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Effect of cooking on the capsaicinoids and phenolics contents of Mexican peppers
Abstract
Raw and cooked (boiled and grilled) Poblano, Bell, Chilaca, Caribe, Jalapeño, Serrano, Habanero, and Manzano peppers were evaluated for tristimulus colour, capsaicinoids (capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapscapsaicin), and total phenolic contents. Boiling (96 °C) and grilling (210 °C) was performed under household conditions according to typical procedures of the Mexican cuisine. Contents of capsaicin (0.6–913.8 μg/g), dihydrocapsaicin (0–756.9 μg/g), nordihydrocapsaicin (0–68.2 μg/g), and total phenolics (1150.5–2190.0 μg of gallic acid equivalents/g) in raw peppers varied widely between types of peppers. Moderate losses (1.1–28.1%) in capsaicinoids were induced by boiling while grilling caused a significant increase (2.6–924.9%) in the content of these compounds. Proportion of individual capsaicinoids was similar in raw and cooked peppers. Boiling and grilling sequentially increased (7.4–137.0%) the total phenolic content in pungent peppers. Total phenolic content in non-pungent Bell peppers was reduced by cooking (1.6–26.9%). Boiling induced smaller changes in colour values (L*, a*, and b*) compared to grilling. The results demonstrated that Mexican raw peppers are rich in capsaicinoids and phenolic compounds. Household cooking can cause either decreases or increases in the content of such compounds in peppers.
... Nevertheless, treatments using 300 m 3 /h at 40, 50, and 60 • C presented higher values of TPC. This might be related to the degradation of some compounds at these relatively low and controlled temperatures and the apparent liberation of other phenolic compounds, as reported by Ornelas-Paz et al. (2010) for thermally treated chili peppers [36]. Compared to other fruits and peppers, Yahualica chili presented the same tendency to increase in TPC content at high temperatures, similar to beta vulgaris obtained via convective drying [37] and the TPC contents of cherry laurel fruit obtained via convective drying [38]. ...
... Compared to other fruits and peppers, Yahualica chili presented the same tendency to increase in TPC content at high temperatures, similar to beta vulgaris obtained via convective drying [37] and the TPC contents of cherry laurel fruit obtained via convective drying [38]. Nevertheless, the TPC values were found to be approximately ten times higher for the Yahualica chili dried samples than thermally processed samples of habanero, Manzano, serrano, jalapeño, caribe, chilaca, poblano, bell, and xcatic chili peppers [36][37][38][39]. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were also observed among all the drying modes studied. ...
... The TCC values increased across all drying modes, presenting the highest value of 65,520 SHU with a drying temperature of 70 • C and flow rate of 250 m 3 /h, presenting significant differences (p < 0.05) among the treatments. The increment in capsaicinoid content after thermal treatment was also reported by [36], who indicated that thermal treatment, such as the grilling process, can increase the TCC by approximately 30% compared to the non-thermal treatment of habanero peppers. The initial value was 20,300 SHU, increasing to 31,300 SHU and 29,000 SHU for green peppers and 44,000 SHU for red ones. ...
Citation: García-Moreira, D.P.; Pacheco, N.; Hernández-Guzmán, H.; Bahammou, Y.; Tagnamas, Z.; Moreno, I.; López-Vidaña, E.C. Evaluation of Various Drying Methods for Mexican Yahualica chili: Drying Characteristics and Quality Assessment. Processes 2024, 12, 1969. Abstract: As one of the main chili varieties in Mexico, Yahualica chili requires year-round availability. This study examines the feasibility of five drying methods (open-air, solar, microwave, freeze-drying and shade drying) used to preserve this culturally and economically valuable product. The results show the drying duration and rate for solar drying with varying air temperatures (40, 50, 60, and 70 • C) and airflows (150, 200, 250, and 300 m 3 /h) and microwave drying with varying power levels (90, 160, 360, and 600 W). Convection drying efficiency increased with temperature and airflow, according to the findings. Microwave drying significantly reduced drying time, and higher powers further accelerated moisture removal. Open sun and shade drying was the slowest, and open sun drying was also susceptible to factors compromising quality. Total Phenolic Content (TPC), Total Capsaicinoids Content (TCC), and antioxidant activity had a positive effect, since the drying methodologies favored the release of these compounds.
... 1. Significant (statistically) -studies that showed a significant impact (reduction, increase) of heat processing on bioactive compounds or antioxidant capacity. 2. Insignificant (statistically) -studies that showed a slight, little or no impact of heat processing on bioactive compounds or antioxidant capacity. Geographic locations included Azarbayjan (n = 1) [13], Egypt (n = 1) [17], Colorado (n = 1) [10], Hungary (n = 1) [19], India (n = 1) [15], Italy (n = 2) [9,20], Japan (n = 1) [12], Mexico (n = 1) [21], northwestern Spain (n = 1) [16], Poland (n = 2) ( [18]; [14]), South Korea (n = 1) [11],Turkey (n = 2) [22,23]. The number of studies extracted from various database are generalized and depicted in Fig. 1. ...
... One of the 15 studies investigated 3 combination of heat processing but also provided individual bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity results [17]. Four of the 15 studies had investigated a combination of heat processing [32] but also provided individual bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity results ( [18]; [21,15,20]). ...
... After considering this, numbers of eligible studies for each processing types included, two studies on roasting: Hamed et al. [10] and Hwang et al. [11]; one study on grilling [21]; six on boiling ( [18]; [11,12,21,15,17]); two on microwave ( [18]; [12]); one on pressure cooking [15]; three on oven drying [22,20,17]; one on steaming [11]; two on stir frying [11,12]; three on sun drying [9,20,17]; one on combination of lyophilization and evaporation [14]; one on combination of blanching, frying followed by canning, and roasting followed by canning [16], one on combination of blanching, evaporation under vacuum and low temperature, and pasteurization (Sayin and Arslan et al., 2015); one on combination of thermal treatment of 20, 35, 50 and 65 • C [13]; and one on combination of blanching and lyophilization [19].Thus, a total of seven studies investigated the effect of processing on L-ascorbic acid, nine on total phenolic content, four on carotenoids content, five on capsaicin content, and seven on free radical on antioxidant activity. ...
The present review assessed the effect of heat processing on red peppers' (Capsicum annum L.) bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity. The Google Scholar and Scopus databases were used to search the existing literature. Out of 422 articles accessed based on the inclusion and exclusion criterias included, only 15 studies were qualified for detailed review. The studies examined effects of processing on red hot peppers' bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity. Information on type of heat applied for individual processes and the conditions used, countries in which the studies were carried out and effect of heat processing's were assessed. The review showed many studies were incomprehensive to details of processing condition constraining the validity of the results obtained from various cooking effects on bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity. Further studies aimed at gaining a better understanding of the heat processing conditions and factors that influence the bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity of red peppers are needed.
... It is popularly consumed with its aroma and flavour besides salads, pickles, sauces, bulgur, rice, pasta and meat dishes. Sweet, semi-sharp and pungent peppers are consumed as fresh, dried or canned (Ornelas-Paz et al., 2010). Anaheim (red type) and Jalapeño peppers are consumed fresh or dried Anaheim (red type) and frequently fresh and pickled (Jalapeño peppers), respectively (Alvarez-Parrila et al., 2011). ...
... This fruit is also used as an alternative medicine in the treatment of various diseases such as inflammations, diabetes, back pain and acute tonsillitis (Dinu et al., 2013). It is understood from several studies that peppers are a good source of bioactive compounds due to their polyphenolic compounds, including vitamins, pro-vitamins and antioxidant compounds, phenolic acids, flavonoids, carotenoids and capsaicinoids (Matsufuji et al., 2007;Chuah et al., 2008;Ornelas-Paz et al., 2010;Alvarez-Parrila et al., 2011). When the studies were examined, it was reported that protocatechin, catechin, chlorogenic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, rosmarinic acid, quercetin, luteolin and campherol were detected in various pepper varieties (Howard et al., 2000;Pavlovic et al., 2012;Chen & Kang, 2013;Niciforovic & Abramovic, 2014;Chaowuttikul et al., 2020). ...
... Pickled jalapeno has 11.5% dry matter, 802 mg GAE/100 g total phenol, 389 mg CE/100 g total flavonoid and 2467 molTE/100 g antioxidant activity values ( (Howard et al., 2000). Different variability in our results has been observed compared to results of Jalapeno peppers grown in Chihuahua (63 mgGAE/100 g FW to 161 mgGAE/100 g FW (Ornelas-Paz et al., 2010)). In a study conducted with red, green and yellow peppers, it was determined that red peppers had a higher phenolic concentration than yellow and green peppers, while the luteolin result was higher in green peppers than the others. ...
In this study, the effect of dehydration of some physico‐chemical characteristics, total phenol, flavonoids, antioxidant capacity and phenolic compounds of green and red jalapeno pepper fruits was investigated. The total carotenoid contents of red and green jalapeno pepper samples were reported to be between 14.15 (fresh) and 129.00 μg/g (540 and 720 W) to 2.8 (fresh) and 27.25 μg/g (720 W), respectively. Total phenolic results of red and green jalapeno pepper samples were recorded between 205.83 (fresh) and 343.93 mg GAE/100 g (540 W) to 81.69 (fresh) and 309.88 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g (air drying), respectively. The highest decrease in L* results (brightness) of both red (32.33) and green (36.45) peppers was determined with air drying. Gallic acid, catechin and kaempferol were the predominant phenolic compounds of jalapeno peppers. Gallic acid amounts of red and green jalapeno pepper samples changed between 3.23 (fresh) and 16.20 mg/100 g (air) to 2.41 (fresh) and 9.30 mg/100 g (air), respectively. Also, catechin amounts of both red and green dehydrated jalapeno pepper fruits were determined between 3.24 (fresh) and 106.33 mg/100 g (900 W) to 2.89 (fresh) and 90.05 mg/100 g (air), respectively. Both conventional and microwave drying has caused the reduction of redness for red pepper and greenness for green pepper. The phenolic components of red jalapeno peppers were partially higher than the green ones.
... The extract was obtained according to the method described by Ornelas-Paz et al. (2010), with some modifications: here, 1 g of sample was macerated with 10 mL of a methanol solution (80 % in water) and sodium bisulfite (0.5 % water) (J.T. Baker, Estado de Mexico, Mexico). Bisulfite was used to prevent oxidation reactions, as well as enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning reactions, and also as a color stabilizer. ...
... The extraction of phenolic compounds was carried out according to the method described by Ornelas-Paz et al. (2010), with some modifications, in the same way as it was described to obtain the extract to determine antioxidant capacity. For the quantification of total phenols, an aliquot of 0.05 mL of the vegetal extract was taken, mixed with 0.5 mL of the 50 % Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) (v/v) and 7.95 mL of deionized water. ...
... mg EAG/100 g DW and the lowest being seen in SauceCH-D, with 278.5 mg EAG/100 g DW (Figure 3). of 8.9 % in the 100-Grande variety and 7.8 % in the Apache variety. Other authors have reported that thermal processing tends to increase this compound in some pepper types; for example, Ornelas-Paz et al. (2010) found an increased capsaicin content in red jalapeño peppers after being roasted. At the same time, De Masi et al. (2007) found this same behavior in the dehydrated hot peppers from Italy's Calabrian region. ...
The objective of this work was to evaluate the antioxidant capacity and bioactive compounds content in two Jalapeño pepper varieties, both fresh and smoked-dehydrated (chipotle) and in commercial chipotle pepper sauces. The antioxidant capacity, capsaicin content, carotenoids and total phenols were evaluated. The smoked-dehydrated process had an effect on all the variables analysed (P?0.05). The chipotle pepper presented higher antioxidant activity (112.33 µmol ET/g) and content of bioactive compounds than fresh pepper and commercial sauces. In fresh pepper, the 100-Grande variety had higher antioxidant capacity (71.92 µmol ET/g) than Apache (48.31 µmol ET/g), while no effect on any of the analysed variables was reported in chipotle peppers. It is concluded that the smoked-dehydrated process of jalapeño pepper affects quality in a positive way, significantly increasing the nutritional and functional value derived from an increase in the bioactive compounds content and the antioxidant activity of chipotle peppers due to this process.
... Peppers (Capsicum spp.), grown worldwide, including in Korea, are used extensively as a natural food colorant and seasoning agent due to their attractive colour, flavour, and taste [10]. Pepper has a high nutritive value and has long been recognized as an excellent source of vitamin C. ...
... Blanching was considered a pretreatment or unit operation before freezing, canning, or drying in which fruits or vegetables are heated to inactivate enzymes, modify texture, preserving the colour, flavour, and nutritional value [10]. Chilli sauce, according to SNI 01- 2976-2006(BSN, 2006, was a sauce obtained from processing the main ingredient of chilli (Capsicum annum), which has been ripe and of good quality with or without the addition of other food ingredients and used as a food flavoring. ...
... Esto generó interés por cultivar y estudiar esta hortaliza en otras regiones de México (Figura 1). Sin embargo, en la mayoría de los trabajos de investigación realizados en otras regiones de México se utilizaron semillas o material vegetal originario de la Península de Yucatán (Contreras-Padilla y Yahia, 1998, Tucuch-Haas et al., 2012, algunos utilizaron material colectado en mercados de su localidad (Ornelas-Paz et al., 2010 y otros adquirieron las semillas de empresas transnacionales (Urrea- Sánchez-Segura et al., 2015). Figura 1. Distribución de la producción científica generada sobre chile habanero en diferentes regiones de México (Norte, Centro, Pacífico, Golfo de México y Península de Yucatán). ...
... En el área de bioquímica se encontraron 29 artículos (Figura 3), el más citado es el de Contreras-Padilla y Yahia (1998) con 270 citas, este artículo fue el primer reporte científico sobre capsaicinoides de chile habanero en México, es un referente en el área de bioquímica, a partir de ahí se desarrollaron una serie de artículos sobre capsaicinoides, compuestos volátiles, contenido de proteínas y las respuestas metabólicas ante el estrés abiótico (Pino et al., 2006, Cisneros-Pineda et al., 2007, Monforte-González et al., 2007, Pino et al., 2007, Canto-Flick et al., 2008, Borges-Gómez et al., 2010, Gutiérrez-Carbajal et al., 2010, Ornelas-Paz et al., 2010, Ruiz-Lau et al., 2010, Altúzar-Molina et al., 2011, Celis-Arámbulo et al., 2011, Ruíz-Lau et al., 2011b, Castro-Concha et al., 2012, Lencona-Guzmán et al., 2012, Troconis-Torres et al., 2012, Domínguez-May et al., 2013, Rodas-Junco et al., 2013, Castro-Concha et al., 2014, Zamudio-Moreno et al., 2014, Baas-Espinola et al., 2016, Brito-Argáez et al., 2016, Castro-Concha et al., 2016, Regla-Márquez et al., 2016, Vargas-Hernández et al., 2016, Pérez-Ambrocio et al., 2017, Vázquez-Flota et al., 2017, Sosa-Moguel et al., 2017. En el área de Genética-Biotecnología se encontraron 23 artículos (Figura 3), el más citado es el de Anaya- López et al. (2006), en ese artículo abordaron la actividad citotóxica de una defensina en chile habanero expresada en células endoteliales bovinas. ...
p> Background. Habanero pepper ( Capsicum chinense Jacq.) is a vegetable of economic interest, its fruits have unique characteristics of flavor and pungency. Its pungency is due to the capsaicinoids, which were the starting research interest on this crop. In this review, the historical scientific information about habanero pepper in Mexico was analyzed, in order to have an overview of the past, present and the perspectives for research. Objective. To analyze the scientific research of habanero pepper in different regions of Mexico and identify its importance as a model plant study. Methodology. Fifteen databases and several key words were used to found the scientific research articles. Using their titles and aims, articles were grouped in eight research topic: 1) Biochemistry, 2) Genetics-Biotechnology, 3) Microbiology-Pests-Diseases, 4) Nutrition, 5) Physiology-Phenology, 6) Agronomic productivity, 7) Plant genetic resources and 8) Food and medical uses. The publications were sorted by year and region, the status of the journals and impact factor were analyzed. Main findings. In total 127 articles were analyzed and 69.3% of these were carried out at Yucatan Peninsula, 67% were published in journals indexed in the Journal of Citation Reports (JCR). Along years, publications of habanero peppers increased in other regions of Mexico; in addition, the research topics diversified. The first research article about habanero pepper in Mexico was published in 1998. In the area of biochemistry there were more publications (29), of which 24 were indexed in JCR. Implications. Most of the research of habanero pepper in Mexico can be classified as basic science, few manuscripts were about applied research. Conclusions. The capsaicinoids studies were the topic detonating research interest in this species as a model plant study, over time, the themes on this crop were diversified and the number of articles on habanero pepper has strengthened. However, more emphasis should be placed on studies focusing in solving the main problems of producers.</p
... 5,15,22,24 Contrary to our results, increases in total (poly)phenolic content, measured by Folin− Ciocalteu, were observed after the roasting process at 90°C for 25 min in chili peppers 22 and in Jalapenõ pepper after oven drying at 60°C for 36 h. 24 Similarly, Ornelas-Paz et al. 27 evaluated the effect of boiling (96°C for 7−13.5 min) and grilling (210°C for 8.8−19 min) on the total (poly)phenols of several Mexican pepper varieties revealing, in general, an increase (7.4−137%) of these compounds with respect to raw pepper, especially after grilling, but changes were greatly dependent on pepper variety. In particular, like the results observed in the present research, the total (poly)phenolic content of sweet bell pepper (green, yellow, and red) was reduced after cooking (1.6−26.9%). ...
... In particular, like the results observed in the present research, the total (poly)phenolic content of sweet bell pepper (green, yellow, and red) was reduced after cooking (1.6−26.9%). 27 Therefore, it might be suggested that different behavior on the total (poly)phenolic content after the application of thermal treatments might also be modulated by other pepper components (content in vitamins, carotenoids, capsaicinoids, etc.). Moreover, it should be considered that the use of a nonspecific quantification assay (Folin−Ciocalteu) might mislead the effect of thermal treatments since other compounds (for instance, vitamin C or carbonyls derived from Maillard reactions) might also have a reducing activity. ...
Pepper constitutes an important source of (poly)phenols, mainly flavonoids. Nevertheless, heat treatments applied prior to consumption may have an impact on these antioxidants, and thus may also affect their potential bioactivity. In this study, the effect of industrial and culinary treatments on the total and individual (poly)phenolic content of Piquillo pepper (Capsicum annuum cv. Piquillo) was thoroughly evaluated by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. A total of 40 (poly)phenols were identified and quantified in raw pepper. Flavonoids (10 flavonols, 15 flavones, and 2 flavanones) were the major compounds identified (62.6%). Among the 13 phenolic acids identified in raw samples, cinnamic acids were the most representative. High temperatures applied and subsequent peeling during industrial grilling drastically decreased the total (poly)phenolic content from 2736.34 to 1099.38 μg/g dm (59.8% reduction). In particular, flavonoids showed a higher reduction of 87.2% after grilling compared to nonflavonoids which only decreased by 14%. Moreover, 9 nonflavonoids were generated during grilling, modifying the (poly)phenolic profile. After culinary treatments, specifically frying, (poly)phenols appear to be better released from the food matrix, enhancing their extractability. Overall, industrial and culinary treatments differently affect both the total and individual (poly)phenolic compounds of pepper and, despite the reduction, they might also positively influence their bioaccessibility.
... The total phenolic contents for the raw bell pepper fall in the range of those previously reported (1152.8-1344.8 µg GAE g-1 fresh tissue or fresh weight) by Turkmen et al. (2005) and de Jesús Ornelas-Paz et al. (2010). In support of our results on the phenolic content, findings from several studies have shown that there could be an accumulation of a reasonable amount of phenolic compounds in microalgae and cyanobacteria extract, leading to increasing crop production (Turkmen et al., 2005;de Jesús Ornelas-Paz et al., 2010). ...
... µg GAE g-1 fresh tissue or fresh weight) by Turkmen et al. (2005) and de Jesús Ornelas-Paz et al. (2010). In support of our results on the phenolic content, findings from several studies have shown that there could be an accumulation of a reasonable amount of phenolic compounds in microalgae and cyanobacteria extract, leading to increasing crop production (Turkmen et al., 2005;de Jesús Ornelas-Paz et al., 2010). In a study conducted by Haoujar et al. (2019), a remarkable amount of phenolic content was found in the P. tricornutum, Nannochloris sp., and T. suecica extract (Haoujar et al., 2019). ...
This study was carried out to investigate the impacts of cyanobacteria (Roholtiella sp.) high-value product extract (HVPE) and water resuspended biomass WRB treatments on bell pepper production using the hydroponic system under greenhouse conditions. Six cyanobacteria treatments (6 ml L⁻¹, 4 ml L⁻¹, and 2 ml L⁻¹ – HVPE, 6 ml L⁻¹, 4 ml L⁻¹, and 2 ml L⁻¹ – WRB, and TR0 as control) were evaluated using the foliar application method. The results showed that foliar application of HVPE with treatments of 2 ml L⁻¹, 4 ml L⁻¹, and 6 ml L⁻¹ produced significantly higher values of physical growth parameters of bell pepper (BP) plants (shoot length, the number of leaves, plant leaf length, plant leaf width, and the diameter of the shoot), SPAD index, yield components (the fruit length, fruit width, the number of fruit per plant, and fresh weight per fruit), biochemical composition [ascorbic acid, phenolic acid, and total soluble solids (TSS)], and the total yield compared to the control group TR0. Also, significant higher values of growth parameters (shoot length, the number of leaves, plant leaf length, plant leaf width, the diameter of the shoot), SPAD index, yield components (the fruit length, fruit width, the number of fruits per plant, and fresh weight per fruit), biochemical composition [ascorbic acid, phenolic acid, and total soluble solids (TSS)], and the total yield were obtained with foliar spraying WRB at 2 ml L⁻¹, 4 ml L⁻¹, and 6 ml L⁻¹ compared to the control group TR0. Consequently, the treated bell pepper with Roholtiella sp. HVPE and WRB were more efficient in enhancing production and chemical constituents compared with the control group.
... Mole sauces are used to prepare different kinds of dishes and marinated meats in traditional Mexican cuisine. Chili (Capsicum annuum) is especially important in Mexico, where it has culinary applications, such as in sauces or to give food a spicy flavor [3]; it is used in raw, boiled, dried, and ground forms [4]. Depending on the variety of mole that is made, basically three varieties of chili (Capsicum annuum) are used: jalapeño, guajillo, or ancho (mulato, mihuateco, and crystalline), all of them dehydrated with a moisture content of not more than 12% except green mole, i.e., verde mole, which contains fresh jalapeño pepper. ...
... De Jesús Ornelas-Paz et al. [4] reported that cooking operations (boiling and roasting) reduced the total phenolic content significantly (16-26.9%) in yellow, red, and green bell peppers. Likewise, Lee et al. and Chuah et al. [13,19] observed losses of phenolic compounds from non-industrial domestic cooking due to heat treatment in peppers (green, yellow, and red), squash, leeks, and other vegetables. ...
Mole sauce is one of the traditional Mexican foods; it is a complex mixture of ingredients of diverse origins that directly influence its nutritional value. The objective of this study was to investigate the antioxidant properties and nutritional components in five varieties of mole from Hidalgo in Mexico namely verde (V), ranchero (R), almendrado (A), casero (C), and pipian (P). Proximal chemical analysis and determination of the color index and the content of total starch, dietary fiber, mineral content (Ca, Na, K, and Mg), total phenolic content, and antioxidant activity by ABTS (2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) and DPPH (2,2-diphenylpicrylhydrazyl) were carried out. All the five varieties of mole reported less than 25% moisture content while fat content varied from 42.9% to 58.25%. The color index ranged from a deep orange to a deep red color. A fair percentage of dietary fiber was found in all mole varieties with a low amount of starch as well. The presence of mostly insoluble dietary fiber, high phenolic content (36.13-79.49 mg GAE/100 g), and high antioxidant activity could be considered important strengths to boost the consumption of these traditional preparations. This research will contribute to a better scientific knowledge of traditional Mexican sauces as functional foods or nutraceuticals that could be used to avoid health disorders.
... Indeed, the results by Guilherme et al. (2020) showed higher contents of chlorogenic, m-coumaric and o-coumaric acids, as well as of resveratrol, myricetin, luteolin-7-O-glucoside and quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside in green peppers than in red ones indicating that maturation promoted a significant decrease of the abundance of the majority of the individual phenolic compounds. Effect of cooking on phenolic contents of Mexican peppers has been investigated by Ornelas-Paz et al. (2010). The authors have found that boiling and grilling sequentially increased the total phenolic content (7.4-137.0%) in pungent peppers, whilst the content (1.6-26.9%) in non-pungent Bell peppers was reduced after cooking. ...
... The content of capsaicinoids in chili fruits depends on genetic/genotypic factors, crop and postharvest management, fruit maturation and ecological-environmental aspects (Vera-Guzmán et al. 2017). With respect to fruit ripening, the capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin levels are higher at the red/yellow stage of fruit maturation as compared to the green one (Ornelas-Paz et al. 2010;Hamed et al. 2019). Among the external factors influencing the capsaicinoids content, the temperature, amount of sunlight, soil fertility and water availability have been emphasized (Antonio et al. 2018). ...
Various herbs, plants and spices have been used for many decades as natural valuable remedies for prevention and/or treatment of diverse diseases and health problems. Chili peppers (Capsicum spp.), one of the oldest domesticated and utilized crops, are bestowed with a wide range of natural bioactive phytochemicals making the plant a very valuable spice with the health beneficial aspects. Carotenoids (apocarotenoids), ascorbic acid (and other vitamins), phenolic compounds, capsaicinoids and capsinoids belong to the main bioactive substances of nutritional and secondary metabolite composition of Capsicum fruits. Due to their presence, chili peppers possess various health-promoting functional attributes (such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities, pain relief properties, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal benefits, antidiabetic and anti-obesity effects, antimicrobial and antifungal activities) which are summarized and characterized in the current review. Taking into account not only the pungency, color and aroma but also the medicinal potential, the enormous quantities of various Capsicum fruits have been consumed worldwide, particularly in China. Attributing to the existence of several cultivars showing significant intra-specific, as well as inter-specific chemical variability, there is still a growing number of scientific researches screening the chemical composition and exploring potential phytopharmacy (including antioxidant and antimicrobial activities) of chili peppers. Such observations provide a helpful insight into the ability of the various Capsicum cultivars as natural agents in the prevention of diverse, mainly free radical- and microbial-related human diseases.
... Studies of carotenoid extracts from the fruits of different species of Capsicum have shown their ability to reduce the total number of reactive oxygen species and free radicals [9]. It should be noted that the fruits of pepper contain a large number of other substances with antioxidant activitychlorophyll [7], phenols [10], capsaicinoids [10], vitamins [11]. The effect of carotenoids on inflammatory processes is not limited to antioxidant action: carotenoids are able to trap harmful radiation [12], have membraneprotective properties [13], inhibit the cascade of proinflammatory cytokines [14]. ...
... Studies of carotenoid extracts from the fruits of different species of Capsicum have shown their ability to reduce the total number of reactive oxygen species and free radicals [9]. It should be noted that the fruits of pepper contain a large number of other substances with antioxidant activitychlorophyll [7], phenols [10], capsaicinoids [10], vitamins [11]. The effect of carotenoids on inflammatory processes is not limited to antioxidant action: carotenoids are able to trap harmful radiation [12], have membraneprotective properties [13], inhibit the cascade of proinflammatory cytokines [14]. ...
The search for new anti-inflammatory substances is an important area of pharmacology. Plant carotenoids have many positive biological effects and are of interest as potential anti-inflammatory agents. The aim. To study the anti-inflammatory properties of extractive carotenoids from fruits of Capsicum annuum L. on the model of adjuvant-induced inflammation. Materials and methods. The fruits of Capsicum annuum L. were used as the plant raw material. Carotenoids were obtained by the extractive method. The model of adjuvant-induced inflammation was reproduced in young female rats. The dynamics of changes in the volume of the inflammatory edema and the total number of blood leukocytes were studied. Results and discussion. A decrease in edema in nonspecific inflammation was observed on day 15 during the therapy with carotenoid extracts (Δ1.01±0.08 in treatment group; Δ1.28±0.08 in control group). For specific inflammation, edema reduction when using carotenoids occurred on day 30 (Δ0.047±0.015 in treatment group; Δ0.073±0.012 in control group). A decrease in leukocytosis occurred on days 20 and 30 of the treatment for non-specific and specific inflammation, respectively. The mechanisms of the anti-inflammatory action of carotenoids are presumably associated with the antioxidant effect and the ability to affect the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Conclusions. Extractive carotenoids from the fruits of Capsicum annuum L. have the anti-inflammatory activity in the case of adjuvant-induced inflammation. Treatment with Capsicum annuum L. extract reduced inflammatory edema and total leukocyte count
... . Single spot for the complex was obtained indicating the formation of complex. Results were correlated with the findings of Ornelas PJD[13].3.1.3. Infrared SpectroscopySeparate IR spectrum was obtained for capsaicin, PC and complex shown inFigures 1, 2 and 3respectively. ...
Rheumatoid arthritis, often known as RA, is an autoimmune disorder that has a pathophysiology that is not completely understood. There are a broad variety of elements that may have an effect on its etiology, including environmental factors, genetic factors, microbes, medicines, and hormones. Additionally, it has a substantial influence on the lives of a large number of people. In the majority of instances, DMARDs are the drugs that are used the most often for the treatment and modification of ailments that are associated with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Nevertheless, there are a great many herbs that might be the subject of study for the modification of diseases associated to rheumatoid arthritis by researchers. We developed our research study in which we generated rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in rats in order to take advantage of the restricted usage of capsaicin in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). After that, we investigated the effects of capsaicin on its own and in conjunction with the phosphatidylcholine (PC) complex, and we analyzed the activity of both of these substances. When we compared our findings with those of the illness group, we found that the combination of capsaicin and PC complex had the potential to alter the outcomes that were seen in our experiment. Following the completion of our trials, we arrived to the conclusion that the combination of capsaicin and PC has the potential to play a significant role in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA).
... The TPC ranged between 6.18 ('Bak lC') and 3.74 ('Kna') mg CAP equivalents g −1 DW. All results provided in Table 3 were within the range of those reported by other authors [7,33,36,37]. TPC showed a lower genotypic effect in comparison with maturity stages and fruit position effects (Table 1). ...
The relationship between fruit position, ripening stage, and variety has not been well studied in pepper plants. To understand the interaction of these factors, a diversity of phytochemical traits as well as antioxidant activity were investigated with agronomic traits in eleven hot pepper varieties collected from the upper and lower parts of the plant and harvested at three maturity stages (green, orange, and red). Capsaicin content (CAP) showed a relatively high genetic effect; on the contrary, total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and antioxidant activity were more affected by the ripening stage and fruit position. The CAP values ranged from 0.29 (‘FKbM’) to 0.77 (‘Bka’) mg CAP equivalents g−1 DW. The ripening stage was the predominant factor for TPC, TFC, DPPH, and FRAP. There was no significant interaction between A × FP, A × RS, and FP × RS for all agro-morphological fruit traits. Variety, fruit position, and ripening stage effects are more significant than all interactions calculated. Lower fruit positions in all samples showed a maximum fruit size, whereas phytochemical traits and yield per plant were relevant in the upper parts, and Phytochemical traits and yield per plant were significantly correlated. From PCA and cluster analysis, all varieties showed the highest biochemical and antioxidant levels with moderate fruit size, except the ‘Bel’ variety that showed the smallest fruit traits with high yields, and the ‘FKbM’ and ‘FKbK’ varieties that showed the highest fruit size but low yields. This study supplies information to identify interesting cultivars with considerable levels of bioactive and phytochemical metabolites, which is useful for breeding programs of novel varieties.
... As large quantities and diverse types are consumed, chili pepper fruits are commercially important. Most chili peppers taste pungent due to a group of lipophilic alkaloids called capsaicinoids [7][8][9]. The most abundant ingredients of these compounds are capsaicin (trans-8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and dihydrocapsaicin (8-methyl-Nvanillyl-nonanamide), which are responsible for about 90% of the fruits' spiciness [10,11]. ...
Capsaicinoids, mostly from chili peppers, are widely used in daily life. Capsaicinoids are considered to be markers for the identification of illegal cooking oil (ICO), which is a serious threat to public health. The identification of capsaicinoids can help reveal food-related fraud, thereby safeguarding consumers’ health. Here, a novel and ultrasensitive method was established with a signal amplification strategy for the detection of capsaicinoids. AuNPs@Fe3O4 nanocomposites were functionalized with 4-aminothiophenol (4-atp). After diazotization, 4-atp on AuNPs@Fe3O4 reacted with capsaicinoids and formed capsaicinoids-azo-atp-AuNPs@Fe3O4. Ultimately, capsaicinoids-azo-atp-AuNPs@Fe3O4 was dropped onto the surface of a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) and detected via the differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) method. AuNPs@Fe3O4 nanocomposites increased the specific surface area of the electrode. Moreover, the diazotization–coupling reaction enriched the analytes on the electrode surface. Liquid–liquid extraction was used for sample pretreatment. Under a pH value of 9.0 and concentration of 0.20 mol/L for the supporting electrolyte, the linearity of capsaicinoids in ICO is from 0.10 to 10.00 ng/mL, and the limit of detection (S/N = 3) is 0.05 ng/mL. This method is ultra-sensitive, reliable, and cost-effective for the detection of capsaicinoids. Herein, this method provides a promising tool for the identification of ICO.
... Vitamins C and E, provitamin A, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds are all abundant in peppers and contribute to the plant food's overall antioxidant activity and bioactive qualities [4]. Capsaicinoids, which are vanillylamine coupled with a branched-chain fatty acid to form capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin ( Fig. 1), are the most distinctive phenolic compounds discovered in pepper fruits and are in charge of 90% of the pungency of peppers [10]. The cultivar and species of Capsicum determine how pungent they are. ...
America is the original home of the Capsicum genus (Solanaceae). It is now a significant agricultural crop grown all over the world, not only for its commercial significance but also for the fruits' high nutritional worth. Capsicum and its various variants have many beneficial qualities that set them apart from other vegetables. They are also used as a spice in many foods due to its potent, pungent flavour, which is created during the plant's secondary metabolism. Due to the presence of carotenoids, which can be utilised as a natural colouring agent and antioxidant, capsicum fruit displays a diverse colour profile. Capsaicinoids, one of their phytochemical components, give sharp-tasting cultivars their typical pungency. Capsicum and its capsaicinoids, particularly capsaicin, have also received a lot of research attention due to their health advantages. Additionally, the essential oils from capsicum are used in cosmetics as anti-aging ingredients. Thus, this study covers the scientific literature on Capsicum species and their phytochemicals, which have been shown to have protective effects against cancer, diabetes, gastrointestinal disorders, pain, and metabolic syndrome as well as having antibacterial and antioxidant properties. The chemical and functional characteristics of the bioactive chemicals derived from capsicum and their successful application in the pharmaceutical, food, agricultural, cosmetic, and textile sectors.
... A study in Ornelas-Paz Braulio also showed that the cooking process causes an almost 20% reduction in the reducing power of red chili peppers of the Jalapeño variety (Capsicum annuum), relative to the raw material that was not thermally processed. Perhaps the reduction in the reducing power of the raw material studied due to cooking is a consequence of the leaching of some hydrophilic antioxidants, mainly ascorbic acid, into the hot water [40]. ...
Background: The present study addresses this research gap by evaluating the impact of boiling in water and microwaving on the bioactivity characteristics of bell peppers at different ripening stages. Methods: The total polyphenols, DPPH, ABTS and FRAP were used for the evaluation of the antioxidant potential qualitatively and quantitatively, and the simple reductive sugar texture and color changes were measured. Results: Microwave heating appears to be a favorable treatment in the case of preservation of most of the antioxidant potential. Green and red bell peppers were more resistant to the treatments, while the yellow stage was the one in which the changes were observed the most. Conclusions: However, the results indicate that from a consumer standpoint, microwave heating treatment is more beneficial for red peppers. In contrast, hot water cooking is more beneficial for green and yellow peppers.
... The Habanero fruit is an important ingredient in the cuisine of countries such as Mexico, China, Thailand and South Korea (Nass et al., 2015), and is known for its high pungency and unique aroma (Teodoro et al., 2013). It is also a rich source of vitamin C (Canto-Flick et al., 2008), capsaicinoids (De Jesús Ornelas-Paz et al., 2010;Sweat et al., 2016;Jeeatid et al., 2018), phenolic compounds (Menichini et al., 2009;Campos et al., 2013), carotenoids (Butcher et al., 2012;Giuffrida et al., 2013;Gómez-García and Ochoa-Alejo, 2013) flavonoids (Teodoro et al., 2013), and other secondary metabolites with antioxidant properties (Castro-Concha et al., 2014). These qualities make the Habanero pepper a key raw material for different industries (food, pharmaceutical, chemistry and cosmetology, among others), but the high demand for this product in the market has not yet been satisfied, mainly due to the absence of highly productive varieties and hybrids that preserve the attributes that consumers prefer. ...
Selection of lines from segregating generations and breeding hybrids to exploit heterosis or heterobeltiosis is an effective tool for improving economically important traits in the genus Capsicum . The objective of this study was to identify high potential parents to obtain high-yielding F 1 hybrids using a Line × Tester (8 × 2) mating design in the Habanero pepper improvement programme. Ten parents and 16 hybrids were evaluated in order to determine their values of general combining ability, specific combining ability, heterosis, and heterobeltiosis. Parent NKA-11 had the highest values of GCA for different quantitative variables of the fruit, which does it suitable for future improvement works, and tester RNJ-04 showed the highest value of GCA for fruit length. The quantitative variables evaluated confirm a significant genetic variability among the Habanero pepper genotypes studied. The best hybrids were NEK-03xRNJ-04, NBA-06xRNJ-04, AKN-07xRNJ-04, and RKI-10xRNJ-04, which showed their high productive potential with values between 3.13 and 4.92 Kg/Pta, a quality, that would open to them the national market for fresh consumption. Based on the GCA values of the parents and heterosis of the progenies, it is concluded hybridization would be the most appropriate genetic improvement method to increase both yield (YP) and the number of fruits for plant.
... Red or yellow CC, xanthophylls and anthocyanins gradually form during ripening. CC and chlorophylls in paprika are also involved in its antioxidant activity (Ornelas-Paz et al. 2010). ...
... Chilli peppers are commonly preferred food additives due to high spicy flavor allowing preparation of tasty foods (1). Commercial food processing for chilli pepper became critical as there were a number of chilli pepper subtypes and high level of demand for chilli pepper. ...
... According to the authors [80], before the drying processes, all samples of C. annuum had previously undergone blanching using hot water at 90 °C. The boiling process negatively influenced capsaicinoid content and other phytochemical components, which may alter their bioaccessibility and bioavailability in Capsicum samples [81,82]. ...
Opportunistic pathogenic fungi arise in agricultural crops as well as in surrounding human daily life. The recent increase in antifungal-resistant strains has created the need for new effective antifungals, particularly those based on plant secondary metabolites, such as capsaicinoids and capsinoids produced by Capsicum species. The use of such natural compounds is well-aligned with the One Health approach, which tries to find an equilibrium among people, animals, and the environment. Considering this, the main objective of the present work is to review the antifungal potential of capsaicinoids and capsinoids, and to evaluate the environmental and health impacts of biofungicides based on these compounds. Overall, capsaicinoids and their analogues can be used to control pathogenic fungi growth in plant crops, as eco-friendly alternatives to pest management, and assist in the conservation and long-term storage of agrifood products. Their application in different stages of the agricultural and food production chains improves food safety, nutritional value, and overcomes antimicrobial resistance, with a lower associated risk to humans, animals, and the environment than that of synthetic fungicides and pesticides. Nevertheless, research on the effect of these compounds on bee-like beneficial insects and the development of new preservatives and packaging materials is still necessary.
... Red pepper oil, also known as chili oil, is made by hot maceration of dried chilies in cooking oil (Rui et al. 2020;Xza et al. 2020). As a flavoring oil, red pepper oil is often used to process various snack foods to give them a spicy taste (Ornelas-Paz et al. 2010;Zhang et al. 2021). Depending on the intensity of spiciness, red pepper oil is usually classified as slightly spicy, medium spicy, and extra spicy. ...
Red pepper oil is a kind of condiment used in food factories, and its spicy degree can be reflected by the content of capsaicin. However, the classification method of red pepper oil is too subjective to be applied in food factories. In our work, a sensitivity electrochemical sensor for detecting capsaicin was constructed based on the glassy carbon electrode (GCE) modified with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) assisted reduced graphene oxide (rGO). The results showed that the introduction of β-CD made rGO more dispersed, increasing the electrochemical active surface area of β-CD/rGO, thus improving the charge transfer rate. Furthermore, polycyclodextrin with selective recognition ability was dispersed on the surface of rGO, providing the possibility of capsaicin enrichment on the surface of the sensor. Based on these reasons, the sensor had a lower detection limit (0.05 μg/mL), and acceptable stability and anti-interference. Most importantly, β-CD/rGO/GCE displayed a satisfactory recovery rate (94.83 ~ 115.75%) in the detection of red pepper oil, and there was no statistical significance difference between this method and the LC–MS method.
... Growing in almost every region of the world, peppers are consumed and used both as natural food coloring and spices due to their remarkable colors, flavors and aromas (Ornelas-Paz et al., 2010). Phenolic compounds are natural antioxidants present in plant foods (Zeb, 2020). ...
... The total flavonoids of salak chili paste paste in this study were in accordance with [7] where the total flavonoids of raw C. annuum varied between 5.4-544.6 g/g, while the total flavonoids of ripe C. annuum varied between 3.6-425.0 ...
Red Curly Chili (Capsicum annum) and Salak Pondoh (Salacca edulis Reinw) are one of Indonesia’s agricultural commodities that have high economic value. This research aims to determine the effect of salak chili paste paste formulation on its sensory properties, the effects of salak chili paste paste formulation on the levels of bioactive compounds (capsaicin, flavonoids, phenols, and antioxidant activity, and the effect of salak chili paste paste formulation on total microbes during storage. This research was divided into three stages, which is (1) sensory analysis by trained panelists, (2) analysis of bioactive compounds using a Microplate Reader, (3) analysis of the number of microbes (TPC). The results showed that (1) formulation 37.5 % Curly Red Chili var. Hailux and 12.5 % Salak Pondoh var. Semeru was preffered by the panelists, and had the highest levels of capsaicin bioactive compounds (0.539 mg/g), phenol (0.361 mg GAE/g), and flavonoids (0.462 mg QE/g). (2) formulation 12.5 % Red Chili Curly var. Hailux , and 50 % Salak Pondoh var. Semeru has the highest antioxidant activity (99.87%). (3) formulation of 50 % Salak Pondoh var. Semeru has the antimicrobial activity of 1.4 x 10 ⁶ CFU/ ml.
... Growing in almost every region of the world, peppers are consumed and used both as natural food coloring and spices due to their remarkable colors, flavors and aromas (Ornelas-Paz et al., 2010). Phenolic compounds are natural antioxidants present in plant foods (Zeb, 2020). ...
Background: The aim of this study is to increase the consumption acceptability of yogurt and to improve its functional properties by using red pepper (Capsicum frutescens L.) powder. Methods: This study analyses yogurt with varying degrees red pepper powder addition (0, 0.2%, 0.5%, 1.5%, 2%). The mixtures were analyzed on days 1, 7 and 15. Result: The antioxidant activity was found between 10.70 and 15.06 mM TE. Total phenolic compounds were between 250.19 and 577.50 mg GAE/kg. Important differences were revealed between the control and yogurts with red pepper powder with respect to total antioxidant activity and phenolic contents characteristics during storage (p less than 0.05). In conclusion, the obtained data can be used for the development of a functional product.
... Among the capsaicinoid components, capsaicin is the most abundant, followed by dihydrocapsaicin and nordihydrocapsaicin [23]. It has been shown that the total phenolic content, capsaicinoids and carotenoids are significantly increased after the grilling of fresh peppers, leading to an increase in the antioxidant activities [30,31]. In the same direction, various studies suggested that cooking methods such as roasting increase the accessibility of carotenoids [32]. ...
Bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), one of the most consumed vegetables worldwide, shows great differences between its diverse varieties. These differences affect the fruit type, size and shape. Food preservation techniques prolong the availability of sweet pepper. Roasted pepper is a product marketed with the European recognition of Protected Geographical Indication ‘Pimiento Asado del Bierzo’. The objective of this work was to analyse the effect of the fruit weight and fruit locule number of the industrial fresh pepper on quality and roasted pepper yield. Large trilocular fruits and large tetralocular fruits reached higher roast yield and uniformity than small trilocular fruits. Regardless of fruit locule number and fruit weight, the overall quality of all the samples of roasted pepper was categorised as very good. Large tetralocular and large trilocular fruits are the most appropriate peppers for industrial purposes, whereas small trilocular fruits should be intended for the fresh product market. This easy method of sorting bell pepper fruit attending to fruit weight will decrease the amount of pepper waste in the industrial roasting process (around 18%), while maintaining the high overall quality of the final product. Moreover, the faster peeling of large peppers will also contribute to increasing the productivity of the industrial processing of roasted pepper.
... Zhang [10] and Ismail et al. [20] reported that cooking vegetables significantly decreases, total phenolic content. Reduced phenolic compounds in boiled or steamed foods have been attributed to the dissolution of phenolic compounds into the cooking water [21]. The loss of phenolic compounds also depend on the processing time and food size [22]. ...
Heat processing method of fruits and vegetables has been developed over the centuries to make the final product more attractive in flavour, appearance, taste and consistency. Besides consumer preferences, the selected heat processing methods for food preparation is an important factor affecting not only the nutritional composition, but also the intake of bioactive compounds under normal dietary conditions. In this study garlic was evaluated for their, physicochemical, and antioxidant potential. The antioxidant content was significantly affected on application of different processing methods and processing time. Roasted sample exhibited higher % DPPH and total phenolic content as compared to the other heat processing methods. One of the roasting methods, microwave processing retained maximum ascorbic acid content, percent acidity and pH value. Hence roasting and microwave treatment may be recommended over other heat processing methods for better retention of bioactive compounds.
... Generally, paprika spices contained more polyphenols than pepper spices. The obtained results about polyphenols content can be compared with the results of other researchers, where the total phenolic content in Mexican peppers was in the range 20-782 mg/100 g [49]. In the next study the total phenols and flavonoids content of extracts of paprika powder were investigated [50]. ...
Paprika powder is a good source of different carotenoids and polyphenols, which play a key role in preventing certain diseases (some kinds of cancer and cardiovascular diseases). They can also be used as natural food colorants. Organic production is characterized by strict rules, but products obtained in this way contain more bioactive compounds, such as carotenoids and polyphenols. The aim of this study was to measure and identify carotenoids and polyphenols in different paprika samples (sweet, hot, smoked, and chili) obtained by organic and conventional production. Quantitative and qualitative carotenoid and polyphenols analysis showed that the experimental samples contained different concentrations of these compounds.
... Antioxidants are usually found in vegetables and thus its consumption has been associated with protection against several non-communicable diseases (Alvarez-Parrilla et al., 2012). Capsicum is rich in antioxidants, including capsaicinoids, carotenoids and ascorbic acid (Ornelas-Paz et al., 2010). ...
Introduction: In Ethiopia, spicy hot red pepper, locally known as berbere, is a common food additive that is consumed in a variety of forms, which have high antioxidant potentials. Methods: The antioxidant activity of raw spices (garlic, ginger, cardamom and black cumin), and both raw and cooked experimental and commercial spicy hot red pepper were evaluated using 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), ferric ion (Fe 3+) reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and ferrous ion (Fe 2+) chelating activity (FICA) assay methods. Results: The IC 50 of DPPH and ABTS of garlic were the lowest of all raw spices; conversely, they had the strongest radical scavenging activity. The FRAP of ginger, and FICA of garlic were the strongest of all raw spices. The antioxidant potential of raw experimental (ESP) and commercial (CSP) spicy hot red pepper were stronger than raw spices; however, commercial spice mix cooked sauté (CSS) was the strongest of all following uncooked commercial spice mix (CSP). The DPPH and ABTS, and FRAP and FICA, respectively ranked in ascending order: HRP<ESP<ESS<CSP<CSS, and HRP<ESP<CSP≤ESS<CSS. Correlations between DPPH versus total flavonoid content (TFC), ABTS versus total phenolic content (TPC), FRAP versus TPC, and FICA versus condensed tannin content were strong in raw spices. The DPPH against TPC and TFC, ABTS against TFC, FRAP against TFC, and FICA against TPC correlated strongly in both raw and spice mix cooked sauté. Conclusion: Spices used for popular Ethiopian spicy hot red pepper powder production, and both raw and cooked mixture of them are promising sources of antioxidants with positive health effects. This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4657331 P r e p r i n t n o t p e e r r e v i e w e d 2
Capsicum genus (Solanaceae) is native to the Americas. Today, it is an important agricultural crop cultivated around the world, not only due to its economic importance, but also for the nutritional value of the fruits. Among their phytochemical constituents, capsaicinoids are characteristic and responsible of the pungency of sharp-tasting cultivars. Moreover, Capsicum and capsaicinoids (mainly, capsaicin) have been largely studied because of their health benefits. Thus, this study reviews the scientific knowledge about Capsicum spp. and their phytochemicals against cancer, diabetes, gastrointestinal diseases, pain, and metabolic syndrome, as well as their antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. These bioactivities can be the basis of the formulation of functional ingredients and natural preservatives containing Capsicum extracts or isolated compounds.
Farmers' varieties or landraces of chili are regularly heterogeneous, selected and preserved by small traditional farmers and highly demanded by regional consumers. The objective of this study was to evaluate the variation in the content of phenolic compounds, vitamin C, carotenoids, capsaicinoids and antioxidant activity in fruits of a population collection of the landraces Huacle and De Agua, which originated in Oaxaca, Mexico, and a commercial variety of Jalapeño (control). The collection was grown in greenhouse conditions under a random block design. At harvest, a sample of ripe fruits was obtained to evaluate the content of phenolic compounds, vitamin C and antioxidant activity by UV–visible spectrophotometry and the concentration of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin was measured by high-resolution liquid chromatography. Significant differences were observed between the Huacle and De Agua landraces and between these and Jalapeño. The studied fruits exhibit the following pattern for flavonoid and carotenoid contents: Huacle > De Agua > Jalapeño. The opposite pattern was observed for total polyphenol and vitamin C contents: Jalapeño > De Agua > Huacle. The general pattern for capsaicinoids in fruits was Jalapeño > De Agua > Huacle. Huacle and De Agua populations showed high variability in all compounds evaluated, with positive correlations with antioxidant activity. The capsaicin content in Huacle populations varied ranging from 7.4 to 26.2 mg 100 g⁻¹ and De Agua ranged from 12.4 to 46.8 mg 100 g⁻¹.
Ultrasonication is one of the non-thermal physical methods that can be used on foods and when used in synergy with temperature (thermosonication), this technique proves to be more effective, thus reducing the duration and intensity of heat treatment and the consequent damage to the foods. This work aimed to use the technique of ultrasonication and thermosonication in the processing of jalapeno pepper sauces in comparison with pasteurization. Two types of sauces were produced, one with pre-cooking (a) and the other without cooking (b), and the influence of time and temperature was analyzed by applying ultrasonication and thermosonication. Times of 15 and 30 min and temperatures of 25 and 65 °C were used. Both treatments stood out for their effectiveness when compared to the traditional method (pasteurization 65 °C and 30 min). The results demonstrate that, in general, the sauces are good sources of phenolic compounds (141.83 ± 0.10 mg gallic acid equivalent/100 g), flavonoids (50.40 ± 0.30 mg quercetin equivalent/100 g) and carotenoids (2.39 ± 0.07 mg β-carotene/100 g). The sauces had an increase in carotenoids by about 25% (thermosonicated at 15 and 30 min and pre-cooked) and in antioxidant activity (ferric reducing antioxidant power) with about 12% and 13% (thermosonicated at 30 min with and without cooking, respectively) in relation to control (pasteurization). On comparing thermosonication with ultrasound process total phenolics had improved by around 14% and flavonoids by 55%. At the first time, capsantin, capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, and nordihydrocapsaicin were identified by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-MS/MS (UHPLC-MS/MS). Finally, as both treatments demonstrate efficiency (thermosonication at 15 and 30 min), the use of 15 min is indicated as feasible by the reduced process time and in preventing the loss of bioactive compounds in the sauces when compared to the pasteurization treatment.
In this study, ICP-OES and ICP-MS analyses were performed using inorganic elements. We quantified 60 inorganic elements and set specific processes, methods, equipment or systems between experiments in ICP-OES and ICP-MS equipment to consistently derive results that meet the criteria. The relative standard deviation (RSD) was mostly less than 8%. The accuracy precision, linearity, limit of quantity detection (LOD) and limit of quantity (LOQ) of the experimental method were evaluated. The limit of detection (LOD) of ICP-OES was in the range of 0.024–1.505 mg/kg, and the limit of quantification (LOQ) was 0.081–4.967 mg/kg. The limit of detection (LOD) of ICP-MS was 0.001–1.425 µg/kg, and the limit of quantification (LOQ) was 0.003–4.703 µg/kg. In addition, monitoring of 64 domestic and 51 imported dried red pepper using 60 elements was conducted for the first time.
Shrimp paste, a type of traditional Chinese food prepared from shrimp fermented with salt, contains biogenic amines (BAs). In this study, the BA content, salinity, and pH of eight commercial low-salt shrimp pastes were analyzed. In addition, the influences of various cooking conditions on the BA content of it were evaluated by HPLC. The total BA amount per product ranged between 32.39 and 1051.16 mg/kg. The salinity and pH were found significantly inversely correlated with the total BA amount. Of the cooking methods tested, after microwave heating and stir-frying, the total BA amount of shrimp paste, which showed the highest BA amount among 8 samples, declined from 1051.16 to 598.48 and 650.49 mg/kg, respectively; however, boiling or steaming showed no significant effects on the total BA amount. These results indicated possible health risk of low-salt shrimp paste whereas the risk could be reduced by choosing appropriate cooking method.
In the era of COVID pandemic, it is highly desirable to improve body’s immune responses. Many of the diseases including COVID impact the immune system and make it defenseless. There is a growing interest of herbal medicine around the world owing to effective pharmacological actions attributed by its unique phytocompounds. Majority of the immunomodulatory drugs including both immunosuppressor and immuno-stimulators are synthetic organic compounds having side effects. Therefore, there is a growing interest to use plant-based products to regulate immune responses. The present chapter deals with the recognition of members of the family Solanaceae for their use as potential immunomodulators. There are quite a few reports of active phytocompounds isolated from different solanaceous plants that have a myriad of medicinal properties. Various phytochemicals such as phenolic compounds, flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenes, lactones, and glycosides have been shown to have various therapeutic effects on human body owing to their ability to influence body’s immune system. The present chapter will give a comprehensive overview of plant-based therapeutics of solanaceous plants including withanolides isolated from Withania somnifera and Physalis sps, capsaicinoids isolated from Capsicum, and lycopene from tomato. Solanaceae is one of the superfamily having huge repertoire of plants belonging to major food crops utilized throughout the world (tomato, potato, capsicum etc.) as well as in medicine category. Besides several members of the Solanaceae family such as Physalis sps, Atropa sps, Datura stramonium, and Solanum xanthocarpum have potential phytomolecules belonging to alkaloids, terpenoids, and steroid category, which are recognized as medicines. This chapter will also give a critical overview of the possibilities, facts, and prospects of the use of members of Solanaceae family as potential future immunomodulatory drugs.KeywordsSolanaceaeAtropa spsHyoscyamus spsPhysalis sps
Withania somnifera
CapsicumWithanolidesCapsaicinoids
Red pepper oil is a kind of condiment used in the food factories, and its spicy degree can be reflected by the content of capsaicin. However, the classification method of red pepper oil is too subjective to be applied in food factories. In our work, a sensitivity electrochemical sensor for detecting capsaicin was constructed based on the glassy carbon electrode (GCE) modified with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) assisted reduced graphene oxide (rGO). The results showed that the introduction of β-CD made rGO more dispersed, increasing the electrochemical active surface area of β-CD/rGO, thus improving the charge transfer rate. Furthermore, polycyclodextrin with selective recognition ability was dispersed on the surface of rGO, providing the possibility of capsaicin enrichment on the surface of the sensor. Based on these reasons, the sensor had a lower detection limit (0.05 µg/mL), and the acceptable stability and anti-interference. Most importantly, β-CD/rGO/GCE displayed a satisfactory recovery rate (94.83% ~ 115.75%) in the detection of red pepper oil, and there was no statistical significance difference between this method and the LC-MS method.
The thermal stability of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin were investigated by conducting cooking tests where temperature and duration varied. These results were used to calculate the half-life of capsaicin at different temperatures and to obtain sufficient data to describe all the variables in the Arrhenius equation between 100C and 210C. In addition, the degradation of capsaicinoids appeared to followed first order kinetics. Degradation rates also increased at higher temperatures as expected. The unknown variables in the Arrhenius equation of frequency factor (A) and activation energy (Ea) were determined for both capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin. The frequency factor for capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin were 2.60109and 1.25109, respectively. The activation energy for capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin were 87.2 kJ/mol and 84.0 kJ/mol, respectively. Pepper samples cooked in water had longer half-lives than dry pepper powder, which suggests hydrolysis was not a significant degradation mechanism. These results estimated that less than 30% capsaicinoid degradation occurred in nine typical cooking scenarios.
Drying and pretreatment play key roles in reducing postharvest losses and improving food security. High humidity hot air impingement blanching (HHAIB) was employed in the present work to pretreat red peppers and its effects on natural micro flora, quality and drying characteristics of red pepper were evaluated. Results showed that the aerobic bacteria were decreased to1.72 log CFU/g; meanwhile, the mold and yeast populations were under the detection limit (<1.0 log CFU/g) after blanching for 30 s. Moreover, HHAIB treatment enhanced the drying rate, and the drying time was reduced by 14%-29% compared to the untreated samples. Weibull model precisely described the drying behavior of red pepper. HHAIB treatment (within 30 s) caused the decreases in ascorbic acid contents. At the same time, there was no significant (p > 0.05) effect on the surface color and natural pigment contents. The findings indicate that HHAIB pretreatment is a promising technique for increasing red pepper microbial safety and drying rate.
Many of the spices and herbs used today, in addition to their flavor and aroma, are valuable in terms of antimicrobial effects and medicinal power. Studies show that the extracts of many plants are able to inhibit the growth of microorganisms. Most pathogens, including bacterial, fungal, and viral, are sensitive to plant extracts such as garlic, marjoram, thyme, mint, cinnamon, red pepper, black pepper, turmeric, herbs, and ginger. Antimicrobial compounds in spices and herbs are mostly found in essential compounds. Gram-positive bacteria are more sensitive to anti-microbial compounds in spices and herbs than gram-negative bacteria. The degree of this sensitivity varies with the strain and environmental conditions. Some spices can have a direct effect on the rate of fermentation by stimulating acid production in the early stages. Phenols, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, ethers and hydrocarbons are known to be the main antimicrobial elements of spices.
Pepper is a crucial vegetable as well as spice crop, fruits of which contain numerous bioactive compounds such as capsaicinoids, capsinoids, carotenoids, and oleoresin. Because of the increased demand for eco-friendly products, increasing attention has been paid toward the bioactive compounds in pepper. Hot pepper fruits have potential applications in the pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industries. Thus, suitable varieties or F1 hybrids rich in bioactive compounds must be developed, which requires breeders to have knowledge on available genetic resources, gene action, and molecular markers associated with these traits. The large variability in the bioactive compounds in hot pepper germplasm and novel generation sequencing technologies have enabled understanding, precise mapping, and marker-assisted selection through single nucleotide polymorphism markers. The present study reviews the available knowledge on various industrial applications of hot peppers, genetic resources and progress made on marker development, and breeding for industrial uses of hot pepper globally.
Capsaicinoids, volatile compounds, and fatty acids were analyzed in red pepper seeds to determine any changes at different roasting temperatures. The contents of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin decreased as roasting temperatures increased. 3-Ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine, 2,3,5,6-tetramethylpyrazine, 2-methoxy-3-(2-methylpropyl)pyrazine, 1-methylpyrrole, hexanedial, benzeneacetaldehyde, 2-acetylfuran, and butane-2,3-diol were newly detected in red pepper seeds roasted at 100 °C. Concentrations of pyrazines, pyrroles, oxygen-containing heterocyclic compounds, carbonyls, and alcohols increased rapidly in red pepper seeds as the roasting temperature increased. Such compounds could contribute roasted, grilled, and sweet odor notes to roasted red pepper seeds. Linoleic acid was the predominant fatty acid in all red pepper seeds. There were no significant differences in polyunsaturated fatty acids in red pepper seeds as roasting temperature increased. In conclusion, roasting red pepper seeds could be used in thermally processed foods because during roasting their pungency is reduced, desirable savory odors are enhanced, and the levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids remain unchanged.
The cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2 receptor) has attracted considerable interest, mainly due to its potential as a target for therapeutics for treating various diseases that have a neuroinflammatory or neurodegenerative component while avoiding the adverse psychotropic effects that accompany CB1 receptor-based therapies. With the appreciation that CB2-selective ligands show marked functional selectivity, there is a renewed opportunity to explore this promising area of research from both a mechanistic as well as a therapeutic perspective. In this research, we are interested in the discovery of new chemotypes as highly selective CB2 modulators, which may serve as good starting points for further optimization towards the development of CB2 therapeutics. In search of new chemotypes as CB2 selective agents, we screened a series of triazole derivatives with interesting bioactive scaffolds, which led to the discovery of two novel and highly selective ligands for CB2 receptors. Compounds 6 and 11 produced a concentration-dependent inhibition of specific [³H]-CP55,940 (CB2) binding with Ki ± SEM values of 105.3 ± 22.6 and 116.4 ± 19.5 nM, respectively, while no binding affinity towards CB1 receptors or opioid receptors was observed. The CB2 functional activity of 6 and 11, as measured by a GPCR Tango assay (G-protein independent β-arrestin translocation assays), revealed that these compounds act as CB2 agonists with EC50 values ± SEM of 1.83 ± 0.16 and 1.14 ± 0.52 µM, respectively. Molecular modeling results showed that both compounds fit well into the active site of the CB2 receptor and showed strong hydrophobic interactions with key residues. In conclusion, the new triazole derivatives (6 and 11) showed promising activity towards CB2 receptors and have great potential to be developed into therapeutically useful CB2 agonist through hit-to-lead optimization.
The thermostability of carotenoids and capsaicinoids in a butter model (B), a rapeseed oil model (RO) and a blended model (BRO) was investigated under heating at 120–180 °C. The kinetic deterioration rate of each compound was described by a first-order kinetic model, while changes in L*, a*, and b* values were fitted to a zero-order model. Moreover, based on activation energy (Ea), the most and least temperature-sensitive oil models were B and RO, respectively. Across all oil models, carotenoid rate constants could be ordered as kcapsanthin > kzeaxanthin > kβ-cryptoxanthin > kβ-carotene > kcapsorubin, and color index values could be ordered as ka > kb > kL. The Ea values of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin in RO were 52.77 and 51.78 kJ/mol, respectively. Our results suggest that the stability of carotenoids and capsaicinoids can be influenced by the oxidizability and antioxidant content of oil.
Polyphenols are the most important phytochemicals in our diets and have received
great attention due to their broad benefits for human health by suppressing oxidative
stress and playing a protective role in preventing different pathologies such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and obesity. The stability of polyphenols
depends on their environments of processing and storage, such as pHand temperature.
A wide range of technologies has been developed to stabilize polyphenols during processing. This review will provide an overview of the stability of polyphenols in relation
to their structure, the factors impacting the stability of polyphenols, the new products
deriving from unstable polyphenols, and the effect of a series of technologies for the
stabilization of polyphenols, such as chemical modification, nanotechnology, lyophilization, encapsulation, cold plasma treatment, polyphenol–protein interaction, and emulsion as a means of improving stability. Finally, the effects of cooking and storage on the stability of polyphenols were discussed.
This work aimed to explore the potential of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) to obtain oleoresin from Capsicum annuum pepper (Jalapeno) industrial waste. SFE was carried out with CO2 at different conditions, exploring temperatures of 40 and 60 °C, pressures of 200 and 250 bar and the absence and presence of cosolvent (ethanol). Soxhlet extractions were performed using ethanol, acetone, and n-hexane for comparison purposes. The temperature variation and the addition of cosolvent (ethanol) were significant in increasing the total extracted mass of oleoresin, although the pressure did not have a significant effect. The total mass yields obtained by SFE varied between 9.38 and 10.08%, while for Soxhlet, the yields ranged between 8.45 and 15.5% (w/w). The extracts presented bioactive compounds such as phenolics, flavonoids, fatty acids, and carotenoids but did not show significant antioxidant activity. The kinetic behavior of SFE with CO2 was analyzed using the overall extraction curves and by fitting two kinetics models (logistic and spline) to the data. The models presented a good fit and allowed the calculation of important parameters. A brief economic assessment showed that SFE of oleoresin from the studied industrial waste can be considered profitable.
The percentage of germination and the vigor of seeds are major determinants for an efficient seedling production to successfully establishment a crop. Some Capsicum annuum germinate within a few days, but others take until 21 days. Pepper seeds have significant amounts of free and bound polyphenols that are modified during the germination process. Phenolic compounds are used by seed to scavenge free radicals, they can also work as signal compounds or they can be related to plant´s defense participating in the induced systemic resistance (ISR). However, the effect of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) on pepper seed germination and the changes on phenolic profile has not been examined. In this study, we evaluated the transformation of phenolic compounds during seed germination produced by the inoculation with native PGPR of pepper seeds germination. Five bacterial strains: Cellulosimicrobium 60I1, Ochrobactrum 53F, Enterobacter 64S1, Pseudomonas 42P4 and Azospirillum brasilense Az39 were investigated. Our results showed that seed inoculation enhanced significantly seed germination, seedling growth, root length, and diameter of pepper seedling. In addition, changes in the profile of free and bound phenolic compounds were observed in seeds inoculated with PGPR. The free phenolic compounds were higher in the seedling inoculated with 60I1, 42P4 or the consortium with respect to control. The phenolic acid increased in seed inoculated suggests an elicitation of phenylpropanoid pathway related to ISR. The free flavonoids, naringenin, and rutin were present in the control treatment, while they were not detectable in the inoculated treatments. These could be used as a carbon source by PGPR during the germination or converted into flavonols that could protect the plants under abiotic stress. The tyrosol was present in 60I1 and in 60I1+42P4 treatment. The most effective strains were Cellulosimicrobium 60I1 and Pseudomonas 42P4 that increased their potential when it was used together.
Effects of microwave and conventional cooking methods were studied on total phenolics and antioxidant activity of pepper, squash, green beans, peas, leek, broccoli and spinach. Total phenolics content of fresh vegetables ranged from 183.2 to 1344.7 mg/100 g (as gallic acid equivalent) on dry weight basis. Total antioxidant activity ranged from 12.2% to 78.2%. With the exception of spinach, cooking affected total phenolics content significantly (p < 0.05). The effect of various cooking methods on total phenolics was significant (p < 0.05) only for pepper, peas and broccoli. After cooking, total antioxidant activity increased or remained unchanged depending on the type of vegetable but not type of cooking.
Carotenoid, capsaicinoid and ascorbic acid composition of ripe fruits of five Capsicum annuum cultivars (730 F1, 1245 F1, Amazon F1, Serademre 8 and Kusak 295F1), grown as principle breeding material in Turkey, were quantitatively investigated by means of HPLC technique. Seven main carotenoids, five analogues of capsaicinoids and ascorbic acid were quantified in the fruits grown for 2 year replication. From the capsaicinoids and carotenoids data, Scoville Heat Unit (SHU) and retinol activity equivalent (RAE) values of the fruits were also calculated, respectively. The findings determined that the cultivars of 730 F1 and 1245 F1 had higher carotenoids (2310–2390 mg/kg in dry basis), capsaicinoids (471.3–688.1 mg/kg in dry basis), vitamin A (218.8–243.0 μg RAE/100 g in wet basis) and vitamin C (63.1–64.9 mg/100 g in wet basis) content, without any significant difference among each of them. Furthermore, the cultivars which had higher capsaicinoids contents had higher ascorbic acids content as well. With their high nutritional and functional components, the cultivar of 730 F1 and 1245 F1 can be considered to be selected breeding material for cultivar development.
A simple, highly selective, sensitive, and reproducible liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization/time-of-flight mass spectrometry method has been developed for the direct and simultaneous determination of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin in Capsicum fruit extracts. Capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin are the two major members of the so-called capsaicinoid family, which includes other minor analogues, and usually account for at least 90% of the pungency trait in Capsicum fruits. Chromatographic separation of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin was achieved with a reversed-phase chromatography column, using a gradient of methanol and water. Quantification was done using as an internal standard (4,5-dimethoxybenzyl)-4-methyloctamide, a synthetic capsaicin analogue not found in nature. Analytes were base-peak resolved in less than 16 min, and limits of detection were 20 pmol for capsaicin and 4 pmol for dihydrocapsaicin. The intraday repeatability values were lower than 0.5 and 12% for retention time and peak area, respectively, whereas the interday repeatability values were lower than 0.6 and 14% for retention time and peak area, respectively. Analyte recoveries found were 86 and 93% for capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin, respectively. The method developed has been applied to the identification and quantification of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin in fruit extracts from different Capsicum genotypes, and concentrations found ranged from 2 to 6639 mg kg(-1).
Physical characteristics [initial water content, surface area, surface area: volume (SA: V) ratio, cuticle weight, epicuticular wax content, and surface morphology] were examined to determine relationships between physical properties and water-loss `rate in pepper fruits. `Keystone', `NuMex R Naky', and `Santa Fe Grande' peppers, differing in physical characteristics, were stored at 8, 14, or 20C. Water-loss rate increased linearly with storage time at each temperature and was different for each cultivar. Water-loss rate was positively correlated with initial water content at 14 and 20C, SA: V ratio at all temperatures, and cuticle thickness at 14 and 20C. Water-loss rate was negatively correlated with surface area and epicuticular wax content at all temperatures. Stomata were absent on the fruit surface, and epicuticular wax was amorphous for each cultivar.
The safety of the consumption of spices – turmeric, red pepper and black pepper and their respective active principles was established in animal studies by observing the influence on growth, organ weights, nitrogen balance and blood constituents upon feeding at levels close to human intake as well as upto 100-times the normal human intake. Exhaustive animal studies documented the beneficial influence of turmeric/curcumin, red pepper/capsaicin, and garlic on lipid metabolism, especially anti-hypercholesterolemic effect of the three spices and anti-lithogenic effect of curcumin and capsaicin. The anti-diabetic effects of turmeric/curcumin, onion and cumin seeds were also evidenced with particular ameliorative influence of curcumin and onion on diabetic nephropathy. The antioxidant effects of curcumin (of turmeric), capsaicin (of red pepper) and eugenol (of clove) were evidenced both in in vitro and in vivo systems and the consequential health beneficial anti-inflammatory influence in experimentally induced arthritis was documented. The mechanism of digestive stimulant action of common spices examined in experimental animals revealed to be mediated through phenomenal stimulation of bile secretion with an enhanced bile acid concentration (ingredients essential for fat digestion and absorption) and an appropriate stimulation of the activities of digestive enzymes of pancreas and small intestine. The protective influence of hypolipidemic spices – curcumin, capsaicin and garlic on the altered fluidity of erythrocytes under hypercholesterolemic situation was evidenced in experimental animal models. Antioxidant spices were also shown to greatly reduce LDL-oxidation and also modulate the synthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Several spices or their extracts were also found to beneficially inhibit platelet aggregation. All these observations strongly indicate that many spices and their active principles are excellent nutraceuticals.
An improved high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method for analysis of capsaicinoids in dried Capsicum fruit powder, involving changes in extraction, mobile phase, flow rate, and excitation and emission spectra and resulting in reduced analysis time, increased sensitivity, and safety, is reported. Extraction of Capsicum fruit powder using acetonitrile proved to be the best capsaicinoid extractor in the shortest time interval. Solvents used for HPLC separation and quantification of capsaicinoids include methanol and water at 1 ml·min –1 flow rate. Instrument sensitivity is enhanced by altering the fluorescence detector excitation and emission wavelengths. Two analytical methods have been developed. One method determines total amount of heat units in 7 minutes, while the other provides total amount of heat units as well as separation of all present major and minor capsaicinoids in 20 minutes. These improved techniques provide inexpensive and rapid methods for quantitative and qualitative analysis of capsaicinoids in Capsicum fruit samples along with good sensitivity and no interference or confounding peaks.
Capsaicinoids were extracted from fresh chili pods (Capsicum frutescens L.) and characterized by high-performance liquid chromatography/atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry. Among the 23 compounds detected, 3 major and 12 minor capsaicinoids belonging to the ‘capsaicin’, ‘dihydrocapsaicin’ and ‘N-vanillyl-n-acylamide group’, respectively, were characterized by their specific fragmentation pattern in collision-induced dissociation experiments. Additionally, with the exception of ω-hydroxycapsaicin, several closely related compounds were tentatively identified as alkyl dehydrogenated and -hydroxylated derivatives, respectively, for the first time in Capsicum fruits.
A gas chromatographic method for the determination of the major naturally occurring capsaicinoids as O-methyl derivatives by on column derivatization with trimethylanilinium hydroxide was developed. Pure standards for quantitative gas chromatography were obtained from natural capsaicin by a combination of low pressure and semi-preparative high-performance liquid chromatography. Gas chromatographic on column methylation products were identified and conditions for maximum methylation were determined. The method was successfully applied to a wide variety of Capsicum products. Recoveries in the range of 99.1 to 102.4%, coefficients of variation in the range of 0.8 to 2.0% and ease of methylation make this method very suitable for capsaicinoid determination.
Thermal processing of chili (Capsicum annum var Kulai) and canning in the form of puree is an alternate process of producing a product with extended shelf-life while retaining its favorable qualities. Red chili was subjected to blanching treatment at different temperatures and times in a steam-jacketed kettle. Test samples were removed, cooled, drained and tested for enzyme activity (peroxidase and lipoxygenase). The model of response surface methodology was introduced to investigate the effects of time, temperature and amount of pectin on the physical properties of chili puree subjected to the evaporation process. Pectin was used as a thickening agent to enhance the viscosity of the puree. A complete inactivation of the enzymes was obtained with the blanching temperature of 100°C for 6min. First-order reaction kinetics fitted adequately to predict color loss and pectin was found to improve the viscosity and total soluble solids of the puree.
The effect of microwave cooking on the stability of chlorophylls and carotenoids in sweet potato leaves was studied. Each cooking treatment was conducted at 2450 MHz with an output power of 700 W for 0,2,4, or 8 min in duplicate. The various chlorophylls and carotenoids were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection. Results implied that in most cases the content of each pigment decreased along with the increase of heating time. Chlorophylls and the epoxy-containing carotenoids were the most susceptible to heat loss. Pigments formed during microwave cooking included chl b isomer, chl a isomer I, chl a isomer II, pheophytin b, pheophytin a, pyropheophytin a, cis-neochrome, and two lutein dehydration products, 3,4-didehydro-beta,epsilon-caroten-3'-ol and 3',4'-didehydro-beta,beta-caroten-3-ol.
The major capsaicinoids responsible for pungency in capsicum oleoresins were separated and quantified in an oleoresin model system and in a pharmaceutical model system using HPLC. An analogue of capsaicin, dimethoxybenzylmethyloctamide (DMBMO), was synthesized for use as an internal standard and used for quantification of capsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, and dihydrocapsaicin. This novel internal standard has a retention time between that of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin and is nonpungent. A precollaborative test was used to check the robustness of the procedure for variations in instrumentation and sample preparation. Changes in sample media were not shown to affect the results.
Capsicum pubescens, commonly known as tree pepper with its distinctive thick-fleshed pungent fruit (ripe and unripe), is used as a vegetable condiment or made into a sauce. The present study sought to determine the distribution of polyphenols and antioxidant activity in its thick flesh and seeds. Free, bound and total phenol content of each extract was subsequently determined, while reducing power, Fe (II)-chelating ability, OH radical-scavenging ability and ability of the extracts to inhibit lipid peroxidation in basal and Fe (II)-induced lipid peroxidation in brain was used for antioxidant capacity. Unripe pepper had higher total phenol content than ripe pepper; however, there was no significant difference ( P > 0.05) in the total phenol content of flesh for both peppers (unripe [110 mg/100g], ripe [95 mg/100 g]) and the seed (unripe [110.0 mg/100 g ], ripe [90 mg/100 g]). Nevertheless, the free polyphenols in flesh and seed of the peppers were significantly higher ( P < 0.05) than the bound polyphenols. All the extracts inhibited lipid peroxidation in a dose-dependent manner, although free polyphenols from the flesh of ripe pepper caused the highest inhibition in malondialdehyde production in rat's brain. Free and bound polyphenols from the flesh of unripe pepper had the highest Fe (II)-chelating and OH radical-scavenging ability. While the free polyphenols from the flesh of ripe pepper had the highest reducing power, this may have accounted for its ability to reduce Fe (II)-induced lipid peroxidation. Therefore, by removing the seed from pepper, a 50% loss in the total phenol content would result, which will substantially reduce antioxidant activity.
The effects of low-temperature long-time blanching of diced jalapeño pepper prior to freezing on extrusion force, color and pH of the product were evaluated and optimized by response surface methodology. The blanch temperature was the most important factor, while hold time had no significant effect on product quality. Maximum extrusion force and color parameter a*(green-red) correlated with temperature. The pH and the color parameters L*(brightness) and b*(blue-yellow) showed no significant variation with the experimental variables. The recommended blanch temperature of 55°C produced a firmness value of 779N and a color value of –10.55 of parameter a* in frozen jalapeño peppers.
Capsaicin content in frozen, cooked and canned jalapeno peppers was quantified using GLC analysis and compared to the capsaicin content in raw peper. The frozen peppers were blanched for 3 min and stored at -18°C; canned peppers were blanched for 3 min and processed at 100°C for 50 min; cooked peppers boiled at 100°C for 10 min. Results demonstrated a significant difference (a = 0.05) between each treatment and the raw pepper. Frozen and canned peppers retained approximately one-half of the capsaicinoid compounds that were present in raw pepper.
The flavor of fresh jalapeno peppers was defined and quantified by means of combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The cultivar J100 was utilized. Jalapeno flavor was attributed to 2-isobutyl-3-methoxypyrazine. The compound is distributed unevenly throughout the pepper pod. Values ranged from 0 in the seed to 88.33 ng/g in the outer wall on a dry weight basis. Thermal processing leads to an altered or cooked flavor. Capsaicin, the compound responsible for the heat, is also unevenly distributed in the pod. Gas chromatographic analysis of fresh pepper parts revealed values ranging from 0.21 mg/100g in the outer wall to 18.37 mg/100g in the pod cross walls. All portions of the pepper are perceived as hot after thermal processing. However, capsaitin remains concentrated in the cross wall region. Microscopic examination of the pepper tissue revealed no specialized structure housing either the flavor or heat components. These are considered to be normal metabolites of the fruit and found as an integral part of the plant cells.
Flavonoid, ascorbic acid and total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of “jalapeño” (Veracruz, Mitla, Tam Mild, Jaloro, Sweet Jalapeño), “yellow wax” [(Hungarian Yellow, Long Hot Yellow, Gold Spike (hybrid)], “Chile” (New Mexico-6, Green Chile), “ancho” (San Luis Ancho), and “serrano” (Hidalgo) peppers were investigated at green or yellow stages of maturity. Major pepper flavonoids were quercetin and luteolin which were present in conjugate forms. Total flavonoid content varied from none detectable to 800 mg/kg after hydrolysis. “Chile”, “yellow wax” and “ancho” peppers had greater flavonoid and ascorbic acid contents and antioxidant activities than “jalapeño” peppers. Sep-Pak C18(tm) bound phenolic compounds, including flavonoids, correlated well with antioxidant activity (r2=0.86). Luteolin had highest antioxidant activity followed by capsaicin and quercetin on equimolar basis.
Total capsaicinoids, colour and volatile compounds of 10 Habanero chilli pepper (Capsicum chinense Jack.) cultivars grown in Yucatan, grouped by their colours: four red, five orange and one brown, were determined. The content of capsaicinoids, responsible for the pungency of chilli peppers, varied between 41.8 and 65.9 mg g−1 dry fruit. Mean concentration of orange cultivars was 55.0 mg g−1, while red cultivars had 45.0 mg g−1 dry fruit, indicating that the first ones are more pungent. The composition of volatile compounds of the Habanero chilli peppers differs clearly for the different cultivars. Orange and brown cultivars have in general higher amounts of esters, with their fruity odour notes, than red cultivars. These differences are reflected in the amount of total volatiles, which is higher in orange and brown cultivars in comparison with red cultivars. From these results it can be concluded that orange and brown cultivars are better in terms of their flavour-relevant chemical composition than red cultivars.
The kinetics of degradation of both green-and total-colour of green chilli puree was studied at selected temperatures (50±90 °C). A fractional conversion concept was applied to determine the kinetic parameters. The degradation of green-and total-colour followed ®rst order reaction kinetics. In the case of green colour the data was based on changes in Hunter ±a value while á b was found to adequately represent total colour change. Dependence of the rate constant during heat treatment obeyed the Arrhenius relationship. The activation energy values for green-and total-colour degradation were 23.04 and 25.02 kJ mol ±1 , respectively. These results indicated that total colour should be used as the quality indicator during thermal processing of green chilli puree. The pungency of green chilli puree decreased during thermal processing as the capsaicin content was reduced from 559 to 441 lg g ±1 while the Scoville heat unit decreased from 8500 to 7480. The puree behaved as a shear-thinning ¯uid and the ¯ow activation energy at 100 r.p.m. equalled 19.22 kJ mol ±1 .
The components responsible for chile hot flavor, capsaicinoids, are synthesized through the cinnamic acid pathway, and their degradation is thought to be aided by the action of peroxidases. This work describes the evolution of capsaicinoids during the development, maturation, and senescence of the fruit in three varieties of hot chile peppers widely used in Mexico [Habañ ero (Capsicum chinense Jacq.), De á rbol (C. annuum var. Annuum), and Piquin (C. annuum var. Aviculare)] and its relation with the activity of peroxidases in these fruits. Capsaicinoids were more abundant in the fruit of Habañ ero, followed by De á rbol and then by Piquin. Capsaicin was higher than dihydrocapsaicin in the three varieties. Capsaicinoids, capsaicin, and dihydrocapsaicin increased continuously and reached a peak after 45-50 days from fruit set (DFFS) in Habañ ero and De arobol and after 40 DFFS in Piquin and then declined. Peroxidase activity increased at the time when the concentration of capsaicinoids started to decrease. There was an inverse relationship between the evolution of capsaicinoids and peroxidase activity that might indicate that this enzyme is involved in capsaicinoid degradation.
Pepper (Capsicum annum L.) has long been recognized as an excellent source of antioxidants, being rich in ascorbic acid and other phytochemicals. This study was conducted to investigate the effect of different cooking methods on the antioxidant properties of coloured peppers. Six varieties of peppers were subjected to different cooking methods, such as microwave heating, stir-frying and boiling in water, for 5 min individually. The cooked and raw peppers were analyzed for radical-scavenging activity (RSA) and total polyphenol content (TP) using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl–high-pressure liquid chromatography (DPPH)–HPLC and Folin-Ciocalteu methods, respectively. The samples were also evaluated for ascorbic acid content (AsA) by HPLC. Total carotenoid content was determined spectrophotometrically. Results suggest that there is no significant (P > 0.05) difference in RSA, TP, AsA and total carotenoid contents between the cooked and raw peppers when processed for 5 min. However, the cooked peppers show marked differences (P < 0.05) in the RSA, TP and AsA when cooked for 5 min in boiling water with further reduction observed after boiling for 30 min. This may be due to the leaching of antioxidant compounds from the pepper into the cooking water during the prolonged exposure to water and heat. Therefore, it is vital to use less water and cooking time and also to consume the water used for boiling so as to obtain the optimum benefits of bioactive compounds present in peppers. It is concluded that microwave heating and stir-frying without using water are more suitable cooking methods for pepper, to ensure the maximum retention of antioxidant molecules.
Comprising the major pungent principles capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin and nordihydrocapsaicin, changes in capsaicinoid contents of chili powders after thermal treatment and during storage experiments were monitored. For this purpose, freshly harvested chili pods and chili pastes were immediately pasteurized at 80 °C, 90 °C and 100 °C for 5 and 10 min, respectively, and finally lyophilized. Heating and drying resulted in a 21.7% to 28.3% degradation of the initial capsaicinoid content, the three major capsaicinoids showing similar heat susceptibility. During storage at ambient temperature over 6 months with and without illumination, further degradation of the pungent principles by 6.8–11.9% was observed. Since residual enzyme activities were assumed to cause capsaicinoid losses, soluble peroxidase (POD) activity was investigated. It was shown that immediate thermal treatment of the plant material did not result in a complete POD inactivation even under rigorous temperature–time regimes. In contrast, a regeneration of about 30% of initial POD activity was found in those samples which were first blanched at 80 °C for 5 and 10 min and then minced. However, no correlation between POD activity and capsaicinoid losses could be established.Industrial relevanceBesides microbial contamination and color properties, the pungent principles called capsaicinoids are the major quality parameters of hot chili peppers and might be influenced by peroxidase activity. The present contribution demonstrated that heating of fresh chili pods slightly diminishes capsaicinoids, which were further reduced during storage at ambient temperature irrespective of soluble peroxidase activity. The production of high quality spices characterized by low microbial load and bright color requires thermal treatment of the raw material; however, a slight decrease in capsaicinoid concentration cannot be excluded.
Capsaicinoids are a group of 12 or more related alkaloids responsible of the pungent sensation in fruits of the genus Capsicum. Capsaicin [(E)-N-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzyl)-8-methyl-6-nonenamide] and dihydrocapsaicin are responsible for more than 90% of the pungency. This work describes the quantitative analyses by gas chromatography of the content of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin in the pericarp, placenta, and seeds of seven cultivars of chili peppers cultivated in the state of Yucatan, Mexico [chawa, dulce, sukurre, xcat’ik (Capsicum annuum L. var. annuum), maax (Capsicum annuum L. var. aviculare), and habanero orange and habanero white (Capsicum chinense Jacq.)]. Capsaicin content was higher, as expected, in the fruits of habanero orange and habanero white, followed by sukurre, chawa, xkat’ik, and maax. Dihydrocapsaicin content did not follow the same scheme, being higher in the fruits of sukurre, followed by chawa, habanero white, habanero orange, and maax. Xcat’ik showed minor quantities of dihydrocapsaicin, while dulce chili contained only traces of these two alkaloids.
A study was conducted to investigate the changes in the pungent components (capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, homodihydrocapsaicin, isodihydrocapsaicin and nordihydrocapsaicin) of paprika as a function of drying method, gamma irradiation and storage period. Sun-dried and dehydrated paprika samples were irradiated by using a 60Co gamma irradiator at five doses (0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10 kGy) in polyethylene bags and stored at ambient temperature for 10 months. The capsaicinoid contents of the samples were analyzed by HPLC every 2 months within the 10 months. The major pungent components, capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin, significantly (P<0.01) increased with increasing irradiation doses. The increases of capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin and homodihydrocapsaicin contents were about 10% with the dose of 10 kGy. In contrast, a significant (P<0.01) decrease was observed in these components with storage. The levels of all capsaicinoids were significantly (P<0.01) higher in dehydrated paprika than in sun-dried paprika. Nordihydrocapsaicin was found only in fresh red pepper. Although isodihydrocapsaicin was not detected in paprika during the first five months of the storage period, it was detected from the 6th month of the storage period. Hence, isodihydrocapsaicin might be used to identify paprika which has been stored for longer than six months.
During the past decade, it has been reported that the consumption of certain foods and spices such as pepper may have a positive effect on health. The present study evaluates the influence of fruit ripening on total phenols, flavonoids, carotenoids and capsaicinoids content and antioxidant, hypoglycaemic and anticholinesterase activities of Capsicum chinense Jacq. cv Habanero. The chemical investigation showed a different composition between the two stages of ripening (immature and mature). Generally, the concentration of carotenoids and capsaicinoids increased as the peppers reached maturity, whereas the concentration of phenols declined. The immature fruits showed the highest radical scavenging activity (IC50 of 97.14 μg/ml). On the contrary, the antioxidant activity evaluated by the β-carotene bleaching test showed a significant activity for mature peppers (IC50 value of 4.57 μg/ml after 30 min of incubation). Mature peppers inhibited α-amylase with an IC50 of 130.67 μg/ml. The lipophilic fractions of both mature and immature peppers exhibited an interesting and selective inhibitory activity against α-amylase with IC50 values of 29.58 and 9.88 μg/ml, respectively. Both total extracts of mature and immature peppers inhibited butyrylcholinesterase selectively. The obtained results underline the potential health benefits as a result of consuming C. chinense Habanero and suggest that it could be used as new valuable flavour with functional properties for food or nutriceutical products on the basis of the high content of phytochemicals and found biological properties.
Studies were done to monitor loss of active principles of the spices, curcumin, piperine and capsaicin, during domestic cooking, (i.e. boiling of spice mixes with food ingredients). Over 85% loss of curcumin occurred during 15 and 30 min of cooking either in the presence of absence of the souring agent—tamarind. The loss of piperine under similar conditions was 50–60% when black pepper was used as an ingredient of curry powder. The loss of piperine was less when only black pepper was used in the food preparation. Capsaicin losses were of the order of 0–30% during cooking under similar conditions.
Studies were made to examine the loss of curcumin, capsaicin and piperine, the active principles of turmeric (Curcuma longa), red pepper (Capsicum annuum) and black pepper (Piper nigrum), respectively, as a result of subjecting the spices to domestic cooking processes. This involved heat treatment of each of these spices by: (i) boiling for 10 min, (ii) boiling for 20 min and (iii) pressure cooking for 10 min. Quantitation of the spice principles in the organic solvent extracts of the freeze-dried cooked spice samples was made with an appropriate HPLC method. Significant loss of spice active principles was observed when the spices were subjected to heat processing. Curcumin loss from heat processing of turmeric was 27–53%, with maximum loss in pressure cooking for 10 min. Curcumin loss from turmeric was similar even in the presence of red gram. In the presence of tamarind, the loss of Curcumin from turmeric was 12–30%. Capsaicin losses from red pepper ranged from 18% to 36%, with maximum loss observed in pressure cooking. Presence of either red gram or tamarind or both did not influence the loss of capsaicin. Piperine losses from black pepper ranged from 16% to 34%, with maximum loss observed in pressure cooking. The loss was somewhat lower in the presence of red gram. The results of this investigation indicated diminished availability of spice active principles from cooked foods when the food ingredients have been subjected to either boiling or pressure cooking for few minutes.
This study selected 13 fruits and vegetables to determine their total phenolic and flavonoid contents and their stimulatory effects on splenocyte proliferation from female BALB/c mice. The highest total phenolic content was observed in mulberry (1515.9 ± 5.7 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 g fresh matter (FM)) among four selected fruit species. The highest total phenolic content was observed in a variety of red onions (310.8 ± 4.9 mg GAE/100 g FM) among nine selected vegetable species. The highest total flavonoid content was observed in mulberry (250.1 ± 6.3 mg quercetin equivalents (QE)/100 g FM) among the selected fruits. The highest total flavonoid content was observed in ceylon spinach (133.1 ± 26.2 mg QE/100 g FM) among the selected vegetables. The mulberry, strawberry and red onion demonstrated an immuno-modulatory potential via stimulating splenocyte proliferation. Bitter melon showed a significantly (P < 0.05) negative correlation with splenocyte proliferation. Their immuno-modulatory components are highly correlated with phenolics, including flavonoids. The total phenolic contents in all selected fruits and vegetables significantly correlated with splenocyte proliferation in vitro.
The effect of calcium chloride brine treatment on firmness and retention of phytochemicals in pastuerized yellow banana peppers was studied. Shear force values declined during processing and storage, but CaCl(2) treatment resulted in greater firmness retention. Processing reduced ascorbic acid content by 63%, and after 124 days, <10% of ascorbic acid remained. Quercetin and luteolin contents declined 45% during processing, but levels stabilized during storage. Capsaicinoid content was stable during processing and storage. CaCl(2) treatment did not affect ascorbic acid, flavonoid, or capsaicinoid retention during pasteurization and storage. Retention of phytochemicals appeared to be related to their solubility and structural properties.
Spices and vegetables possess antioxidant activity that can be applied for preservation of lipids and reduce lipid peroxidation in biological systems. The potential antioxidant activities of selected spices extracts (water and alcohol 1:1) were investigated on enzymatic lipid peroxidation. Water and alcoholic extract (1:1) of commonly used spices (garlic, ginger, onion, mint, cloves, cinnamon and pepper) dose-dependently inhibited oxidation of fatty acid, linoleic acid in presence of soybean lipoxygenase. Among the spices tested, cloves exhibited highest while onion showed least antioxidant activity. The relative antioxidant activities decreased in the order of cloves, cinnamon, pepper, ginger, garlic, mint and onion. Spice mix namely ginger, onion and garlic; onion and ginger; ginger and garlic showed cumulative inhibition of lipid peroxidation thus exhibiting their synergistic antioxidant activity. The antioxidant activity of spice extracts were retained even after boiling for 30 min at 100 degrees C, indicating that the spice constituents were resistant to thermal denaturation. The antioxidant activity of these dietary spices suggest that in addition to imparting flavor to the food, they possess potential health benefits by inhibiting the lipid peroxidation.
The effect of fruit maturation on changes in carotenoids, flavonoids, total soluble reducing equivalents, phenolic acids, ascorbic acid, and antioxidant activity (AOX) in different pepper types (Capsicum annuum, Capsicum frutescens, and Capsicum chinese) was determined. Generally, the concentration of these chemical constituents increased as the peppers reached maturity. Peppers contained high levels of L-ascorbic acid and carotenoids at maturity, contributing 124-338% of the RDA for vitamin C and 0.33-336 RE/100 g of provitamin A activity, respectively. Levels of phenolic acids, capxanthin, and zeaxanthin generally increased during maturation, whereas the level of lutein declined. Flavonoid concentrations varied greatly among the pepper types analyzed and were negatively correlated to AOX under the conditions of the beta-carotene-linoleic assay. Model systems were used to aid in understanding the relationship between flavonoids and AOX. Significant increases in AOX were observed in pepper juice models in response to increasing dilution factors and the presence of EDTA, indicating a pro-oxidant effect due to metal ions in the system. In vitro models demonstrated that increasing levels of flavonoids in combination with constant levels of caffeic and ascorbic acid gave a resultant AOX that was either additive of the two compounds or competitive in their ability to scavenge peroxyl radicals. The model systems were in good agreement with the chemical composition of the pepper cultivars and reflected the interactions affecting AOX. More research is needed to understand the complex interactions that occur among various antioxidants present in pepper extracts.
The capsaicinoid content of individual fruits from a single plant harvested at the same time after flowering exhibits a wide range of values with a rather uniform pattern for the ratio of capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, and nordihydrocapsaicin. This observation is confirmed by the analysis of fruits from a second and third plant and for several harvest times at different stages of maturity. Competition with lignin-like material, environmental influences, and subcellular distribution may play a role in the synthesis and transformation of capsaicinoids.
Diverse procedures have been reported for the isolation and analysis of secondary metabolites called capsaicinoids, pungent compounds in the fruit of the Capsicum (Solanaceae) plant. To further improve the usefulness of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), studies were carried out on the analysis of extracts containing up to eight of the following capsaicinoids: capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin-I, homocapsaicin-II, homodihydrocapsaicin-I, homodihydrocapsaicin-II, nonivamide, and nordihydrocapsaicin. HPLC was optimized by defining effects on retention times of (a) the composition of the mobile phase (acetonitrile/0.5% formic acid in H2O), (b) the length of the Inertsil column, and (c) the capacity values (k) of the column packing. Identification was based on retention times and mass spectra of individual peaks. Quantification was based on the UV response at 280 nm in HPLC and recoveries from spiked samples. The method (limit of detection of approximately 15-30 ng) was successfully used to quantify capsaicinoid levels of parts of the pepper fruit (pericarp, placenta, seeds, and in the top, middle, and base parts of whole peppers) in 17 species of peppers and in 23 pepper-containing foods. The results demonstrate the usefulness of the method for the analysis of capsaicinoids ranging from approximately 0.5 to 3600 microg of capsaicin equiv/g of product. The water content of 12 fresh peppers ranged from 80.8 to 92.7%. The described freeze-drying, extraction, and analysis methods should be useful for assessing the distribution of capsaicinoids in the foods and in defining the roles of these biologically active compounds in the plant, the diet, and medicine.
Antioxidant compounds and their antioxidant activity in 4 different colored (green, yellow, orange, and red) sweet bell peppers (Capsicum annuum L.) were investigated. The total phenolics content of green, yellow, orange, and red peppers determined by the Folin-Ciocalteau method were 2.4, 3.3, 3.4, and 4.2 micromol catechin equivalent/g fresh weight, respectively. The red pepper had significantly higher total phenolics content than the green pepper. Among the 4 different colored peppers, red pepper contained a higher level of beta-carotene (5.4 microg/g), capsanthin (8.0 microg/g), quercetin (34.0 microg/g), and luteolin (11.0 microg/g). The yellow pepper had the lowest beta-carotene content (0.2 microg/g), while the green one had undetectable capsanthin and the lowest content of luteolin (2.0 microg/g). The free radical scavenging abilities of peppers determined by the 2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method were lowest for the green pepper (2.1 micromol Trolox equivalent/g) but not significantly different from the other 3 peppers. All 4 colored peppers exhibited significant abilities in preventing the oxidation of cholesterol or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (C22:6) during heating. However, these 4 peppers did not show significant differences in their abilities in preventing cholesterol oxidation. The green pepper showed slightly higher capability in preventing the oxidation of DHA compared to the other 3 peppers.
Committee of experts on flavouring substances
- Europe Council
Council of Europe, (2001). Committee of experts on flavouring substances.
Datasheet on capsaicin.
Analysis of seven capsaicinoids inpeppers and chromatography–massspectrometry
- N Kozukue
- J Han
- S Lee
- J Kim
- K Lee
- M Park
Kozukue, N., Han, J., Lee, S., Kim, J., Lee, K., Park, M., et al. (2005). Analysis of seven capsaicinoids inpeppers and chromatography–massspectrometry. Chemistry, 53, 9172–9181