosses, and northern fulmars show evidence of some physical impairment and parakeet auklets show evidence of decreased reproductive performance.
The oceanic convergence zone in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre acts to accumulate
floating marine debris, including plastic fragments of various sizes. Little is known about the ecological
consequences of pelagic plastic accumulation. During the 2009 Scripps Environmental Accumulation
of Plastics Expedition (SEAPLEX), we investigated whether mesopelagic fishes ingest plastic
debris. A total of 141 fishes from 27 species were dissected to examine whether their stomach contents
contained plastic particles. The incidence of plastic in fish stomachs was 9.2%. Net feeding bias
was evaluated and judged to be minimal for our methods. The ingestion rate of plastic debris by
mesopelagic fishes in the North Pacific is estimated to be from 12 000 to 24 000 tons yr–1. Similar rates
of plastic ingestion by mesopelagic fishes may occur in other subtropical gyres.
The diet of the large pelagic fish, the southern opah Lampris immaculatus was examined along the Patagonian Shelf in the Falkland Islands region. Stomachs were available for 69 fish collected in 1993 and 1994. Surprisingly, this fish had a relatively narrow range of prey items. The single most frequent prey item was the onychoteuthid squid Moroteuthis ingens (predominantly juveniles) which was eaten by 93% of the fish. The other important prey were the loliginid squid Loligo gahi, the myctophid fish Gymnoscopelus nicholsi and the southern blue whiting Micromesistius australis. There was no evidence of larger individuals of L. immaculatus ingesting larger individuals of any of the 4 main prey species. An unexpected finding was the relatively high incidence of plastic ingestion (14 % of fish). The plastic came from a variety of sources including food, napkin and cigarette wrappers and various pieces of plastic line and straps used in securing boxes. In several instances, there was evidence of feeding on fishing boat discards. The findings reveal a significant impact of plastic pollution in this region of the Southwest Atlantic.
Lost and discarded marine debris, particularly items made of persistent synthetic materials, is now recognized as a major form of marine pollution. This perception was a seminal finding of the 1984 International Workshop on the Fate and Impact of Marine Debris (Shomura and Yoshida 1985). A major factor leading to this conclusion was information on the nature and extent of interactions between marine debris and marine life gathered by researchers working independently in different ocean areas during the 1970s and early 1980s. Compiled for the first time at the 1984 workshop, the information highlighted two fundamental types of biological interactions: (1) entanglement, whereby the loops and openings of various types of debris entangle animal appendages or entrap animals; and (2) ingestion, whereby debris items are intentionally or accidentally eaten and enter the digestive tract.
Plastics have transformed everyday life; usage is increasing and annual production is likely to exceed 300 million tonnes by 2010. In this concluding paper to the Theme Issue on Plastics, the Environment and Human Health, we synthesize current understanding of the benefits and concerns surrounding the use of plastics and look to future priorities, challenges and opportunities. It is evident that plastics bring many societal benefits and offer future technological and medical advances. However, concerns about usage and disposal are diverse and include accumulation of waste in landfills and in natural habitats, physical problems for wildlife resulting from ingestion or entanglement in plastic, the leaching of chemicals from plastic products and the potential for plastics to transfer chemicals to wildlife and humans. However, perhaps the most important overriding concern, which is implicit throughout this volume, is that our current usage is not sustainable. Around 4 per cent of world oil production is used as a feedstock to make plastics and a similar amount is used as energy in the process. Yet over a third of current production is used to make items of packaging, which are then rapidly discarded. Given our declining reserves of fossil fuels, and finite capacity for disposal of waste to landfill, this linear use of hydrocarbons, via packaging and other short-lived applications of plastic, is simply not sustainable. There are solutions, including material reduction, design for end-of-life recyclability, increased recycling capacity, development of bio-based feedstocks, strategies to reduce littering, the application of green chemistry life-cycle analyses and revised risk assessment approaches. Such measures will be most effective through the combined actions of the public, industry, scientists and policymakers. There is some urgency, as the quantity of plastics produced in the first 10 years of the current century is likely to approach the quantity produced in the entire century that preceded.
This review provides a critical analysis of the biological effects of the most widely used plasticizers, including dibutyl phthalate, diethylhexyl phthalate, dimethyl phthalate, butyl benzyl phthalate and bisphenol A (BPA), on wildlife, with a focus on annelids (both aquatic and terrestrial), molluscs, crustaceans, insects, fish and amphibians. Moreover, the paper provides novel data on the biological effects of some of these plasticizers in invertebrates, fish and amphibians. Phthalates and BPA have been shown to affect reproduction in all studied animal groups, to impair development in crustaceans and amphibians and to induce genetic aberrations. Molluscs, crustaceans and amphibians appear to be especially sensitive to these compounds, and biological effects are observed at environmentally relevant exposures in the low ng l(-1) to microg l(-1) range. In contrast, most effects in fish (except for disturbance in spermatogenesis) occur at higher concentrations. Most plasticizers appear to act by interfering with the functioning of various hormone systems, but some phthalates have wider pathways of disruption. Effect concentrations of plasticizers in laboratory experiments coincide with measured environmental concentrations, and thus there is a very real potential for effects of these chemicals on some wildlife populations. The most striking gaps in our current knowledge on the impacts of plasticizers on wildlife are the lack of data for long-term exposures to environmentally relevant concentrations and their ecotoxicity when part of complex mixtures. Furthermore, the hazard of plasticizers has been investigated in annelids, molluscs and arthropods only, and given the sensitivity of some invertebrates, effects assessments are warranted in other invertebrate phyla.
Plastics debris in the marine environment, including resin pellets, fragments and microscopic plastic fragments, contain organic contaminants, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, petroleum hydrocarbons, organochlorine pesticides (2,2'-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane, hexachlorinated hexanes), polybrominated diphenylethers, alkylphenols and bisphenol A, at concentrations from sub ng g(-1) to microg g(-1). Some of these compounds are added during plastics manufacture, while others adsorb from the surrounding seawater. Concentrations of hydrophobic contaminants adsorbed on plastics showed distinct spatial variations reflecting global pollution patterns. Model calculations and experimental observations consistently show that polyethylene accumulates more organic contaminants than other plastics such as polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride. Both a mathematical model using equilibrium partitioning and experimental data have demonstrated the transfer of contaminants from plastic to organisms. A feeding experiment indicated that PCBs could transfer from contaminated plastics to streaked shearwater chicks. Plasticizers, other plastics additives and constitutional monomers also present potential threats in terrestrial environments because they can leach from waste disposal sites into groundwater and/or surface waters. Leaching and degradation of plasticizers and polymers are complex phenomena dependent on environmental conditions in the landfill and the chemical properties of each additive. Bisphenol A concentrations in leachates from municipal waste disposal sites in tropical Asia ranged from sub microg l(-1) to mg l(-1) and were correlated with the level of economic development.
Over the past five or six decades, contamination and pollution of the world's enclosed seas, coastal waters and the wider open oceans by plastics and other synthetic, non-biodegradable materials (generally known as 'marine debris') has been an ever-increasing phenomenon. The sources of these polluting materials are both land- and marine-based, their origins may be local or distant, and the environmental consequences are many and varied. The more widely recognized problems are typically associated with entanglement, ingestion, suffocation and general debilitation, and are often related to stranding events and public perception. Among the less frequently recognized and recorded problems are global hazards to shipping, fisheries and other maritime activities. Today, there are rapidly developing research interests in the biota attracted to freely floating (i.e. pelagic) marine debris, commonly known as 'hangers-on and hitch-hikers' as well as material sinking to the sea floor despite being buoyant. Dispersal of aggressive alien and invasive species by these mechanisms leads one to reflect on the possibilities that ensuing invasions could endanger sensitive, or at-risk coastal environments (both marine and terrestrial) far from their native habitats.
Plastic debris has significant environmental and economic impacts in marine systems. Monitoring is crucial to assess the efficacy of measures implemented to reduce the abundance of plastic debris, but it is complicated by large spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the amounts of plastic debris and by our limited understanding of the pathways followed by plastic debris and its long-term fate. To date, most monitoring has focused on beach surveys of stranded plastics and other litter. Infrequent surveys of the standing stock of litter on beaches provide crude estimates of debris types and abundance, but are biased by differential removal of litter items by beachcombing, cleanups and beach dynamics. Monitoring the accumulation of stranded debris provides an index of debris trends in adjacent waters, but is costly to undertake. At-sea sampling requires large sample sizes for statistical power to detect changes in abundance, given the high spatial and temporal heterogeneity. Another approach is to monitor the impacts of plastics. Seabirds and other marine organisms that accumulate plastics in their stomachs offer a cost-effective way to monitor the abundance and composition of small plastic litter. Changes in entanglement rates are harder to interpret, as they are sensitive to changes in population sizes of affected species. Monitoring waste disposal on ships and plastic debris levels in rivers and storm-water runoff is useful because it identifies the main sources of plastic debris entering the sea and can direct mitigation efforts. Different monitoring approaches are required to answer different questions, but attempts should be made to standardize approaches internationally.
One of the most ubiquitous and long-lasting recent changes to the surface of our planet is the accumulation and fragmentation of plastics. Within just a few decades since mass production of plastic products commenced in the 1950s, plastic debris has accumulated in terrestrial environments, in the open ocean, on shorelines of even the most remote islands and in the deep sea. Annual clean-up operations, costing millions of pounds sterling, are now organized in many countries and on every continent. Here we document global plastics production and the accumulation of plastic waste. While plastics typically constitute approximately 10 per cent of discarded waste, they represent a much greater proportion of the debris accumulating on shorelines. Mega- and macro-plastics have accumulated in the highest densities in the Northern Hemisphere, adjacent to urban centres, in enclosed seas and at water convergences (fronts). We report lower densities on remote island shores, on the continental shelf seabed and the lowest densities (but still a documented presence) in the deep sea and Southern Ocean. The longevity of plastic is estimated to be hundreds to thousands of years, but is likely to be far longer in deep sea and non-surface polar environments. Plastic debris poses considerable threat by choking and starving wildlife, distributing non-native and potentially harmful organisms, absorbing toxic chemicals and degrading to micro-plastics that may subsequently be ingested. Well-established annual surveys on coasts and at sea have shown that trends in mega- and macro-plastic accumulation rates are no longer uniformly increasing: rather stable, increasing and decreasing trends have all been reported. The average size of plastic particles in the environment seems to be decreasing, and the abundance and global distribution of micro-plastic fragments have increased over the last few decades. However, the environmental consequences of such microscopic debris are still poorly understood.
Within the last few decades, plastics have revolutionized our daily lives. Globally we use in excess of 260 million tonnes of plastic per annum, accounting for approximately 8 per cent of world oil production. In this Theme Issue of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, we describe current and future trends in usage, together with the many benefits that plastics bring to society. At the same time, we examine the environmental consequences resulting from the accumulation of waste plastic, the effects of plastic debris on wildlife and concerns for human health that arise from the production, usage and disposal of plastics. Finally, we consider some possible solutions to these problems together with the research and policy priorities necessary for their implementation.
Synthetic polymers, commonly known as plastics, have been entering the marine environment in quantities paralleling their level of production over the last half century. However, in the last two decades of the 20th Century, the deposition rate accelerated past the rate of production, and plastics are now one of the most common and persistent pollutants in ocean waters and beaches worldwide. Thirty years ago the prevailing attitude of the plastic industry was that "plastic litter is a very small proportion of all litter and causes no harm to the environment except as an eyesore" [Derraik, J.G.B., 2002. The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 44(9), 842-852]. Between 1960 and 2000, the world production of plastic resins increased 25-fold, while recovery of the material remained below 5%. Between 1970 and 2003, plastics became the fastest growing segment of the US municipal waste stream, increasing nine-fold, and marine litter is now 60-80% plastic, reaching 90-95% in some areas. While undoubtedly still an eyesore, plastic debris today is having significant harmful effects on marine biota. Albatross, fulmars, shearwaters and petrels mistake floating plastics for food, and many individuals of these species are affected; in fact, 44% of all seabird species are known to ingest plastic. Sea turtles ingest plastic bags, fishing line and other plastics, as do 26 species of cetaceans. In all, 267 species of marine organisms worldwide are known to have been affected by plastic debris, a number that will increase as smaller organisms are assessed. The number of fish, birds, and mammals that succumb each year to derelict fishing nets and lines in which they become entangled cannot be reliably known; but estimates are in the millions. We divide marine plastic debris into two categories: macro, >5 mm and micro, <5 mm. While macro-debris may sometimes be traced to its origin by object identification or markings, micro-debris, consisting of particles of two main varieties, (1) fragments broken from larger objects, and (2) resin pellets and powders, the basic thermoplastic industry feedstocks, are difficult to trace. Ingestion of plastic micro-debris by filter feeders at the base of the food web is known to occur, but has not been quantified. Ingestion of degraded plastic pellets and fragments raises toxicity concerns, since plastics are known to adsorb hydrophobic pollutants. The potential bioavailability of compounds added to plastics at the time of manufacture, as well as those adsorbed from the environment are complex issues that merit more widespread investigation. The physiological effects of any bioavailable compounds desorbed from plastics by marine biota are being directly investigated, since it was found 20 years ago that the mass of ingested plastic in Great Shearwaters was positively correlated with PCBs in their fat and eggs. Colonization of plastic marine debris by sessile organisms provides a vector for transport of alien species in the ocean environment and may threaten marine biodiversity. There is also potential danger to marine ecosystems from the accumulation of plastic debris on the sea floor. The accumulation of such debris can inhibit gas exchange between the overlying waters and the pore waters of the sediments, and disrupt or smother inhabitants of the benthos. The extent of this problem and its effects have recently begun to be investigated. A little more than half of all thermoplastics will sink in seawater.
Plastics debris is accumulating in the environment and is fragmenting into smaller pieces; as it does, the potential for ingestion by animals increases. The consequences of macroplastic debris for wildlife are well documented, however the impacts of microplastic (< 1 mm) are poorly understood. The mussel, Mytilus edulis, was used to investigate ingestion, translocation, and accumulation of this debris. Initial experiments showed that upon ingestion, microplastic accumulated in the gut. Mussels were subsequently exposed to treatments containing seawater and microplastic (3.0 or 9.6 microm). After transfer to clean conditions, microplastic was tracked in the hemolymph. Particles translocated from the gut to the circulatory system within 3 days and persisted for over 48 days. Abundance of microplastic was greatest after 12 days and declined thereafter. Smaller particles were more abundant than larger particles and our data indicate as plastic fragments into smaller particles, the potential for accumulation in the tissues of an organism increases. The short-term pulse exposure used here did not result in significant biological effects. However, plastics are exceedingly durable and so further work using a wider range of organisms, polymers, and periods of exposure will be required to establish the biological consequences of this debris.
Polystyrene spherules averaging 0.5 millimeter in diameter (range 0.1 to 2 millimeters) are abundant in the coastal waters
of southern New England. Two types are present, a crystalline (clear) form and a white, opaque form with pigmentation resulting
from a diene rubber. The spherules have bacteria on their surfaces and contain polychlorinated biphenyls, apparently absorbed
from ambient seawater, in a concentration of 5 parts per million. White, opaque spherules are selectively consumed by 8 species
of fish out of 14 species examined, and a chaetognath. Ingestion of the plastic may lead to intestinal blockage in smaller
fish.
The potential for ingestion of plastic particles by open ocean filter feeders was assessed by measuring the relative abundance and mass of neustonic plastic and zooplankton in surface waters under the central atmospheric high-pressure cells of the North Pacific Ocean. Neuston samples were collected at 11 random sites, using a manta trawl lined with 333 u mesh. The abundance and mass of neustonic plastic was the largest recorded anywhere in the Pacific Ocean at 334271 pieces km2 and 5114 g km2, respectively. Plankton abundance was approximately five times higher than that of plastic, but the mass of plastic was approximately six times that of plankton. The most frequently sampled types of identifiable plastic were thin films, polypropylene/monofilament line and unidentified plastic, most of which were miscellaneous fragments. Cumulatively, these three types accounted for 99% of the total number of plastic pieces.
The deleterious effects of plastic debris on the marine environment were reviewed by bringing together most of the literature published so far on the topic. A large number of marine species is known to be harmed and/or killed by plastic debris, which could jeopardize their survival, especially since many are already endangered by other forms of anthropogenic activities. Marine animals are mostly affected through entanglement in and ingestion of plastic litter. Other less known threats include the use of plastic debris by "invader" species and the absorption of polychlorinated biphenyls from ingested plastics. Less conspicuous forms, such as plastic pellets and "scrubbers" are also hazardous. To address the problem of plastic debris in the oceans is a difficult task, and a variety of approaches are urgently required. Some of the ways to mitigate the problem are discussed.
One hundred and sixty four plastic particles (mean length 4.1 mm) recovered from the scats of fur seals (Arctocephalus spp.) on Macquarie Island were examined. Electron micrographs of 41 of the plastic particles showed that none could be identified as plastic pellet feedstock from their shapes. Commonly, such pellets are cylindrical and spherical. Instead, all the 164 plastic particles from the seal scats were angular particles of 7 colors (feedstock particles are normally opaque or white) and could be classified into 2 categories: i) fragmented along crystal lines and likely to be the result of UV breakdown; and ii) worn by abrasion (where striations were clearly visible) into irregular shapes with rounded corners. White, brown, green, yellow and blue were the most common colors. In composition, they came from 5 polymer groups; polyethylene 93%, polypropylene 4%, poly(1-Cl-1-butenylene) polychloroprene 2%, melamine-urea (phenol) (formaldehyde) resin 0.5%, and cellulose (rope fiber) 0.5%. The larger groups are buoyant with a specific gravity less than that of seawater. These small plastic particles are formed from the breakdown of larger particles (fragments). Their origin seems to be from the breakdown of user plastics washed ashore and ground down on cobbled beaches. Certainly most particles (70%) had attained their final form by active abrasion. It is hypothesized that the plastic particles were washed out to sea and then selected by size and consumed by individuals of a pelagic fish species, Electrona subaspera, who in turn were consumed by the fur seals. Thus, the particles were accumulated both by the fish and the seals in the usual process of their feeding.
Millions of metric tons of plastic are produced annually. Countless large items of plastic debris are accumulating in marine habitats worldwide and may persist for centuries ([ 1 ][1]–[ 4 ][2]). Here we show that microscopic plastic fragments and fibers ([Fig. 1A][3]) are also widespread in the
For centuries humans have indiscriminantly discarded their waste into, and on the mar-gins of, oceans, lakes, and rivers. Seafarers traditionally disposed their garbage by simply heaving it overboard, and the practice continues to this day despite international agreements such as the London Dumping Convention (LDC) and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). When quantities of mostly (bio) degradable waste were low, environmental and other consequences remained minimal. However, the advent of nondegradable synthetic materials has had profound biological and environmental effects (Laist 1987; Laist, Chapter 8, this volume) on shores and in oceanic and coastal surface waters (Pruter 1987a).
Ingestion of plastic debris by many types of animals such as turtles and seabirds is well documented and considered to be a serious threat to their survival. Marine fishes also ingest plastic debris but the amount ingested and the effect of the ingested debris are not well documented. If large amounts of inert plastic debris were ingested, it might affect the fishes' well-being by blocking the digestive tract and reducing the feeding drive. A l s o , certain types of debris could cause injury to the digestive tract and, depending on its chemical composi-tion, might even have a toxic effect. In this paper we review the literature to determine what is known about ingestion of plastics by marine fishes and report on our studies on ingestion of plastic particles by larvae and juveniles. There is at present no comprehensive list of fishes known to have ingested plastic. However, observations made incidental to other studies indicate that many species do at least occasionally ingest plastic. larvae, juveniles, and adults of both pelagic and demersal species. Currently, there is no clear evidence that juvenile and adult fish have been affected by ingesting plastic. Studies in the field on larval fish have suggested that swallowed plastic spheres could cause intestinal blockage and that poly-chlorinated biphenyls associated with the surface of the spherules could have toxic effects. Plastics have been found in Laboratory experiments to determine the effects of plastic ingestion on larval and juvenile fish have been equivocal. In some cases the fish were observed to take particles, but then reject them. We have found in our laboratory studies on larvae that five of six species tested--Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides, spot, Leiostomus xanthurus, striped mullet, Mugil cephalus, and two species of flounder, Paralichthys spp.--will feed on polystyrene microspheres. However, only spot and mullet were found to have particles in their gut. Particles passed from the gut after a period of time and larvae subsequently fed on brine shrimp larvae.
Domestic chickens Gallus domesticus were fed polyethylene pellets to test whether ingested plastic impairs feeding activity. When food was temporally limited, plastic-loaded birds ate less than control birds, apparently as a result of reduced gizzard volume. When given food ad libitum, plastic-loaded birds also ate less and grew slower than did control birds. It is concluded that ingested plastic reduces meal size and thus food consumption when plastic reduces the storage volume of the stomach. This reduced food consumption may limit the ability of seabirds with large plastic loads to lay down fat deposits, and thus reduce fitness.
Weathering of plastic bottles, bags, fishing line, and other products discarded in the ocean causes tiny fragments to break off. These plastic fragments may accumulate biofilms, sink, and become mixed with sediment, where benthic invertebrates may encounter and ingest them. Here we show that four species of deposit-feeding and suspension-feeding sea cucumbers (Echinodermata, Holothuroidea) not only ingest small (0.25 mm < maximum dimension < 15 mm) nylon and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) fragments along with sediment, but also ingest significantly more plastic fragments than predicted given the ratio of plastic to sand grains in the sediment. During four-hour feeding trials, holothurians ingested between 2- and 20-fold more plastic per individual than expected for PVC fragments, and between 2- and 138-fold more for nylon line. In addition, two species ingested 4 mm diameter PVC pellets. The ecological relevance of plastic ingestion was assessed in the laboratory by counting and characterizing small plastic particles discovered in sediment samples from the same field sites where our holothurians were collected. Substantial numbers of plastic fragments (105 to 214 fragments per liter of sediment) were found in samples from three different locations along the east coast of the U.S.A. In addition, plastic collected from the sediment from two of our field sites was analyzed for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Plastic from one site tested positive for Aroclor 1254 at a concentration of 0.0106 μg g-1. While the negative effects of macroscopic marine plastic debris on a host of organisms are well documented, ingestion of small plastic debris by a wide range of benthic organisms, including both primary and secondary consumers, has received little attention. Given that plastics readily adsorb PCBs and other organic pollutants in marine environments, ingestion of plastic from sediment may provide a heretofore-undescribed pathway of exposure for benthic marine invertebrates.
Fulmars found dead on the Dutch coast, and fulmars collected in arctic colonies have considerable quantities of plastic in their stomachs. The average number of plastic items ingested is almost twelve in Dutch fulmars, and four to five in arctic fulmars. User-plastics and industrial plastics are about equally abundant. Ingestion of user-plastics suggests a stronger impact of toxic chemicals from plastics than generally assumed.
IntroductionPlastic Litter and other Marine DebrisBiological and Environmental ImpactsDegradation of Plastics at SeaPhotodegradable Plastics as a Mitigation StrategyConclusions
Biodegradability of cellulose fabrics was evaluated by use of a soil burial test, an activated sewage sludge test, and an enzyme hydrolysis. Surface changes after biodegradation were observed by optical microscopy. From X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), changes in the crystallinities and the internal structures as a result of degradation were also investigated. It was shown that biodegradability decreased in the following order: rayon > cotton ≫ acetate. Rayon fibers, which have a low crystallinity and a low degree of orientation, showed the highest biodegradability in most cases. However, in spite of its low crystallinity, acetate fibers exhibited very low biodegradability, probably because of the presence of hydrophobic groups in its structure. On the other hand, linen showed an inconsistent behavior in that it had the highest biodegradability in the soil burial test, but a lower biodegradability than that of cotton in the activated sewage sludge test. XRD analysis revealed that there was a slight increase in the crystallinity of linen, cotton, and rayon fabrics at the initial stage, but a continuous decrease thereafter. From the correlation analysis, it was revealed that the biodegradability of cellulose fabrics was closely related to the moisture regain of the fibers, which reflects the hydrophilicity and internal structure of the fibers at the same time. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 94: 248–253, 2004
Commercial fishing and climate change have influenced the composition of marine fish assemblages worldwide, but we require a better understanding of their relative influence on long-term changes in species abundance and body-size distributions. In this study, we investigated long-term (1911–2007) variability within a demersal fish assemblage in the western English Channel. The region has been subject to commercial fisheries throughout most of the past century, and has undergone interannual changes in sea temperature of over 2.0 °C. We focussed on a core 30 species that comprised 99% of total individuals sampled in the assemblage. Analyses showed that temporal trends in the abundance of smaller multispecies size classes followed thermal regime changes, but that there were persistent declines in abundance of larger size classes. Consistent with these results, larger-growing individual species had the greatest declines in body size, and the most constant declines in abundance, while abundance changes of smaller-growing species were more closely linked to preceding sea temperatures. Together these analyses are suggestive of dichotomous size-dependent responses of species to long-term climate change and commercial fishing over a century scale. Small species had rapid responses to the prevailing thermal environment, suggesting their life history traits predisposed populations to respond quickly to changing climates. Larger species declined in abundance and size, reflecting expectations from sustained size-selective overharvesting. These results demonstrate the importance of considering species traits when developing indicators of human and climatic impacts on marine fauna.
Organisms have travelled the Atlantic Ocean as neuston and have rafted on natural marine debris for millions of years. Shipping increased opportunities for marine organism travel mere thousands of years ago but in just decades floating plastic debris is transforming marine rafting. Here we present a combined open-ocean and remote coasts marine debris survey of the Atlantic (from 68S–78N). Daily shipboard observations were made from the Southern Ocean to the high Arctic and the shores of 16 remote islands were surveyed. We report (1) anthropogenic debris from the most northerly and southerly latitudes to date, (2) the first record of marine biota colonising debris at latitudes >68, and (3) the finding of exotic species (the barnacle Elminius modestus) on northern plastic debris. Plastic pieces dominated both open-ocean and stranding marine debris. The highest densities of oceanic debris were found around northwest Europe, whereas the highest stranding levels were equatorial. Our findings of high east-Arctic debris colonisation by fauna contrast with low values from west Arctic (though only two samples) and south Atlantic shores. Colonisation rates of debris differed between hemispheres, previously considered to be similar. Our two South Atlantic mega-debris shipboard surveys (10years apart) found no changes in open-ocean debris densities but resurvey of a UK and an Arctic island both found increases. We put our findings in the context of the Atlantic literature to interpret spatial and temporal trends in marine debris accumulation and its organismal consequences.
Floating plastic was collected with a neuston sampler at 27 locations in the North Pacific Ocean in 1987 and 1988. The plastic particles obtained were sorted according to size, physical form (e.g. pellet, line, fragment), and colour. Comparison of the size distribution of plastic observed with that predicted by a simple physical fragmentation model indicated that some forms, colours, and size fractions were significantly under-represented. We consider four possible explanations of these results and conclude that it is likely that marine organisms selectively remove plastic particles whose size, shape, and colour allow them to be mistaken for prey items. We further conclude that ingestion of small plastic objects by marine organisms occurs in substantial quantities.
The distribution and abundance of large marine debris were investigated on continental shelves and slopes along European Seas, including the Baltic Sea, the North Sea, the Celtic Sea, the Bay of Biscay and different areas in the north-western basin of the Mediterranean Sea and the Adriatic Sea. On the basis of 27 oceanographic cruises undertaken between November 1992 and August 1998, different types of debris were enumerated, particularly pieces of plastic, plastic and glass bottles, metallic objects, glass, and diverse materials including fishing gear. The results showed considerable geographical variation in concentrations, which ranged from 0 to 101 000 pieces of debris per km2. In most stations sampled, plastic (mainly bags and bottles) accounted for a very high percentage (more than 70%) of total number of debris, and accumulation of specific debris, such as fishing gear, was also common. In some areas, only small amounts of debris were collected on the continental shelf, mostly in canyons descending from the continental slope and in the bathyal plain where high amounts were found down to more than 500 m. Dives using the manned submersibles Cyana and Nautile between 50 and 2700 m allowed accumulation areas to be detected on the sea floor. Analysis of these results revealed the influence of geomorphologic factors, local anthropic activities and river inputs. Temporal trends indicated a stable situation in the Gulf of Lion and seasonal variations in the northern part of the Bay of Biscay. Accumulation areas were detected 200 km west of Denmark, in the southern part of the Celtic Sea and along the south-east coast of France.
Plastics pollution in the ocean is an area of growing concern, with research efforts focusing on both the macroplastic (>5 mm) and microplastic (<5 mm) fractions. In the 1990s it was recognized that a minor source of microplastic pollution was derived from liquid hand-cleansers that would have been rarely used by the average consumer. In 2009, however, the average consumer is likely to be using microplastic-containing products on a daily basis, as the majority of facial cleansers now contain polyethylene microplastics which are not captured by wastewater plants and will enter the oceans. Four microplastic-containing facial cleansers available in New Zealand supermarkets were used to quantify the size of the polythelene fragments. Three-quarters of the brands had a modal size of <100 microns and could be immediately ingested by planktonic organisms at the base of the food chain. Over time the microplastics will be subject to UV-degradation and absorb hydrophobic materials such as PCBs, making them smaller and more toxic in the long-term. Marine scientists need to educate the public to the dangers of using products that pose an immediate and long-term threat to the health of the oceans and the food we eat.
Persistent plastics are widely distributed at the surface and coastal margins of the global oceans, but many uncertainties remain about their specific sources, quantities and distribution. Awareness of the problem of plastic pollution has grown only recently. Thus, systematic observations have not been either extensive enough or long enough to document the situation adequately. Major sources of these materials are from land, vessels and beachgoers. This paper reviews recent literature on the sources, amounts and distribution of various types of plastics in the marine environment.
Plastic resin pellets (small granules 0.1-0.5 centimeters in diameter) are widely distributed in the ocean all over the world. They are an industrial raw material for the plastic industry and are unintentionally released to the environment both during manufacturing and transport. They are sometimes ingested by seabirds and other marine organisms, and their adverse effects on organisms are a concern. In the present study, PCBs, DDE, and nonylphenols (NP) were detected in polypropylene (PP) resin pellets collected from four Japanese coasts. Concentrations of PCBs (4-117 ng/g), DDE (0.16-3.1 ng/g), and NP (0.13-16 microg/g) varied among the sampling sites. These concentrations were comparable to those for suspended particles and bottom sediments collected from the same area as the pellets. Field adsorption experiments using PP virgin pellets demonstrated significant and steady increase in PCBs and DDE concentrations throughout the six-day experiment, indicating that the source of PCBs and DDE is ambient seawater and that adsorption to pellet surfaces is the mechanism of enrichment. The major source of NP in the marine PP resin pellets was thought to be plastic additives and/or their degradation products. Comparison of PCBs and DDE concentrations in mari
Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in beached resin pellets were examined to reveal variability between individual particles and differences among beaches. Fifty-five resin pellets from a beach in Tokyo were individually analyzed for PCBs, and showed concentrations ranging from <28 to 2,300 ng/g. This indicates that concentrations are highly variable between particles. Among several characters, discoloration (e.g., yellowing) had a positive relationship with PCB concentration: discolored pellets contained more PCBs than others on most of the beaches sampled. Given the color-selective ingestion of food by some organisms, this may be ecotoxicologically important. Measurements of samples from 47 beaches in Japan showed regional differences in PCB concentrations in resin pellets consistent with those in mussels. Sporadic high concentrations of PCBs were also found in pellets from remote islands, suggesting that resin pellets could be the dominant route of exposure to the contaminants at remote sites. The similarity of PCB concentrations between resin pellets and mussels suggests a potential use of resin pellets to monitor pollution in seawater.
Plastic debris litters marine and terrestrial habitats worldwide. It is ingested by numerous species of animals, causing deleterious physical effects. High concentrations of hydrophobic organic contaminants have also been measured on plastic debris collected from the environment, but the fate of these contaminants is poorly understood. Here, we examine the uptake and subsequent release of phenanthrene by three plastics. Equilibrium distribution coefficients for sorption of phenanthrene from seawater onto the plastics varied by more than an order of magnitude (polyethylene > polypropylene > polyvinyl chloride (PVC)). In all cases, sorption to plastics greatly exceeded sorption to two natural sediments. Desorption rates of phenanthrene from the plastics or sediments back into solution spanned several orders of magnitude. As expected, desorption occurred more rapidly from the sediments than from the plastics. Using the equilibrium partitioning method, the effects of adding very small quantities of plastic with sorbed phenanthrene to sediment inhabited by the lugworm (Arenicola marina) were evaluated. We estimate that the addition of as little as 1 microg of contaminated polyethylene to a gram of sediment would give a significant increase in phenanthrene accumulation by A. marina. Thus, plastics may be important agents in the transport of hydrophobic contaminants to sediment-dwelling organisms.
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Workshop on the Occurrence, Effects and Fate of Microplastic Marine Debris, 9-11 September 2008, NOAA Technical, Memorandum NOS-OR&R30.
Plastics in marine environment. A technical perspective
- A L Andrady
Andrady, A.L. (Ed.), 2005. Plastics in marine environment. A technical perspective.
In: Proceedings of the Plastic Rivers to Sea Conference, Algalita Marine Research
Foundation, Long Beach, California.
Impacts of marine debris entanglement of marine life in marine A
- D W L Laist
- Lusher
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Monitoring the abundance of plastic debris in the marine environment Colour-and form-dependent loss of plastic micro-debris from the North Pacific Ocean
- P G Ryan
- C J Moore
- J A Franeker
- C L Moloney
- D G Shaw
- R H Day
Ryan, P.G., Moore, C.J., van Franeker, J.A., Moloney, C.L., 2009. Monitoring the abundance of plastic debris in the marine environment. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364 (1526), 1999– 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0207. Shaw, D.G., Day, R.H., 1994. Colour-and form-dependent loss of plastic micro-debris from the North Pacific Ocean. Marine Pollution Bulletin 28 (1), 39–43.
Body size-dependent responses of a marine fish assemblage to climate change and fishing over a century-long scale Deposit-and suspension-feeding sea cucumbers (Echinodermata) ingest plastic fragments
- M J Genner
- D W Sims
- A J Southward
- G Budd
- P Masterson
- M Mchugh
- P Rendle
- E Southall
- V Wearmouth
- S J Hawkins
- E R Graham
- J T Thompson
Genner, M.J., Sims, D.W., Southward, A.J., Budd, G., Masterson, P., McHugh, M., Rendle, P., Southall, E., Wearmouth, V., Hawkins, S.J., 2010. Body size-dependent responses of a marine fish assemblage to climate change and fishing over a century-long scale. Global Change Biology 16, 517–527. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02027.x. Graham, E.R., Thompson, J.T., 2009. Deposit-and suspension-feeding sea cucumbers (Echinodermata) ingest plastic fragments. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 368 (1), 22–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2008.
Plastics and the Environment
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