Content uploaded by Tariq Ismail
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Tariq Ismail
Content may be subject to copyright.
Pak. J. Pharm. Sci., Vol.26, No.1, January 2013, pp.199-208199
REVIEW
Flaxseed – A miraculous defense against some critical maladies
Saeed Akhtar*, Tariq Ismail and Muhammad Riaz
Department of Food Science and Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Abstract: Presence of omega-3, omega-6 rich oil, alpha-linoleic acid, dietary fibers, secoisolariciresinol diglucoside,
protein and minerals in flaxseed constitute a very strong basis for the utilization of flaxseed in various food preparations
as a curative agent. An extensive body of literature illustrates that flaxseed has gained a significant position in the
domain of nutritional sciences owing to its pivotal role as an antioxidant agent. The review discusses at length, numerous
health benefits of flaxseed typically focusing its preventive role against cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes and
enhancement of spatial memory. Massive increase in the size of population with a special emphasize to the developing
countries, there is an urge for exploration of the alternative dietary resources that can meet the dietary and nutritional
needs of forthcoming generations. With respect to its remarkable nutritional importance, the review in question enables
researchers engaged in nutritional sciences to further investigate the therapeutic value of flaxseed functional components
and their dietary application in various food products and availability in processed foods as well as in the human cell
line.
Keywords: Flaxseed, fibers, health benefits, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes.
INTRODUCTION
Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) is an agronomic crop that
produces small seeds which are further utilized for the
extraction of oil, meal and powder preparation. The seed
is a healthy source of oil containing poly-unsaturated fatty
acids, digestible proteins, and lignans. Apart from being
an affluent source of α-linolenic acid (ALA) oil, flaxseed
has a great potential to provide good quality protein,
soluble dietary fibers and considerable amount of healthy
plant phenolics. Diverse utilization of flax dates back to
more than 6000 BC with respect to their specific
nutritional components. Daily dietary consumption of
these nutrients possessing nutraceutical properties in the
form of flaxseed supplemented diet may reduce chances
of cardiovascular disorders, breast, prostate and colon
cancers development (Giada, 2010; Jhala and Hall, 2010).
Flax seed is rapidly gaining popularity as an emerging
functional food for its potential bioactive compounds i.e.
-linolenic acid (ALA), fiber, and lignans
secoisolariciresinol diglycoside (SDG) which shows to be
anti-carcinogenic, anti-oxidative and anti-estrogenic. A
substantial transition from non food uses of flaxseed to its
utilization as a part of human diet due to its potential
health benefits and chemo-protective properties linked
with omega-3s and lignan phytoestrogens that has been
witnessed specifically in the western societies (Singh et
al., 2011).
Major nutritional components of flaxseed include ALA
rich oil, protein, minerals and a greater proportion of non-
nutritional lignan-rich dietary fiber. On the dry weight
basis, flaxseed contain 20% protein, 27% total dietary
fiber 41% oil, 4% ash and 8% moisture. Albeit, flaxseed
proteins are not complete in nature but the deficiency may
be overcome effectively by enrichment with products
containing amino acids that form complete proteins
(Madhusudhan, 2009). To deal such a constraint, flaxseed
is substituted with dairy and meat based products. Among
the protein fractions, being the storage protein in flaxseed,
globulin constitutes up to 66% of its total protein contents
(Chung et al., 2005).
Flaxseed nutritional profile predominantly exhibit
significant health promoting properties with almost
everything that positively affect cholesterol levels
resulting in a beneficial impact on cardiovascular
disorders and cancer risks. Polyunsaturated fatty acids
including omega-3 and ALA, soluble dietary fiber, and
lignans having cardio-protective effects have been
accepted as vital components of flaxseed making it unique
in the array of functional foods. Daily dietary
consumption patterns of flaxseed in hypercholesterolemic
patients have been reported to lower down the total
cholesterol to a significant extent (Dahl et al., 2005;
Bassett et al., 2009).
Higher protein and dietary fiber content of flaxseed add
up its functional characteristics in flaxseed based dietary
patterns. Flax meals, after oil extraction contains 35.5%
protein, 3.5% fat, 6% ash and 70% total digestible
nutrients (Lay and Dybing, 1989). Significant amount of
*Corresponding author: e-mail: saeedbzu@yahoo.com
Flaxseed – A miraculous defense against some critical maladies
Pak. J. Pharm. Sci., Vol.26, No.1, January 2013, pp.199-208
200
protein, soluble fibers and lignan contents represents
nutritional prospects of flax seed meal and positively
associated with health beneficial properties including
antioxidant, estrogenic and anti-estrogenic qualities (Hall
et al., 2006). Acid and alkaline soluble fractionation of
flaxseed yields 66.5 g and 71.1 g per 100 g protein, 23.0 g
and 21.5 g per 100 g carbohydrate, and 1.80 g and 2.10 g
per 100 g fat. Mueller et al. (2010) has reported acid
soluble fraction of flaxseed carbohydrate and dietary
fibers to contain 33.3 g and 32.3 g per 100 g protein, 55.6
g and 57.3 g per 100 g carbohydrate and 0.30 g and 0.60 g
per 100 g fat. Flax seed as a nutritional additive for the
preparation of certain dietary items like baked products,
ready to eat cereals and fiber bars having good health
impacts has been widely recognized in all parts of the
world. Supplementation of flax seed in a variety of foods
have been well established as a mean to enhance the
nutritional profile of the food e.g. addition of flaxseed
flour in corn tortillas increases total protein and fat
contents of the final product. Different flours are used in
bread recipes to improve nutritional profiles of finished
product. Wheat flour cannot be claimed as complete
nutritional recipes due to deficiency of some essential
components like lysine and presence of some health
intolerable elements that might cause allergies and celiac
diseases. Flours extracted from some other edible grains
like oat, barley, flaxseed can provide an ample quantity of
good quality protein and dietary fiber and contribute
effectively in the reduction of chronic disorders like
cardiovascular diseases, cancer and diabetes (Pourafshar
et al., 2010). Enrichment of corn tortilla with ground
flaxseed at a concentration of 20% increases fat and
protein percentage from 42.7-120.0g and 91.0-129.3g per
kg of the finished product, respectively (Rendon-
Villalobos et al., 2009). Similarly, organoleptically
acceptable cookies can be prepared by supplementing
20% flax in foods as an ingredient (Hussain et al., 2006).
Flaxseed is commercially processed for oil extraction,
powder preparation and improvement of physicochemical
properties. Numerous processing techniques of flaxseed
that operates during oil extraction right from cleaning up
to solvent extraction increase its protein, ash and soluble
carbohydrate contents with an increase of in vitro protein
digestibility. Comparing egg protein with alkaline soluble
protein fractions of flaxseed, higher emulsification
properties with higher contents of SDG have been
observed (Mueller et al., 2010).
EXCELLING FEATURES OF FLAXSEED
Flaxseed fibers
Most specific ingredient of flaxseed that could exert
positive effects on blood cholesterol level is its fiber that
has been tested by numerous studies both on animals and
humans. Flaxseed contains 28g of dietary fibers per 100g
of seed, thirty three percent of it constitute soluble dietary
fiber and associated with enhanced insulin sensitivity, and
significant blood cholesterol reduction that ultimately
lower down the level of cardiovascular risk factors
(Pereira et al., 2004). Flaxseed being an increasingly used
dietary supplement possesses several human health
benefits and its insoluble fibers hold a strong water-
binding capacity thus providing bulk to the diet making it
substantially beneficial for the treatment of constipation,
irritable bowel syndrome and diverticular disease. Soluble
fibers of flaxseed have shown to exert a positive effect in
controlling hypoglycemic conditions, reduction in
constipation and serum cholesterol levels, colorectal
cancer, breast cancer and prostate cancer with significant
reduction in cardiovascular diseases. Tarpila et al. (2005)
reports flaxseed supplemented diet to raise the serum
enterolactone levels that lessens frequency of acute
coronary heart diseases ultimately reducing coronary
deaths cases. Numerous findings reporting the
consequences of flaxseed consumption on the lipid profile
of blood indicate a considerable improvement in human
blood lipids profile in type 2 diabetes. Lignans reduce
"bad" LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) levels thus having a
good impact on cardiovascular health. Flaxseed fiber,
mucilage gums and insoluble lignans, in addition to their
natural laxative effects show the great tendency to reduce
blood glucose levels in response to normal dietary
carbohydrate intake and help out in reduction of certain
menopausal symptoms.
Flaxseed phyto-oestrogens in the form of lignans have
been extensively studied due to their potential health
benefits. Daily dietary supplementation of SDG derived
from flaxseed extract for a period of 6 to 8 weeks
significantly reduces total cholesterol and LDL
cholesterol by 22.0% and 24.38%, respectively. Similarly
significant improvement in glycemic control but no
predominant reduction in the level of fasting glucose as
well as development of insulin resistance was observed
(Pan et al., 2007). Various flaxseed species have been
reported to contain SDG and its diastereoisomers up to a
level of 2.59 and 0.5%, respectively (Eliasson et al.,
2003). A dietary supplementation of SDG higher dose i.e.
600 mg for a period of 6 to 8 weeks significantly lowered
fasting plasma glucose up to 25-56 and 24-96%,
respectively (Zhang et al., 2008). Tendency to use
flaxseed hull as a potential source of SDG and carrying
hepatoprotective properties has been on the peak in the
recent years. Pretreatment of flaxseed SDG given to rats
potentially restores hepatic enzymes including catalase by
37.70%, peroxidase by 108.22% and superoxide
dismutase by 23.89% at a dietary SDG supplementation
of 150 µg/kg body weight (Rajesha et al., 2010).
Maternal intake of 25% flaxseed supplemented diets for a
period of 21 days, significantly reduces milk total
cholesterol and increases 17 b-estradiol and leptin. During
the normal period of lactation, maternal dietary effects of
Saeed Akhtar et al.
Pak. J. Pharm. Sci., Vol.26, No.1, January 2013, pp.199-208 201
flaxseed were assessed on the body mass composition and
the milk profile of the mother. Further feeding of
offspring at this milk for a period of 21days, reduces
overall body mass including body and visceral fat masses
(Troina et al., 2010).
Flaxseed oil
Unsaturated and poly unsaturated oils are preferred over
animal fats due to their potential health benefits. Beside
conventional plant sources, flaxseed is thought to be
containing an ample quantity of oil with higher
percentage of poly unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA).
Human body, under ideal conditions needs a balanced
proportion of some healthy essential fatty acids i.e.
omega-3 and omega-6 but in actual scenario, modern
western diets are deficient in these essential fatty acids.
This state of affairs might be controlled by flaxseed that
can supply ample quantity of essential fatty acid omega-3.
It has been reported that higher omega-6 intake have a
tendency of clotting blood platelets forming the basis of
thrombosis eventually leading to atherosclerosis
(Madhusudhan, 2009).
Oil seeds provide a healthy oil profile that may have
potential as a source of specialty oils on the ground of
their immense health properties. Oils rich in unsaturated
and poly unsaturated fatty acids and tocopherol are
preferred to be added in infant’s formulas and different
food products to gain maximum nutraceutical and health
related properties (Moyad, 2005; Bozan and Temelli,
2008). Special diets can be formulated using flaxseed oil
to meet the standard health requirements. Such kind of
supplemented products can be effectively used by the
community with special dietary requirements (Rendon-
Villalobos et al., 2009).
Previous studies indicate that flaxseed hull oil extraction
with different solvents and extraction technique can yield
9 to 28% oil with a variant profile of neutral lipids,
phospholipids, acidic lipids and free fatty acids i.e.
92.5%, 3.1%, 2.4% and 2.1%, respectively. Oils with
highest antioxidant capacity were extracted by
supercritical CO2 yielding the hull with maximum SDG
level i.e. 53 mg/g (Oomah and Sitter, 2009). Beside SDG,
flaxseed oil contains many phenolic compounds like
ferulic acid, coumaric acid, diphyllin, vanillin pinoresinol
and p-hydroxybenzoic acid (Herchi et al., 2011). Almost
57% of total flaxseed fat is consist of omega-3 poly
unsaturated fats that if included in dietary habits can
increase blood clotting time and subsequently reduce
blood pressure and cardiac stroke risks. Lignan glycosides
of flaxseed oil vary during storage period at different
storage temperatures, as well as light and dark periods.
SDG quantified from flaxseed lipids by a reliable and
sensitive HPLC method revealed preserving effect of
flaxseed oil from oxidative deterioration during lower
storage temperatures and dark periods (Bravi et al., 2011).
Dietary fatty acid, ALA has been reported to reduce
cardiovascular risks on dietary supplementation (Harper
et al., 2006). Flaxseed oil contains 58.3% γ-linolenic acid
among major fatty acids. Being a rich source of γ-
tocopherol, 100g of flaxseed oil contains 79.4 mg of γ-
tocopherol. Flax seed oil has shown to comparatively less
oxidative stability as compared with safflower and poppy
seed oil i.e. 1.57h, 2.87h and 5.56h, respectively at 110ºC
(Bozan and Temelli, 2008).
HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF FLAXSEED
In addition to soybeans, oats, psyllium, garlic, tea, fish,
grapes and nuts, flaxseed is proven to be the functional
food that not only justify the nutritional requirements but
also impart its characteristic role in preventing various
diseases. Omega-3 fatty acids contents of flax seed oil
anticipates numerous health promising properties
including reduction in the incidence of aberrant crypt foci
(ACF) which is a precursor lesion in developing colon. In
rat model, glutathione-s-transferase (GST) activities that
have been found to increase on feeding 14% flaxseed oil
and 20% flaxseed meal as compared to controlled rats and
those fed with soybean oil diets (Williams et al., 2007).
Serum Lipid Profile Improvement
Flaxseed and products derived thereof, improve the lipids
pool of blood by reducing total and LDL cholesterol e.g.
SDG isolates of flaxseed have been characteristically
represented to reduce atherosclerosis development in
rabbits demonstrating it to be a very effective antioxidant
with serum lipids lowering ability. This has also been
found to suppress hypercholesterolemia atherosclerosis
development. A regular diet supplemented with flaxseed
isolated SDG at a rate of 20mg/kg body weight/day
reduces atherosclerosis lesions development from 84 to
24% (Prasad, 2008). Regular dietary consumption of
flaxseed SDG significantly decreases LDL-C levels thus
maintaining lower level of bad cholesterol as compared to
high density lipoprotein cholesterol. Oral administration
of 100mg flaxseed SDG for a period of 12 weeks can
decrease blood cholesterol level and hepatic disorders
induced by hypercholesterolemia in humans (Fukumitsu
et al., 2010).
Other studies suggested a regular intake of 25% flaxseed
supplemented diet for a period of 180 days to attain
significant reduction in serum LDL and triacylglycerols.
Similarly a dietary intake of 10% flaxseed for a period of
30 days has indicated a substantial reduction in blood
cholesterol level of rat models (Abdel-Rahman et al.,
2010).
Synthesis of bile acids greater than normal level is
associated with the consumption of flaxseed and its oil. A
comparative study conducted to evaluate the effect of
flaxseed and its derived oil on in the Golden Syrian
Flaxseed – A miraculous defense against some critical maladies
Pak. J. Pharm. Sci., Vol.26, No.1, January 2013, pp.199-208
202
Hamsters after ovariectomy, increased bile acid synthesis
with subsequent reduction in blood cholesterol (Lucas et
al., 2011).
Cardiovascular Protection
Among the wide range of functional foods, flaxseed
stands out as a potential candidate containing therapeutic
value for cardiovascular risk reduction. Major
constituents of the flaxseed i.e. α-linolenic acid, soluble
fibers and lignans have been shown to be promising for
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases prevention. Beside
cardiovascular diseases, various components of flaxseed
possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic,
hypoglycemic, anti-platelet properties (Bloedon and
Szapary, 2004; Verghese et al., 2011).
An emerging class of phytoestrogens i.e. ALA and dietary
lignans have been reported by Mandasescu et al. (2005) to
be excessively available in flaxseed and believed to carry
lipid-lowering and antioxidant properties that positively
alter cardiovascular risk. Being a good source of ALA,
flaxseed increases its levels in serum if consumed with
regular diet. In another study by Bloedon et al. (2008) on
flaxseed demonstrated modest low density lipoprotein
cholesterol (LDL-C) reducing effect on lipoproteins and
improved insulin sensitivity in hyperlipidemic adults. The
study conferred a reduction in LDL-C by ~14% levels
after continuous consumption for a period of 5weeks as
compared to wheat. The aforementioned findings are well
supported by the work of Dodin et al. (2005) that
ingestion of yellow flaxseed powder ~ 40g reduces blood
serum HDL cholesterol levels of menopausal women to a
significant extent.
Eicosanoides derived from omega-3-fatty acids, present in
flaxseed primarily improves heart function by reducing
blood cholesterol. A proportionate effect on blood
cholesterol concentration and low-density lipoprotein
fraction has been linked with higher concentrations of
flaxseeds in the diets indicating greater reduction in LDL
protein, serum and liver cholesterol (Gambus et al., 2004;
Cintra et al., 2006). Various studies report significant
beneficial effect of flaxseed on the heart function
suggesting a daily consumption of 40g of whole yellow
omega flaxseed ground into powder and supplemented in
baked products modulates several CVD risk markers
(Dodin et al., 2005; Mandasescu et al., 2005; Bloedon et
al., 2008).
Free radical scavenging
Some highly reactive compounds commonly recognized
as reactive oxygen species (ROS) that generate due to
exposure of endothelial cells to some radioactive sources
and lead to certain degenerative disorders (Szotowski et
al., 2007). Formation of free radicals in diabetic patients
has been represented by Maritim et al. (2003) as a process
of oxidation and non-enzymatic glycation of glucose and
proteins followed by its degradation. Some more precise
studies have reported lungs damages probably linked with
free radicals (Kinniry et al., 2006; Lee et al., 2008).
Studies on dietary flaxseed have confirmed its role as a
potential radio protector against radiation induced injuries
during x-ray radiation therapy for oncological treatments
(Lee et al., 2009). Being a rich source of natural
antioxidants, dietary supplementation of flaxseed has
been gaining popularity. Flax lignans possess antioxidant
properties; specifically SDG isolated from flaxseed has
shown direct hydroxyl radical scavenging properties to
inhibit lipid peroxidation in some in vitro studies.
Cancer preventive and curative potential
A new genomic technology namely nutritional
modulation of carcinogenic pathways has been under
investigation in the form of functional foods with specific
nutrients having therapeutic values as preventive and
curative strategy for the treatment of some complicated
health disorders. Tendency to cure the maladies like
gastric ulcers, cardiovascular disorders, prostate and
colorectal carcinoma by utilization of functional foods is
increasing day by day. Smoking, alcoholism, lack of
physical activity, imbalanced dietary intake and poor
nutrition has been associated to the onset of such health
issues. Seeds of edible crops are often used in the normal
dietary patterns of Asian and African communities, while
their role as functional food ingredients and a preventive
as well as curative strategy for cancer have been
frequently discussed by researchers. Investigations into
the flaxseed for cancer prevention owing to its s bioactive
metabolic components have been made and have proven
to be beneficial (Bergman et al., 2007). A broad study
have been reported by Power and Thompson (2011)
critically focusing reduction in the process of cancer
progression in relation to the consumption of flaxseed and
its antioxidant, estrogenic, and antiestrogenic effects that
influence the prostate cellular proliferation.
Phytoestrogens are biologically active estrogenic
compounds found in flaxseed that influence protein
synthesis, cell proliferation, hormone metabolism,
angiogenesis and intracellular enzymes (Branca and
Lorenzetti, 2005). Mammalian metabolites of flaxseed
lignans i.e. enterodiol and enterolactone can serve as a
protective approach to cope with pre-cancer cellular
alterations. Like phytoestrogens, flaxseed lignans
metabolize estrogens and are supposed to serve in prostate
and breast cancer prevention strategies as an adjuvant in
hormone replacement therapy (Thompson et al., 2005;
Knust et al., 2006; Adolphe et al., 2010). Acid hydrolysis
followed by alcoholic extraction in the form of hexane
and ethyl acetate mixture is the most suitable strategy for
the extraction of flaxseed lignans active components i.e.
secoisolariciresinol (97% purity) and anhydro
secoisolariciresinol (98% purity). Anhydro
secoisolariciresinol act as cancer modulator and its
Saeed Akhtar et al.
Pak. J. Pharm. Sci., Vol.26, No.1, January 2013, pp.199-208 203
extraction from flaxseed lignans is comparatively more
efficient than secoisolariciresinol. Modulation
concentration of flaxseed secoisolariciresinol for breast
cancer cells development has been reported as 50-100 µM
by Lehraiki et al. (2010). Diets formulated by fat
restriction and flaxseed supplementation, if included in
regular dietary plan can affect the prostate cell biology.
Omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids sources i.e. fats with
natural or enriched higher concentration from corn oil and
flaxseed oil, respectively, play a significant role in
inhibiting development of chemically induced tumors in
laboratory animals thus reducing chances of colon cancer
initiation (Bhatia et al., 2011). At a lower levels of
oestradiol, reducing effect on the growth of oestrogen
receptors and breast cancer cells of human have been
demonstrated by n-3 fatty acid rich fractions of flaxseed
cotyledon. Flaxseed cotyledons based diet feed to tumor
induced mice (82g/kg) for a period of 8 weeks
significantly lowers the cell proliferation process and
reduces tumor growth area (Chen et al., 2011). Dietary
combination of flaxseed oil (8%) with primary anticancer
drugs can significantly reduce breast tumor development
~89% as compare to primary drug treatment alone for a
period of 4 weeks (Mason et al., 2010).
Hypoglycemic effects of flaxseed
Global health surveys estimates devastating effects of
diabetes in the next few decades afflicting a great size of
World population. Looking forward to cope such
malignancies, long term strategies can be built by re-
editing the daily dietary plans. Flaxseed flour
supplementation in the diet has been suggested as a
preventive measure against diabetes and associated other
complications (Maritim et al., 2003; Ugochukwu et al.,
2003). Diets supplemented with flaxseeds have shown to
exert an improved liver and kidney antioxidant enzymes
activities of diabetic animals. Diabetes is more or less
associated with the higher levels of plasma and kidney
malonaldialdehyde (MDA) in addition to the reduction of
the antioxidant enzymes pool.
Significant reduction in MDA levels with tubular dilation
and glomerular hypertrophy of histological section of
rat’s kidney has been proposed by Makni et al., (2010)
suggesting dietary intake of flaxseed based diet for 10
weeks very helpful for the prevention of diabetes and its
complications. Diabetic complications in the form of
oxidative stress and macrosomia can be observed in fetus
of diabetic mothers. Dietary supplementation of fatty
acids as proposed by modern research could be help full
to counter such complications in mother’s womb by her
improved dietary patterns. Flaxseed fats being rich in ω3-
and ω6-polyunsaturated fatty acids in the flaxseed based
diets of diabetic mothers are reported to be a remedy of
diabetic complications in mothers as well as her offspring
by decreasing MDA levels and increasing liver enzyme
concentration (Makni et al., 2011).
In addition to C-peptide, insulin growth factors (IGF) and
binding proteins (IGF-BP) in the form of IGF-1 and IGF-
BP3 are recognized as insulin growth marker. The growth
markers production as well as circulation is however
affected by non-healthy dietary patterns. Flaxseed
supplementation in the regular diets of postmenopausal
women demonstrates no negative effect on the circulation
of insulin markers in serum (Sturgeon et al., 2011).
Improvement of spatial memory
Loss in spatial memory is very much associated with
accumulation of lipid peroxide in the hippocampus.
Higher levels of flaxseed nutritional as well as non-
nutritional components like antioxidants in the form N-3
fatty acids most often referred as ω-3 fatty acids i.e. ALA,
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and dietary fibers i.e.
lignans, in addition to reduction of body mass reduces
levels of lipid peroxide in the hippocampus. Studies on
flax feed dam suggest that improvement in hippocampus
ALA and DHA concentration results in reduction of
spatial memory inhibitors thus increases learning ability
of flaxseed feed dams (Fernandes et al., 2011).
Consumer acceptance of flaxseed and its consumption
patterns
As a functional food, flaxseed is supplemented in
different food preparations to enhance their food value
with the help of its bioactive compounds like dietary
fibers and n-3 fatty acids. Sensory acceptability of such
nutritious and healthy foods is very much associated with
the functional components of these diets. Higher amounts
of flaxseed flour supplementation in bakery products
beside their potential health benefits in the form of its
functional components like α-Linolenic acid, lignan and
antioxidants might affect organoleptic properties (Aliani
et al., 2011). Acceptance of flaxseed as a dietary
functional food ingredient in cakes assessed at structured
nine point hedonic scale revealed consumer acceptance up
to 30% supplementation level (Moraes et al., 2010).
Flaxseed breads beside their higher contents of mono and
polyunsaturated fatty acids are well accepted on the
ground of color, texture and firmness (Calderelli et al.,
2010). Flaxseed fatty acids are less heat stable and results
in production of some oxidized products and
contaminants like acrylamide and hydroxymethyl furfural.
Corn starch with higher amylase contents can be used to
form complexes with flaxseed oil particles that
significantly reduce lipid oxidation and prevent formation
of acrylamide and hydroxymethyl furfural during flaxseed
supplemented bread baking (Gokmen et al., 2011).
Sensory acceptance scores for appearance, flavor,
tenderness, juiciness and overall acceptability of flaxseed
flour supplemented beef patties decreases by increasing
its supplementation level. Organoleptically acceptable and
nutritionally improved beef patties have been primed by
Bilek and Turhan (2009) suggesting supplementation
levels of flaxseed flour ~ 6%. Flaxseed flour added to
Flaxseed – A miraculous defense against some critical maladies
Pak. J. Pharm. Sci., Vol.26, No.1, January 2013, pp.199-208
204
wheat flour as a fortifying strategy needs to be
investigated to earn utmost beneficial outcomes.
However, the nutritional and pecuniary aspects of such
fortification should be evaluated for their possible effects
on sensorial and functional characteristics of the finished
food products in addition to the bioavailability of the
essential food components (Akhtar et al., 2010).
CONCLUSIONS
New and safer trends towards the development of
nutritionally enriched foods with medicinal importance
are on the peak. Various ailments related to unhealthy
dietary patterns, environmental stress induced
degenerative disorders and overburdened life styles are
Table 1: Summary of some major studies on various health aspects of flaxseed from 1995 to 2004
References Conclusion
Thompson (1995) Lignans isolated from flaxseed reduces intestinal absorption of testosterone and can inhibit
proliferation of prostate tissue.
Cunnane et al. (1995) Higher rate of flaxseed flour substitution in the rats diets exhibit a significant decline in the
serum, liver and LDL cholesterol
Geil et al. (1995) Serum cholesterol is associated with prostate cancer and dietary intervention with flaxseed
reduces serum cholesterol by 4.2 to 10.9% in men.
Cunnane et al. (1995)
Jenkins et al. (1999)
Reduction in the LDL cholesterol is attributed to flaxseed soluble fibers.
Arjmandi et al. (1998) 40g daily dietary intake of flaxseed reduces HDL-C ~ 4.6% in postmenopausal women.
Meanwhile higher rate of HDL-C has been noticed in men as compared to women.
Expert Panel on Food
Safety and Nutrition (1998)
Unique nutritional profile of flaxseed associated with its polyunsaturated fatty acids and
soluble dietary fibers recognize the crop world wise as health beneficial food source.
Denis et al. (1999)
Thomas, (1999)
Yip et al. (1999)
Plant based n-3 fatty acids being linked with triglycerides reduction are widely accepted.
Being a rich source of ALA, flaxseed is one of the best plant sources that serve the purpose
adequately.
Denis et al. (1999)
Thomas, (1999)
Low fat flaxseed based diets are recognized as rich source of phytoestrogens that can effect
prostate cellular proliferation.
Sciarra & Toscano (2000) ALA derived from flaxseed oil could be a remedial strategy in patients facing higher blood
pressures.
Connor (2000)
Dietary lignans and phytoestrogens have a strong potential to reduce lipid levels in addition
to their antioxidant properties. Flaxseed is a well recognized source of such miraculous
functional food components.
Demark et al. (2001)
Reduction in the rate of prostate proliferation and increase in the apoptotic index of prostate
cancer patients adheres to the low-fat, flaxseed-supplemented diets as compared to the
historic controls.
Lemay et al. (2002) Women reported as hypercholestrolemic when fed with 40g flaxseed supplemented diets
daily, a significant reduction in their cholesterol level was noticed.
Banerjee & Maulik (2002) Flaxseed dietary fibers carry anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative properties that are
thought to reduce the risk of atherosclerosis.
Lucas et al. (2002)
Feeding postmenopausal women with diets supplemented with 40g of flaxseed daily for a
continuous period of 3 months reduces serum cholesterol up to 6% as compared to a wheat
flour control diet.
Bhathena et al. (2003) Rats studies reveal flaxseed based diets to reduce plasma total cholesterol on regular
ingestion.
Goodstine (2003)
Free radical scavenging and serum lipid capabilities are associated with flaxseed dietary
fibers that not only reduce the rate of tumor epithelial proliferation but also increase
apoptotic index as compared to the controls.
Vollmer et al. (2003) Researchers explored flaxseed diet in relation to prostatic hyperplasia, suggesting more
epidemiologic studies to be conducted.
Bhathena et al. (2003)
A minor but significant reduction in the level of liver transaminases is associated with
flaxseed. However, no such findings representing significant changes have been reported
from human. Reduction in hepatosteatosis (fatty liver condition) by dietary intake of
flaxseed has been observed in rat models.
Pereira et al. (2004)
On the weight basis, flaxseed is comprised of 28% dietary fibers. Soluble fiber constitutes
about 9.33% of dietary fibers and predominately associated with cholesterol reduction and
reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases as well as improved sensational secretion of insulin.
Zhao et al. (2004)
Dietary inclusion of flaxseed in the regular diets reduces HDL-C up to 10.5% as compared to
sunflower and fish oil i.e. 5.6 and 3%, respectively.
Bemelmans et al. (2004)
Demark- Wahnefried et al.
(2004) Lucas et al. (2004)
Low fats diets formulated flaxseed supplementation might create some positive changes in
prostate cell biology and linked characters.
Saeed Akhtar et al.
Pak. J. Pharm. Sci., Vol.26, No.1, January 2013, pp.199-208 205
few major possible reasons behind digestive disorders,
cardiovascular risks and certain chronic diseases like
cancer. Hence there is an immense need of developing
strategies towards development of preventive instead of
curative plans by selecting most appropriate dietary
patterns that could effectively meet nutraceutical
challenges. Flaxseed is a forgotten nutritional crop that is
augmented with various nutraceutical components
including ω-3 and ω-6, ALA, dietary fibers i.e. lignan
specifically secoisolariciresinol diglucoside. A plentiful
work has been performed in last decade at nutritional and
health beneficial properties of the flaxseed up to animal as
well as human cell lines level that suggest its
incorporation in regular dietary pattern as a preventive
measure against certain health disorders including chronic
diseases. Flaxseed flour and oil supplementation in
normal diets has been accepted by sensory penalist at
certain acceptable dosage levels where its health
beneficial effects can effectively be met.
REFERENCES
Abdel-Rahman MK, Mahmoud EM, Abdel-Moemin AR
and Rafaat OGA (2009). Re-evaluation of individual
and combined garlic and flaxseed diets in
hyperlipidemic rats. Pak. J. Nutr., 8: 1-8.
Adolphe JL, Whiting SJ, Juurlink BHJ, Thorpe LU and
Alcorn J (2010). Health effects with consumption of
flax lignan secoisolariciresinol diglucoside. Br. J.
Nutr., 103: 929-938.
Akhtar S, Anjum FM, Rehman SU and Munir AS (2010).
Effect of storage and baking on mineral contents of
fortified whole wheat flour. J. Food Process. Pres., 34:
335-349.
Aliani M, Ryland D and Pierce GN (2011) Effect of flax
addition on the flavor profile of muffins and snack
bars. Food Res. Int., Article in Press.
Arjmandi BH, Khan DA, Juma S, Drum ML, Venkatesh S
and Sohn E (1998). Whole flaxseed consumption
lowers serum LDL-cholesterol and lipoprotein (a)
concentrations in postmenopausal women. Nutr. Res.,
18: 1203-1214.
Banerjee SK and Maulik SK (2002). Effect of garlic on
cardiovascular disorders: a review. J. Nutr., 19: 1-4.
Bassett CMC, Rodriguez-Leyva D and Pierce GN (2009).
Experimental and clinical research findings on the
cardiovascular benefits of consuming flaxseed. Appl.
Physiol. Nutr. Metab., 34: 965-974.
Bemelmans WJ, Lefrandt JD, Feskens EJ, van Haelst PL,
Broer J, Meyboom-de Jong B, May JF, Tervaert JW
and Smit AJ (2004). Increased alpha-linolenic acid
intake lowers C-reactive protein, but has no effect on
markers of atherosclerosis. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 58:
1083-1089.
Bergman JM, Thompson LU and Dabrosin C (2007).
Flaxseed and its lignans inhibit estradiolinduced
growth, angiogenesis, and secretion of vascular
endothelial growth factor in human breast cancer
xenografts in vivo. Clin. Cancer Res., 13: 1061-1067.
Bhathena SJ, Ali AA, Haudenschild C, Latham P, Ranich
T, Mohamed AI, Hansen CT and Velasquez MT
(2003). Dietary flaxseed meal is more protective than
soy protein concentrate against hypertriglyceridemia
and steatosis of the liver in an animal model of obesity.
J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 22: 157-64.
Bhatia E, Doddivenaka C, Zhang X, Bommareddy A,
Krishnan P, Matthees DP and Dwivedi C (2011).
Chemopreventive effects of dietary canola oil on colon
cancer development. Nutr. Cancer, 63: 242-247.
Bilek AE and Turhan T (2009). Enhancement of the
nutritional status of beef patties by adding flaxseed
flour. Meat Sci., 82: 472-477.
Bloedon LT and Szapary PO (2004). Flaxseed and
cardiovascular risk. Nutr. Rev., 62: 18-27.
Bloedon LT, Balikai S, Chittams J, Cunnane SC, Berlin
JA, Rader DJ and Szapary PO (2008). Flaxseed and
cardiovascular risk factors: results from a double blind,
randomized, controlled clinical trial. J. Am. Coll. Nutr.,
27: 65-74.
Bozan B and Temelli F (2008). Chemical composition
and oxidative stability of flax, safflower and poppy
seed and seed oils. Bioresour. Technol., 99: 6354-6359.
Branca F and Lorenzetti S (2005). Health effects of
phytoestrogens. Forum Nutr., 57: 100-111.
Bravi E, Perretti G, Marconi O, Patrizi E and Fantozzi P
(2011). Secoisolariciresinol diglucoside determination
in flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) oil and
application to a shelf life study. Food Chem., 126:
1553-1558.
Calderelli VAS, Benassim MT, Visentainer JV and
Matioli G (2010). Quinoa and flaxseed: potential
ingredients in the production of bread with functional
quality. Braz. Arch. Biol. Techn., 53: 981-986.
Chen J, Saggar JK, Corey P and Thompson LU (2011).
Flaxseed cotyledon fraction reduces tumour growth
and sensitises tamoxifen treatment of human breast
cancer xenograft (MCF-7) in athymic mice. Br. J.
Nutr., 105: 339-347.
Chung M, Lei B and Li-Chan E (2005). Isolation and
structural characterization of the major protein fraction
from Norman flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.). Food
Chem., 90: 271-279.
Cintra DEC, Costa AGV, Peluzio MCG, Matta SLP, Silva
MTC and Costa NMB (2006). Lipid profile of rats fed
high-fat diets based on flaxseed, peanut, trout, or
chicken skin. Nutr., 22: 197-205.
Connor WE (2000). Importance of n-3 fatty acids in
health and disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 71: 171S-175S.
Cunnane SC, Hamadeh MJ, Liede AC, Thompson LU,
Wolever TMS and Jenkins DJA (1995). Nutritional
benefits of traditional flaxseed in healthy young adults.
Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 61: 62-68.
Dahl WJ, Lockert EA, Cammer AL, Whiting SJ (2005).
Effects of flaxseed fiber on laxation and glycemic
Flaxseed – A miraculous defense against some critical maladies
Pak. J. Pharm. Sci., Vol.26, No.1, January 2013, pp.199-208
206
response in healthy volunteers. J. Med. Food, 8: 508-
511.
Demark-Wahnefried W, Robertson, CN, Walther PJ,
Polascik TJ, Paulson DF and Vollmer RT. (2004). Pilot
study to explore effects of low-fat, flaxseed-
supplemented diet on proliferation of benign prostatic
epithelium and prostate-specific antigen. J. Urol, 63:
900-904.
Demark-Wahnefried W, Price DT, Polascik TJ, Robertson
CN, Anderson EE, Paulson DF, Walther PJ Gannon, M
and Vollmer RT (2001). Pilot study of dietary fat
restriction and flaxseed supplementation in men with
prostate cancer before surgeryexploring the effects on
hormonal levels, prostate-specific antigen, and
histopathologic features. J. Urology, 58: 47-52.
Denis L, Morton MS and Griffiths K (1999). Diet and its
preventive role in prostatic disease. Eur. Urol., 35:
377-387.
Dodin S, Lemay A, Jacques H, Legare F, Forest JC and
Masse B (2005). The effects of flaxseed dietary
supplement on lipid profile, bone-mineral density, and
symptoms in menopausal women: A randomized,
double blind, wheat germ placebo-controlled trial. J.
Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 90: 1390-1397.
Eliasson C, Kamal-Eldin A, Andersson R and Aman P
(2003). High-performance liquid chromatographic
analysis of secoisolariciresinol diglucoside and
hydroxycinnamic acid glucosides in flaxseed by
alkaline extraction. J. Chromatogr. A., 1012: 151-159.
Expert Panel on Food Safety and Nutrition (1998).
Functional foods: their role in disease prevention and
health promotion. Food Technol., 52: 63-70.
Fernandes FS, de Souza AS, do Carmo MDT and
Boaventura GT (2011). Maternal intake of flaxseed-
based diet (Linum usitatissimum) on hippocampus fatty
acid profile: Implications for growth, locomotor
activity and spatial memory. Nutr., 10: 1040-1047.
Fukumitsu S, Aida K, Shimizu H and Toyoda K
(2010). Flaxseed lignan lowers blood cholesterol and
decreases liver disease risk factors in moderately
hypercholesterolemic men. Nutr. Res., 30: 441-446.
Gambus H, Mikulec A, Gambus F and Pisulewski P
(2004). Perespectives of linseed utilization in baking.
Pol. J. Food. Nutr. Sci., 13: 21-27.
Geil PB, Anderson JW and Gustafson NJ (1995). Women
and men with hypercholesterolemia respond similarly
to an American Heart Association step 1 diet. J. Am.
Diet Assoc., 95: 436-441.
Giada ML (2010). Food applications for flaxseed and its
components: products and processing. Recent Pat.
Food Nutr. Agric., 2: 181-186.
Gokmen V, Mogol BA, Lumaga RB, Fogliano V, Kaplun
Z and Shimoni E (2011). Development of functional
bread containing nanoencapsulated omega-3 fatty
acids. J. Food Eng., Article in Press.
Goodstine SL, Zheng T, Holford TR, Ward BA, Carter D,
Owens PH and Mayne ST (2003). Dietary (n-3)/(n-6)
fatty acid ratio: Possible relationship to premenopausal
but not postmenopausal breast cancer risk in U.S.
women. J. Nutr., 133: 1409-1414.
Hall C, Tulbek MC and Xu Y (2006). Flaxseed. In:
Taylor S editor. Advances in food Tulbek and nutrition
research. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, USA, pp.1-
97.
Harper CR, Edwards MC and Jacobson TA (2006).
Flaxseed oil supplementation does not affect plasma
lipoprotein concentration or particle size in human
subjects. J. Nutr. 136: 2844-2848.
Herchi W, Sawalha S, Arraez-Roman D, Boukhchina S,
Segura-Carretero A, Kallel H and Fernandez-Gutierrez
A (2011). Determination of phenolic and other polar
compounds in flaxseed oil using liquid chroma-
tography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectro-
metry. Food Chem., 126: 332-338.
Hussain S, Anjum FM, Butt MS, Khan MI and Asghar A
(2006). Physical and sensoric attributes of flaxseed
flour supplemented cookies. Turk. J. Biol., 30: 87-92.
Jenkins DJ, Kendall CW, Vidgen E, Agarwal S, Rao AV,
Rosenberg RS, Diamandis EP, Novokmet R, Mehling
CC, Perera T, Griffin LC and Cunnane SC (1999).
Health aspects of partially defatted flaxseed, including
effects on serum lipids, oxidative measures, and ex
vivo androgen and progestin activity: a controlled
crossover trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 69: 395-402.
Jhala AJ and Hall LM (2010). Flax (Linum usitatissimum
L.): Current uses and future applications. Aust. J. Basic
Appl. Sci., 4: 4304-4312.
Kinniry P, Amrani Y, Vachani A, Solomides, CC, Arguiri
E, Workman A, Carter J and Christofidou-Solomidou
M (2006). Dietary flaxseed supplementation
ameliorates inflammation and oxidative tissue damage
in experimental models of acute lung injury in mice. J.
Nutr., 136: 1545-1551.
Knust U, Spiegelhalder B, Strowitzki T and Owen RW
(2006). Contribution of linseed to urine and serum
enterolignan levels in German females: A randomized
controlled intervention trial. Food Chem. Toxicol.,
44: 1057-1064.
Lay CL and Dybing DD (1989). Linseed. In: Robbelen G,
Downey RK, Ashri A editors. Oil crops of the world.
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Lee JC, Bhora F, Sun J, Cheng G, Arguiri E, Solomides
CC, Chatterjee S and Christofidou-Solomidou M
(2008). Dietary flaxseed enhances antioxidant defenses
and is protective in a mouse model of lung ischemia-
reperfusion injury. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol.
Physiol., 294: 255-265.
Lee JC, Krochak R, Blouin A, Kanterakis S, Chatterjee C,
Arguiri E, Vachani A, Solomides CC, Cengel KA and
Christofidou-Solomidou M (2009). Dietary flaxseed
prevents radiation-induced oxidative lung damage,
inflammation and fibrosis in a mouse model of thoracic
radiation injury. Cancer Biol. Ther., 8: 47-53.
Saeed Akhtar et al.
Pak. J. Pharm. Sci., Vol.26, No.1, January 2013, pp.199-208 207
Lehraiki A, Attoumbre J, Bienaime C, Matifat F,
Bensaddek L, Nava-Saucedo E, Fliniaux MA, Ouadid-
Ahidouch H and Baltora-Rosset S (2010). Extraction of
lignans from flaxseed and evaluation of their biological
effects on breast cancer MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cell
lines. J. Med. Food, 13: 834-841.
Lemay A, Dodin S, Kadri N, Jacques H and Forest JC
(2002). Flaxseed dietary supplement versus hormone
replacement therapy in hypercholesterolemic
menopausal women. Obstet. Gynecol., l100: 495-504.
Lucas EA, Lightfoot SA, Hammond LJ, Devareddy L,
Khalil DA, Daggya BP, Smith BJ, Westcott N,
Mocanu V, Soung DY and Arjmandi BH (2004).
Flaxseed reduces plasma cholesterol and
atherosclerotic lesion formation in ovariectomized
Golden Syrian hamsters. Atherosclerosis,173: 223-229.
Lucas EA, Mahajan SS, Soung DY, Lightfoot SA, Smith
BJ and Arjmandi BH (2011). Flaxseed but not flaxseed
oil prevented the rise in serum cholesterol due to
ovariectomy in the Golden Syrian Hamsters. J. Med.
Food, 14: 261-267.
Lucas EA, Wild RD, Hammond LJ, Khalil DA, Juma S,
Daggy BP, Sroecker BJ and Arjmandi BH (2002).
Flaxseed improves lipid profile without altering
biomarkers of bone metabolism in postmenopausal
women. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 87: 1527-1532.
Madhusudhan B (2009). Potential benefits of flaxseed in
health and disease-A perspective. Agro Conspec Sci.,
74: 67-72.
Makni M, Sefi M, Fetoui H, Garoui E, Gargouri NK,
Boudawara T and Zeghal N (2010). Flax and Pumpkin
seeds mixture ameliorates diabetic nephropathy in rats.
Food Chem. Toxicol., 48: 2407-2412.
Makni M, Sefi M, Garoui E, Fetoui H, Boudawara T and
Zeghal N (2011). Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid
prevents hyperlipidemia and hepatic oxidant status in
pregnant diabetic rats and their macrosomic offspring.
J. Diabetes Complicat., Article in Press.
Mandasescu S, Mocanu V, Dascaliţa AM, Haliga R,
Nestian I, Stitt PA and Luca V (2005). Flaxseed
supplementation in hyperlipidemic patients. Rev. Med.
Chir. Soc. Med. Nat. Iasi., 109: 502-506.
Maritim AC, Sanders RA and Watkins JB (2003).
Diabetes, oxidative stress and antioxidants. A review.
J. Biochem. Mol. Toxicol., 17: 24-38.
Mason JK, Chen J and Thompson LU (2010). Flaxseed
oil-trastuzumab interaction in breast cancer. Food
Chem. Toxicol., 48: 2223-2226.
Moraes EA, Dantas MIS, Morais DC, Silva CO, Castro
FAF, Martino HSD and Ribeiro SMR (2010). Sensory
evaluation and nutritional value of cakes prepared with
whole flaxseed flour. Cien. Tec. Ali., 30: 974-979.
Moyad MA (2005). An introduction to dietary/
supplemental omega-3 fatty acids for general health
and prevention. Part I. Urol. Oncol-Semin. Ori., 23: 23-
35.
Mueller K, Eisner P, Yoshie-Stark Y, Nakada R and
Kirchhoff E (2010). Functional properties and chemical
composition of fractionated brown and yellow linseed
meal (Linum usitatissimum). J. Food Eng., 98: 453-
460.
Oomah BD and Sitter L (2009). Characteristics of
flaxseed hull oil. Food Chem., 114: 623-628.
Pan A, Yu D, Demark-Wahnefried W, Franco OH and
Lin X (2009). Meta-analysis of the effects of flaxseed
interventions on blood lipids. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 90:
288-297.
Pereira MA, O’Reilly E, Augustsson K, Fraser GE,
Goldbourt U, Heitmann BL, Hallmans G, Knekt P, Liu
S, Pietinen P, Spiegelman D, Stevens J, Virtamo J,
Willett WC and Ascherio A (2004). Dietary fiber and
risk of coronary heart disease: a pooled analysis of
cohort studies. Arch. Intern. Med., 164: 370-376.
Pourafshar S, Rosentrater KA and Krishnan P (2010). A
review of alternatives to wheat flour. Am. Soc. Agric.
Biol. Eng. Annu. Int. Meet., 2: 1527-1540.
Power KA and Thompson LU (2011). The potential role
of seeds and seeds bioactives on the prevention and
treatment of breast and prostate cancer. In: Muntanen
M, Pajari AM (editors). Vegetables, whole grains, and
their derivatives in cancer prevention. Diet and Cancer,
2: pp. 172-801.
Prasad K (2008). Regression of hypercholesterolemic
atherosclerosis in rabbits by secoisolariciresinol
diglucoside isolated from flaxseed. Atherosclerosis,
197: 34-42.
Rajesha J, Murthy KN, Ravishankar GA, Kumar MK and
Madhusudhan B (2006). Antibacterial potentials of
flaxseed by in vivo model. J. Agric. Food Chem., 54:
3794-3799.
Rajesha J, Rao AR, Kumar MK and Ravishankar GA
(2010). Hepato-protective Potential of Hull Fraction
from Indian Flaxseed Cultivar. Asia. J. Med. Sci., 1:
20-25.
Rendon-Villalobos R, Agama-Acevedo E, Osorio-Diaz P,
Tovarb J and Bello-Pereza LA (2009). Proximal
composition and in vitro starch digestibility in
flaxseed-added corn tortilla. J. Sci. Food Agric., 89:
537-541.
Sciarra F and Toscano V (2000). Role of estrogens in
human benign prostatic hyperplasia. Arch. Androl., 44:
213-220.
Singh KK, Mridula D, Rehal J and Barnwal P (2011).
Flaxseed: A Potential Source of Food, Feed and Fiber.
Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr., 51: 210 -222.
Sturgeon SR, Volpe SL, Puleo E, Bertone-Johnson ER,
Heersink J, Sabelawski S, Wahala K, Bigelow C and
Kurzer MS (2011). Dietary intervention of flaxseed:
Effect on serum levels of IGF-1, IGF-BP3, and C-
peptide. Nutr. Cancer, 63: 376-380.
Szotowski B, Antoniak S, Goldin-Lang P, Tran Q, Pels
K, Rosenthal P, Bogdanov VY, Borchert H,
Schultheiss H and Rauch U (2007). Antioxidative
Flaxseed – A miraculous defense against some critical maladies
Pak. J. Pharm. Sci., Vol.26, No.1, January 2013, pp.199-208
208
treatment inhibits the release of thrombogenic tissue
factor from irradiation and cytokine-induced
endothelial cells. Cardiovasc. Res., 73: 806-812.
Tarpila A, Wennberg T and Tarpila S (2005). Flaxseed as
a functional food. Curr. Top. Nutraceut. R., 3: 167-188.
Thomas JA (1999). Diet, micronutrients, and the prostate
gland. Nutr. Rev., 57: 95-103.
Thompson LU (1995). Flaxseed in Human Nutrition.
AOCS Press, Chicago, pp.219-236.
Thompson LU, Chen JM, Li T, Strasser-Weippl K and
Goss PE (2005). Dietary flaxseed alters biological
markers in postmenopausal breast cancer. Clin. Cancer
Res., 11: 3828-3835.
Troina AA, Figueiredo MS, Moura EG, Boaventura GT,
Soares LL, Cardozo LF, Oliveira E, Lisboa PC, Passos
MA and Passos MC (2010). Maternal flaxseed diet
during lactation alters milk composition and programs
the offspring body composition, lipid profile and
sexual function. Food Chem. Toxicol., 48: 697-703.
Ugochukwu NH, Babady NE, Cobourne MK and Gassett
SR (2003). The effect of Gongronema latifolium
extracts on serum lipid profile and oxidative stress in
hepatocytes of diabetic rats. J. Biosci., 28: 1-5.
Verghese M, Boateng J and Walker LT (2011). Flax seed
(Linum usitatissimum) fatty acids. In: Preedy V,
Watson R, Patel V (editors). Nuts and seeds in health
and disease prevention. Academic Press, pp.487-98.
Vollmer RT and Humphrey PA (2003). Tumor volume in
prostate cancer and serum prostate-specific
antigenanalysis from a kinetic viewpoint. Am. J. Clin.
Pathol., 119: 80-89.
Williams D, Verghese M, Walker LT, Boateng J,
Shackelford L and Chawan CB (2007). Flax seed oil
and flaxseed meal reduce the formation of aberrant
crypt foci (ACF) in azoxymethane-induced colon
cancer in Fisher 344 male rats. Food Chem. Toxicol.,
45: 153-159.
Yip I, Heber D and Aronson W (1999). Nutrition and
prostate cancer. Urol. Clin. North. Am., 26: 403-411.
Zhang W, Wang X, Liu Y, Tian H, Flickinger B, Empie
MW and Sun SZ (2008). Effects of dietary flaxseed
lignan Eextract on symptoms of benign prostatic
hyperplasia. J. Med. Food, 11: 207-214.
Zhao G, Etherton TD, Martin KR, West SG, Gillies PJ
and Kris-Etherton PM (2004). Dietary {alpha}-
linolenic acid reduces inflammatory and lipid
cardiovascular risk factors in hypercholesterolemic
men and women. J. Nutr., 134: 2991-2997.
