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Abstract

The intention-to-behavior process is analyzed with respect to implementation intentions. These intentions link an intended goal-directed behavior to an anticipated situational context. The reported experimental evidence suggests that implementation intentions create a heightened accessibility of the mental representation of the specified situational cues and induce direct (automatic) control of the intended behavior through these cues. The formation of implementation intentions promotes goal achievement through both of these processes because they eliminate classic problems associated with the control of goal-directed action. Similarities and differences to other theoretical approaches on intentions, planning, and action control are discussed.
... However, there remains a significant gap in research regarding how these factors predict the timing of training transfer after the completion of the training (Ford et al. 2018). Additionally, theories of human behaviour (Ajzen 1985;Bandura 1986;Gollwitzer 1993) have been applied in the context of training transfer, as seen in studies like Gegenfurtner and Vauras (2012), Huang et al. (2015), and Reinhold et al. (2018). Nevertheless, their application has primarily centred on the motivational perspective of the individual without measuring the timing of training transfer post-training (Gegenfurtner 2011). ...
... The first questionnaire (T1) aimed at collecting data on trainees' beliefs about transfer (17 items), commitment to transfer (four items), and intention to transfer (12 items) before the training. These three factors, based on the studies of Ajzen (1985), Bandura (1986), Gollwitzer (1993), and Latham and Locke (1991), were measured using a 5-point Likert scale: (1) totally disagree, (2) agree a little bit, (3) agree, (4) agree a lot, and (5) totally agree. Cronbach's α showed a good internal consistency (0.95, 0.97, and 0.87, respectively). ...
... The second questionnaire (T2) aimed at collecting self-reported data about trainees' transfer (degree to which trainees transferred what they learned in training) and implementation intention actions (Gollwitzer 1993). It was applied 3 months after the training with the idea of exploring what and how trainees transferred. ...
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Transfer beliefs are understudied in the training transfer field, whereas structural equation modelling (SEM) has been a widely used technique to study transfer models. New methodologies are needed to study training transfer and network analysis (NA) has emerged as a new approach that provides a visual representation of a given network. We explored the relation of transfer beliefs, intentions, commitment, and implementation intentions, and transfer using variable (SEM) and person-oriented approaches (NA) according to groups of trainees based on their transfer readiness. The longitudinal design measured T1 before the training and T2 after the training (268 participants). T1 measured trainees' beliefs about transfer, commitment to transfer, and intention to transfer; T2 measured self-reported transfer and implementation intention actions. The results of the NA confirmed the structure of the exploratory factor analysis. The NA model offered the visual representation of the network complimentary to the results obtained via SEM. Differentiating NA and SEM multigroup by cluster showed differences in models and architectures between clusters. We discussed the relations between beliefs and transfer, and also the implications of the combined use of the SEM and NA as novel approaches to study transfer.
... Psychological and behavioral-economic theories identify two key principles for planned reward-guided behaviors (Miller et al., 1960;Gollwitzer, 1993;Dickinson and Balleine, 1994;Sutton and Barto, 1998;Benhabib and Bisin, 2005;Berkman and Lieberman, 2009): the initial formation of a goal based on subjective reward and cost valuations, and the pursuit of this goal through planning, decisionmaking and progress-tracking. The valuation step is complex, as it requires an individual to consider the rewarding properties of a potential goal (e.g., its magnitude, desirable sensory qualities, relevance to one's long-term values) and its associated costs (e.g., the delay, physical and cognitive effort required for obtaining it), and evaluating these factors based on subjective preferences and aversions. ...
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The successful pursuit of future rewards requires forming an internal goal, followed by planning, decision-making, and progress-tracking over multiple steps. The initial step—forming goals and the plans for obtaining them—involves the subjective valuation of an anticipated reward, considering both the reward’s properties and associated delay and physical-effort costs. Recent findings indicate individuals similarly evaluate cognitive effort over time (Johnson and Most, 2023). Success and failure in these processes have been linked to differential life outcomes and psychiatric conditions. Here we review evidence from single-neuron recordings and neuroimaging studies that implicate the amygdala—a brain structure long associated with cue-reactivity and emotion—in decision-making and the planned pursuit of future rewards (Grabenhorst et al., 2012, 2016, 2019, 2023;Hernadi et al., 2015;Zangemeister et al., 2016). The main findings are that, in behavioral tasks in which future rewards can be pursued through planning and stepwise decision-making, amygdala neurons prospectively encode the value of anticipated rewards and related behavioral plans. Moreover, amygdala neurons predict the stepwise choices to pursue these rewards, signal progress toward goals, and distinguish internally generated (i.e., self-determined) choices from externally imposed actions. Importantly, amygdala neurons integrate the subjective value of a future reward with delay and effort costs inherent in pursuing it. This neural evidence identifies three key computations of the primate amygdala that underlie the pursuit of future rewards: (1) forming a self-determined internal goal based on subjective reward-cost valuations, (2) defining a behavioral plan for obtaining the goal, (3) executing this plan through stepwise decision-making and progress-tracking. Based on this framework, we suggest that amygdala neurons constitute vulnerabilities for dysfunction that contribute to maladaptive reward pursuit in psychiatric and behavioral conditions. Consequently, amygdala neurons may also represent potential targets for behavioral-change interventions that aim to improve individual decision-making.
... In the theory of planned behavior proposed by Ajzen (1991), the behavior stage is preceded by an intention stage, which in turn is influenced by attitudes toward the particular behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control. Gollwitzer (1993Gollwitzer ( , 1996 further divides intention into two types: goal intentions and implementation intentions. Goal intentions take the form of a wish or desire "I intend to do X!" (Gollwitzer, 1996, p.292) while implementation intentions are concrete plans to achieve particular goals when there is an established relationship between a behavior and the situation on which it is premised "I intend to do X when situation Y is encountered!" ...
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If learners cannot form an intention to take an appropriate action with reference to the knowledge of information ethics, it cannot be said that the learners have working knowledge of ethical principles. In the present study, the two experiments are conducted with high school students to examine if the knowledge-to-action gap can be confirmed by means of paperand-pencil tests consisting of knowledge and intention tasks of information ethics. The knowledge task is to inquire about appropriate behavior regarding the correct knowledge, while the intention task is an inquiry whether the respondents consciously select the action or not. The experiments 1 and 2 indicated that participants take unethical behaviors even though they know appropriate behavior. In addition, the experiment 2 demonstrated that the participants estimated the number of classmates with unethical behavior is higher than the actual number. These results indicate the importance of education and teaching methods, which need to be carefully designed to reduce the gap between knowledge and action to comply with information ethics.
... The results of this study also support the inclusion of a social support message, within the abnormal results letter, to modify social influence as a barrier to the nurse appointment, and intentions to attend. Further research is needed, however, to test whether improvement in intentions translates to an improvement in attendance 25 ; eg, a "real-world" RCT. ...
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Background Nonattendance at colonoscopy is associated with reduced colorectal cancer (CRC) survival. Purpose The aim of this research was to quantify barriers to colonoscopy and test the effectiveness of behavior change techniques (BCTs) to address them. Methods Two studies were conducted. In the first study, participants were asked to imagine their next CRC screening result was abnormal, and were presented with the standard abnormal result letter used in the English CRC Screening Programme. Participants then completed a short survey. Multivariate regression tested associations between perceived barriers and intentions. In the second study, participants were randomly presented with a modified version of the abnormal results letter, which incorporated one or more BCTs, designed to target barriers identified in study 1, using a 28 factorial design. Participants then completed the same survey used in study 1. Multivariate regression tested the effectiveness of the BCTs to modify target barriers and intentions. Results In study 1, 5 items were associated with intentions, namely “Lack of understanding that CRC can be asymptomatic,” “Perceived importance of screening,” “Transport/travel,” “Shared decision making and family influenced participation,” and “Fear of pain and discomfort” (all P’s < .05). In study 2, the inclusion of a social support message, targeting “shared decision-making and family influenced participation,” facilitated independent decision making and increased intentions (both P’s < .05). There was no evidence to support the remaining 7 BCTs to modify barriers or intentions (all P’s < .05). Conclusions Inclusion of a social support message facilitated independent decision-making and improved intentions.
... A pénzügyekkel való bánni tudással kapcsolatban megélt kompetenciaérzés, vagyis a pénzügyi énhatékonyság, elengedhetetlen tehát a pénzügyi viselkedés irányításában. A nudge eszköztár (Thaler és Sunstein, 2010) mellett a viselkedéstervezési technikák, például a kivitelezési szándékok megfogalmazása (Gollwitzer, 1993) is, hatékony módszerek lehetnek a pénzügyi énhatékonyság növelésére. ...
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To attain financial well-being, enhancing financial literacy is crucial; however, the definition of financial literacy is inconsistent both in Hungarian and international literature. In Hungary, the distinction between individual and the societal levels is not clear either. Accordingly, we conducted a literature review, during which our method involved collecting meta-studies in English containing the term “financial literacy” and selectively reviewing the research presented in them based on relevance. In Hungarian, we examined which terms have become common equivalents for “financial literacy” and analysed the related literature along these lines. In the theoretical model created in our study, we conceptualize financial literacy in a new way, and to capture the individual level, we recommend the introduction of a new Hungarian term. With regards to Hungarian results, high knowledge is combined with low levels of financial behaviour, so we recommend that decision-makers use behavioural economic tools instead of traditional financial education, which have a more direct impact on people’s everyday financial behaviour and operate more widely in those layers of society where traditional financial education have proven to be ineffective.
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Across varied domains, prior research has examined the impact of setbacks and goal‐inconsistent behaviors on goal pursuit. A large setback, whether a result of an external hurdle or an internally‐driven goal‐inconsistent behavior, may suggest that the goal is not really feasible and goal disengagement is ideal. Yet, a minor setback or a goal‐deviation may just be a bump in the road that can, and often should, be overcome, especially for important, long‐term goals. So, not all setbacks signal that failure is inevitable and goal pursuit should be put on hold. Forming a goal‐directed plan shifts individuals from a deliberative to an implemental mindset and is commonly recommended by both academics and practitioners to help individuals pursue important goals and disengage from unachievable goals. But are plans beneficial when small, goal‐related setbacks occur? Specifically, this article examines the impact of minor bumps in the road (experiencing small setbacks, engaging in minor goal‐inconsistent behaviors) on continued goal pursuit. In three studies, field and lab, and across two different domains (eating healthy and saving money), we (1) show that small, seemingly acceptable setbacks can negatively influence goal pursuit when one has formed a plan, and (2) empirically demonstrate that when small setbacks occur, having a plan may increase feeling of action crisis and ultimately decrease interest in continued goal pursuit.
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Two approaches to movement selection, if-then rules versus prospective planning, were investigated. Studies have shown that the rule-based approach leads to more efficient movement selection than the plan-based approach, though the resulting movements are the same. This dual-tasking study investigates two hypotheses explaining this discrepancy: The efficiency hypothesis states that the rule-based approach to movement selection is more efficient, and its advantage over the plan-based approach increases under any kind of enhanced task demands. The dual-mechanisms hypothesis states that the two approaches to movement selection are based on distinct mechanisms and that they can be differentially affected by secondary tasks. Forty-eight participants selected a grip in order to comfortably rotate a dowel to a target position using the rule- or the plan-based approach. Four dual-tasking conditions were added: Identifying the activity underlying an object-interaction sound, identifying and categorizing the object underlying an object-interaction sound, identifying one of four words that does not match the others semantically, and solving calculations. The rule-based approach led to more efficient movement selection in most dual-tasking conditions. However, its advantage disappeared when the secondary task was to identify and categorize objects. These results strengthen the dual-mechanisms hypothesis, and possible factors distinguishing the approaches are discussed. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-024-81630-5.
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Der lange vernachlässigte Willensbegriff wird gegenwärtig in einigen Humanwissenschaften, vor allem in der Psychologie und Hirnphysiologie neu aufgegriffen. Dieser Band soll dazu beitragen, die alltägliche Erfahrungsvielfalt des Wollens wieder als einen Forschungsgegenstand aller Humanwissenschaften zu entdecken. Der erste Abschnitt behandelt das Wollen als einen Gegenstand vielfältiger Erfahrung, sei es in Gestalt geschichtlicher Ereignisse oder literarischer Zeugnisse, im Experiment oder schließlich im Spiegel bildhafter Vorstellungen. Die weiteren Abschnitte beschäftigen sich mit der Vorstellung vom Wollen in der Antike, der Philosophie des Willens sowie der Geschichte der Willenspsychologie. Neuansätze einer psychologischen Willenstheorie betreffen das Bilden von Absichten und ein vornahmegeleitetes Handeln ("Rubikon-Modell"). Abschließend werden pädagogische, psychotherapeutische, strafrechtliche, evolutionsbiologische und hirnphysiologische Forschungsansätze skizziert und diskutiert.
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Two meta-analyses were conducted to Investigate the effectiveness of the Fishbein and Ajzen model in research to date. Strong overall evidence for the predictive utility of the model was found. Although numerous instances were identified in which researchers overstepped the boundary conditions initially proposed for the model, the predictive utility remained strong across conditions. However, three variables were proposed and found to moderate the effectiveness of the model. Suggested extensions to the model are discussed and general directions for future research are given.
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Much effort has been made to understand the role of attention in perception; much less effort has been placed on the role attention plays in the control of action. Our goal in this chapter is to account for the role of attention in action, both when performance is automatic and when it is under deliberate conscious control. We propose a theoretical framework structured around the notion of a set of active schemas, organized according to the particular action sequences of which they are a part, awaiting the appropriate set of conditions so that they can become selected to control action. The analysis is therefore centered around actions, primarily external actions, but the same principles apply to internal actions—actions that involve only the cognitive processing mechanisms. One major emphasis in the study of attentional processes is the distinction between controlled and automatic processing of perceptual inputs (e.g., Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977). Our work here can be seen as complementary to the distinction between controlled and automatic processes: we examine action rather than perception; we emphasize the situations in which deliberate, conscious control of activity is desired rather than those that are automatic.
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"It is not thought as such that can move anything, but thought which is for the sake of something and is practical." This discerning insight, which dates back more than 2000years to Aristotle, seems to have been ignored by most psycholo­ gists. For more than 40years theories of human action have assumed that cogni­ tion and action are merely two sides of the same coin. Approaches as different as S-O-R behaviorism,social learning theory, consistency theories,and expectancy­ value theories of motivation and decision making have one thing in common: they all assume that "thought (or any other type of cognition) can move any­ thing," that there is a direct path from cognition to behavior. In recent years, we have become more and more aware of the complexities in­ volved in the relationship between cognition and behavior. People do not always do what they intend to do. Aside from several nonpsychological factors capable of reducing cognition-behavior consistency, there seems to be a set of complex psychological mechanisms which intervene between action-related cognitions, such as beliefs, expectancies, values, and intentions,and the enactment of the be­ havior suggested by those cognitions. In our recent research we have focused on volitional mechanismus which presumably enhance cognition-behavior consistency by supporting the main­ tenance of activated intentions and prevent them from being pushed aside by competing action tendencies.
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The translation of this volume has been a long and sometime arduous journey giving nearly literal meaning to the Latin term translatus, meaning to carry across. In fact, it required many journeys both geographically, between Canada and Germany, and fig­ uratively, between German and English language, thought, and culture; between the mind of a German professor and that of his American colleague. Whether or not it was all worthwhile must be left to the reader's judgment, but let me outline the rationale for embarking on this venture. When the first German edition of this book appeared in 1980 it was acclaimed not only by German scholars but by those outside the German-speaking community as well. In fact, it received extremely favorable reviews, even in English-language journals, which is unusual for a foreign text. It was recognized that this was far more than just another text book on motivation. For one thing, it exposed and examined the multi­ faceted roots that have contributed to contemporary theory and research in motivation. The author skillfully examined the motivational concepts, theories, and research that have emanated from many areas of psychology such as learning theory, social psychol­ ogy, personality, psychoanalysis, and clinical psychology.