ArticleLiterature Review

Benefits of regular aerobic exercise for executive functioning in healthy populations

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Abstract

Research suggests that regular aerobic exercise has the potential to improve executive functioning, even in healthy populations. The purpose of this review is to elucidate which components of executive functioning benefit from such exercise in healthy populations. In light of the developmental time course of executive functions, we consider separately children, young adults, and older adults. Data to date from studies of aging provide strong evidence of exercise-linked benefits related to task switching, selective attention, inhibition of prepotent responses, and working memory capacity; furthermore, cross-sectional fitness data suggest that working memory updating could potentially benefit as well. In young adults, working memory updating is the main executive function shown to benefit from regular exercise, but cross-sectional data further suggest that task-switching and posterror performance may also benefit. In children, working memory capacity has been shown to benefit, and cross-sectional data suggest potential benefits for selective attention and inhibitory control. Although more research investigating exercise-related benefits for specific components of executive functioning is clearly needed in young adults and children, when considered across the age groups, ample evidence indicates that regular engagement in aerobic exercise can provide a simple means for healthy people to optimize a range of executive functions.

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... In adolescents, aerobic training has repeatedly been shown to be effective in improving cardiorespiratory fitness (V̇O 2max ) [2], and with high-intensity aerobic training shown to be more effective than moderate-intensity aerobic exercise in fostering adaptations in V̇O 2max . Besides the attractive effects of aerobic exercise on V̇O 2max , aerobic exercise has also proven beneficial with respect to cognitive performance [3], although the effect of exercise training and the intensity hereof on markers of cognitive performance is largely unknown in adolescents. ...
... Concerning cognitive performance, a growing body of research indicates that aerobic training positively affects brain structure and function in healthy individuals [3][4][5][6]. In particular, executive functions (EFs) appear to be affected positively by both acute and chronic aerobic exercise [7]. ...
... The majority of research examining the impact of aerobic training on aspects of EFs has been conducted in elderly individuals [3,13] or children [5,14], while there is a paucity of studies involving adolescents, that is, 10-19 years [15], underscoring the necessity for further research within this age-group [7,16]. A study by Costigan and colleagues reported a small, insignificant effect of 8 weeks of high-intensity aerobic training on EFs in adolescents aged 14-16 years [17]. ...
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Purpose The primary aims of this study were to examine the effects of 9 weeks of aerobic training, comprising three 30‐min sessions per week, on V̇O2max, inhibitory control, and plasma brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels among adolescents aged 16–19 years. Methods One hundred twenty‐one untrained or recreationally active adolescents from a Danish high school were enrolled in the study, with 58 females (17.8 ± 0.8 years) and 27 males (18.0 ± 0.9 years) completing it. Participants were randomly divided into three groups performing aerobic training at either moderate‐intensity (MIT: 60%–70% heart rate reserve [HRR]) or high‐intensity (HIT: 80%–100% HRR) or a passive control group (CON) continuing their habitual lifestyle. Both the training groups exercised for 3×30 min per week for 9 weeks using a combination of cycling and running. Before and after the intervention period maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) and the primary outcomes (inhibitory control measured by a modified flanker task, and resting plasma levels of BDNF) were evaluated. Results After the intervention period, the HIT group demonstrated a larger increase in V̇O2max compared to both the CON and MIT groups, while no significant effects were observed on inhibitory control or plasma BDNF levels in any training group. However, compared to the CON group, the HIT group exhibited a tendency for greater improvement in the flanker interference score (accuracy), attributable to enhanced accuracy on the incongruent stimuli from pre to post. Conclusion Aerobic training in adolescents increased cardiorespiratory fitness in an intensity‐dependent manner, but no clear effects were observed on neither inhibitory control nor resting plasma BDNF levels. Clinical Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02075944.
... Furthermore, exercise promotes the synthesis of endorphins and serotonin, enhancing emotional regulation and mood (Alizadeh Pahlavani, 2024). Furthermore, sports practice enhances the functioning of neural circuits, including those situated in prefrontal areas, which play a key role in inhibitory control (Diamond, 2013;Guiney and Machado, 2013). These circuits are directly associated with emotional regulation through connections with the limbic system and other regions mentioned in the introduction, thereby contributing to improved stress and anxiety management (Gunther et al., 2022;Shanok et al., 2022). ...
... The underlying rationale is that engagement in sports enhances frontal brain functioning, particularly inhibitory control (Diamond, 2013;Guiney and Machado, 2013), which is functionally linked with various psychological and neurobiological processes, including anxiety (Bishop, 2009). Having a quick, easy-to-use, and inexpensive tool such as this FTT variant could greatly aid in detecting these interactions. ...
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Introduction Even simple tapping tasks require cognitive processes. Some variants of the Finger Tapping Test (FTT) may reveal cognitive aspects associated with frontal processing, including executive functions such as inhibition, or emotional aspects such as anxiety. A context of particular interest for the application of cognitive-motor-anxiety interactions is sports. Although athletes generally exhibit better anxiety levels, they may experience heightened anxiety before important competitions. The problem lies in determining whether the application of anxiety control techniques can be useful in pre-competition situations, given the lack of quick and easy methods to detect if an athlete is experiencing anxiety at a particular moment. Methods This exploratory study evaluated anxiety using online versions of questionnaires (ISRA, the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2, and STAI) and applied a variant of the FTT to 204 participants, both athletes and non-athletes. The scores were compared and correlated. Results Athletes exhibited lower general anxiety and greater cognitive resistance to interference (better cognitive inhibition). Non-athletes displayed a particular parameter in the FTT variant that differed from the one obtained by athletes and exhibited higher anxiety levels. In the athletes’ group only, anxiety was correlated with a specific parameter of the FTT task. Discussion Our conclusion is that this parameter holds potential relevance in elite sports performance to detect if an athlete is experiencing anxiety. It could be of particular interest in psychological interventions in sports. Further investigation is warranted to fully explore this potential.
... In recent years, the tendency to use different approaches to examine and improve executive functions has increased due to its importance. One of the most recent approaches is cognitive rehabilitation using exercise and physical activity [6,7]. Researchers have shown that regular physical activity controls the maintenance, growth, and differentiation of synapses and neurons. ...
... During the entire training period, a polar heart rate monitor was used to check the subjects' heart rate, and its monitor was placed on the treadmill so that the subject and the researcher could see the heart rate. In addition to the heart rate monitor, the Borg rating of perceived exertion (RPE) (6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20) was also used to monitor the exercise intensity of the subjects during the exercise [29,31]. ...
... Understanding the role of physical activity in boosting cognitive function in adults and delaying the onset of cognitive decline is becoming more important as agerelated cognitive impairment increases [43]. The positive effects of exercise on cognitive health are supported by a growing body of research evidence from epidemiological, cross-sectional, and neuroimaging studies [30,[57][58][59]. However, no research has been found that explicitly examines which concurrent training strategy may effectively improve cognitive functions in middleaged individuals. ...
... Therefore, it is deemed highly important to identify exercise strategies that can preserve and enhance cognitive function in individuals from different populations. Indeed, there is strong evidence that regular physical activity enhances various cognitive functions in both healthy individuals and those with certain medical conditions [27,49,58,[64][65][66]. Additionally, scientific research also indicates that inactivity and obesity are associated with cognitive impairments [67,68]. ...
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Purpose The study aimed to compare the effects of two different concurrent training protocols applied to healthy middleaged individuals on balance parameters and cognitive functions. Methods Thirty-three middle-aged adults voluntarily participated in this study. A randomised, between-group design (Strength+Aerobic Group [SAG] and control group Aerobic+Strength Group [ASG]) was used. After collecting data related to the main characteristics of the subjects (i.e., age, sex, medical history, smoking habits), the following assessments were made: Subjects’ physical activity level, balance parameters, and inhibition and attention indicators. The intervention lasted 13 weeks (2 sessions per week, 50 minutes per session). Results Both protocols (SAG and ASG) significantly improved balance performance. However, as for the group-by-time interaction, no significant difference between the two groups were observed in any of the parameters assessed (F(1–31) = 0.843; 0.760; 0.612; 0.656; p > 0.05). Thus, it was found that participating in either the SAG or ASG groups had no significant influence on attention accuracy, reaction time, total number of matters processed (participants’ psychomotor speed), and non-marked letters (selective attention) (post-test–pre-test difference: F(1–31) = 0.239, 0.337, 0.738, 0.414; p > 0.05). It was also observed that both training programs resulted in similar improvements in all balance characteristics and cognitive parameters. Conclusions It was found that the order of strength or aerobic exercises in the concurrent training for improving balance and cognitive parameters in healthy middle-aged individuals is not significant.
... Further, PE can be distinguished in aerobic exercise (AE) like running or cycling, primordially enhancing cardiovascular health; and resistance training (RT) as lifting weights, rather targeting muscle strength. Importantly, even though most research in the past has focused on AE with regards to neuroplasticity (Castells-Sanchez et al., 2019;Colcombe et al., 2006;Guiney & Machado, 2012;Hindin & Zelinski, 2012;Maass et al., 2015;Smith et al., 2010;), an increasing number of studies has sought interest in the impact of RT on the aged brain (Best et al., 2015;Cassilhas et al., 2007;Liu-Ambroise et al., 2010). Interestingly, the evidence so far suggests both types of exercise have different beneficial aspects on cognition, implying the underlying exercise-induced physiological pathways differ substantially in their unfolding and consequently their impact on brain morphology and cognition (Babaei & Azari, 2022;Barha et al., 2017a;Cabral et al., 2019). ...
... After the publication of the first larger meta-analysis on AE intervention studies proved AE´s potential to significantly improve cognition and executive control functions roughly twenty years ago, numerous studies Bherer 2014Bherer , 2015Langlois et al., 2013;Predovan et al., 2012;Tolppanen et al., 2015) have repeatedly supported and manifested benefitting effects of AE on attention, processing speed, EF, memory and mood (both in acute bouts and over certain periods of time) for older individuals (for systematic reviews, see Barha et al., 2017a;Castells-Sánchez et al., 2019;Fissler et al., 2013;Gheysen et al., 2018;Guiney & Machado, 2012;Hindin & Zelinski, 2012;Kelly et al., 2014;Lü et al., 2016;Lustig et al., 2009;Northey et al., 2018;Smith et al., 2010;Voss et al., 2011). Merging the data of more than 30,000 participants worldwide, Sofi and colleagues (2011) corroborated a significant and consistent protection for all levels of AE against the occurrence of cognitive declin in their large meta-analysis on the impact of AE on cognition amongst healthy older nondemented subjects. ...
Thesis
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Despite healthy aging being associated with brain atrophy and declines in overall cognitive function, past research has highlighted the beneficial effect of greater physical fitness on brain morphology and cognition, especially in older age. On the other hand, markers for neuronal plasticity, as IGF-1, IGFBP-3, and BDNF namely, have experienced a rise in attention when investigating the brain’s ability to induce structural and behavioural changes over the lifespan. In this thesis, dynamics of serum-derived markers for neuronal plasticity (IGF- 1,IGFBP-3, BDNF) and general fitness (VO₂ and power at peak, BMI and body fat percentage) were investigated in a sample of healthy older adults (N = 141; 63-78 years) at pre-intervention and after six months of aerobic exercise (AE) (SP group, N = 71; 52.1% women) versus no AE intervention (AC group, N = 70; 50.0% women), with special regards to differences between male and female participants. In sum, this work shows significant sex differences in dynamics of IGF-system markers (both at baseline and after exhaustive AE) and fitness in healthy older adults. Overall, dynamics between IGF-system markers and fitness measures showed sex differences and were altered after a six-month AE intervention, challenging the dogma of little physiological plasticity in aged bodies and indicating the pressing need to further investigate the effect of biological sex on markers for neuronal plasticity throughout the lifespan. Keywords: aerobic exercise, healthy aging, sBDNF, sIGF-1, sIGFBP-3, plasticity
... Incorporating exercise into daily life is highly beneficial, reducing the risk of chronic diseases and helping to maintain and improve cognitive and executive function [32,38]. Similar results were shown by the meta-analysis of Xiong et al. [39], suggesting that the application of aerobic exercise had beneficial effects on inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. ...
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Abstract: This review will explore the role of executive functions and the impact they have in facilitating the skills of vehicle operation. Executive functions are critical for the decision-making process, problem-solving, and multitasking. They are considered the primary factors in driving cases that demand drivers to react quickly and adapt to certain situations. Based on the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, this study aims to investigate, analyze, and categorize higher mental skills and their qualities directly related to driving. The literature review was performed in the following databases: PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar, using the article collections' snowball search technique. The results suggest that key executive functions like working memory and inhibitory control are closely related to risky behavior and driving errors that lead to accidents. This review adds valuable insight by highlighting the significance of their contribution to future research, driver educational programs, and technology for improving driver safety. Consequently, collecting recent data will contribute to understanding new parameters that influence driving behavior, creating the possibility for appropriate proposals for future research.
... Research suggests that regular aerobic exercise can prevent weight gain and improve physical fitness, cardiorespiratory health, executive functioning, and brain health even in healthy populations [9][10][11][12]. Additionally, strong clinical evidence and emerging epidemiological data show that muscle-strengthening exercise is independently associated with multiple health outcomes, including reduced mortality risk and incidence of diabetes, as well as enhanced cardiometabolic, musculoskeletal, and mental health [13][14][15][16][17]. ...
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Introduction Physical inactivity and sedentary behavior both increase the risk of chronic disease and mortality. Regular participation in physical activity and reducing sedentary behavior play important roles in maintaining physical health and disease prevention. Objective The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of programed walking exercise using a wearable hip exoskeleton, Bot Fit on muscle strength, muscle effort, and the kinematics of the pelvis in younger adults. Methods We designed three parallel experimental conditions and randomly assigned participants to one of three groups: those assigned to exercise using an interval program of Bot Fit (interval group), those who used a power program of Bot Fit (power group), and a control group who exercised without Bot Fit. A total of 45 young adults participated in 18 exercise-intervention sessions over six weeks, and all participants were assessed at two time points: before and after the 18 exercise sessions. Each assessment evaluated muscle strength, muscle effort, and the kinematics of the pelvis during walking. In addition, the number of steps, distance, energy expenditure, and heart rate for 30 min during the exercise sessions were recorded. Results A significant increase in the maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) of the left biceps femoris (BF) was evident in the interval group, while significant changes in the MVC of the bilateral BF were seen in the power group after Bot Fit exercise. A significant decrease of muscle effort in the right BF in the interval group and right lumbar erector spinae and bilateral BF in the power group were also observed. In addition, the symmetry index of pelvic tilt significantly improved in the interval group, and greater exercise volume and intensity in both the interval and power groups compared with the control group were confirmed as measured by the number of steps, distance, energy expenditure, and heart rate. Conclusions The results of this study confirmed the beneficial effect of programed walking exercise using the Bot Fit on muscle strength of trunk and lower extremities, muscle effort, and pelvic movement symmetry in younger adults. Personalized exercise programs can be provided for younger adults using various resistance or assistance modes of robotic device with the Bot Fit. Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT05862077. Registered 22 March 2022, https://register.clinicaltrials.gov/.
... Estudios en adultos jóvenes han encontrado que la práctica regular de ejercicio mejora la memoria de trabajo, la velocidad de procesamiento y la función ejecutiva (Guiney & Machado, 2013). Por ejemplo, Pontifex et al. (2011) demostraron que una sola sesión de ejercicio aeróbico moderado puede mejorar el rendimiento en tareas de atención y control inhibitorio en estudiantes universitarios. ...
... Contoh latihan aerobik yang biasa dilakukan seperti jalan cepat, bersepeda dan berenang, sementara contoh latihan anaerobik seperti lari cepat, angkat beban dan lompat tali. Melalui dampaknya pada kesehatan tubuh, latihan aerobik kerap menjadi pilihan olahraga oleh masyarakat (2,4). ...
Article
Olahraga adalah kegiatan fisik yang dilakukan untuk meningkatkan kesehatan tubuh. Dengan meningkatnya jumlah masyarakat yang berolahraga, penting untuk memahami batasan intensitas olahraga yang dilakukan. Intensitas olahraga yang melampaui kemampuan tubuh akan menyebabkan munculnya stres oksidatif. Stres oksidatif akan menimbulkan berbagai masalah fisiologis tubuh, termasuk metabolisme glukosa. Jenis penelitian adalah eksperimental laboratoris. Tikus putih (Rattus norvegicus) betina galur Wistar usia 2 bulan dengan berat badan 180-200 gram dikelompokkan ke dalam 5 kelompok melalui teknik random sampling. K1 merupakan kontrol, K2 diberi latihan setiap hari selama 2 minggu, K3 diberi latihan sekali seminggu selama 2 minggu, K4 diberi latihan setiap hari selama 2 minggu, dan K5 diberi latihan sekali seminggu selama 2 minggu. Semua kelompok setelahnya diistirahatkan selama 1 minggu. K1, K2, dan K3 tidak diberi intervensi. K4 dan K5 diberi intervensi latihan submaksimal 85% rerata waktu tenggelam pertama. Penelitian diterminasi dan dilakukan pengambilan sampel untuk pengujian kadar glukosa darah acak. Hasil kadar glukosa darah acak diolah statistik dengan uji parametrik one-way Anova dan uji post hoc LSD. Hasil kadar glukosa darah (K1) 127,8 mg/dL, (K2) 133,4 mg/dL, (K3) 186,4 mg/dL, (K4) 160,6 mg/dL, dan (K5) 140,6 mg/dL. Uji one-way Anova menunjukkan perbedaan signifikan (p<0,05). Uji post hoc LSD menunjukkan tidak ada perbedaan bermakna antara kelompok terlatih dengan intervensi dan tidak terlatih dengan intervensi (p>0,05). Intervensi latihan submaksimal setelah istirahat satu minggu pada kelompok terlatih dan tidak terlatih dengan latihan submaksimal tidak memiliki pengaruh terhadap kadar glukosa darah tikus putih (Rattus norvegicus) betina galur Wistar.
... Effect size estimates on ESS are generally consistent with what was observed in a previously published network comparative meta-analysis which showed ESS effect size estimate from aerobic exercise greater than that of CPAP or mandibular advancement device, though these comparisons did not reach statistical significance [35]. A growing body of evidence shows that aerobic exercise training induces beneficial effects on vigilance and cognitive functions [39,40] and an improvement of the information processing speed, measured by a reduction in reaction time on attentional from 5 studies [25,26,30,31,34] (Figure S18), and mean difference in body fat percentage of -2.26% (95%CIs: -4.82%; 0.30%) p = 0.08, I 2 = 0%, from 2 studies [26,31] ( Figure S19). ...
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Purpose Several studies have shown that aerobic exercise training improves obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) severity. However, a dose-response relationship has never been shown. This study aimed to quantify any dose-response relationships between time spent per week in aerobic exercise and key sleep apnea outcomes. Methods Randomized controlled trials (RCT) were selected from literature search studying the effects of supervised aerobic exercise training on patients with OSA. Dose-response meta-analyses were performed, where the ‘dose’ was the total weekly duration of aerobic exercise training. Primary outcomes were apnea hypopnea index (AHI), cardiorespiratory fitness (maximum oxygen consumption or VO2peak) and Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS). Results Analysis of data from 11 RCTs showed a non-linear dose-response relationship between the total weekly duration of aerobic exercise training and mean differences in AHI. Maximum effects on AHI (-10.92 (95%CIs: -15.57; -6.27)) were observed when the weekly duration of aerobic exercise reached 100 min/week. Similar non-linear dose-response trend was observed in the mean differences in VO2peak. Studies in which aerobic exercise training lasted ≥ 12 weeks showed greater proportional changes in mean AHI differences with maximal effects reaching a peak at ∼ 70 min/week of aerobic exercise training. ESS and total weekly duration of aerobic exercise training showed a linear dose-response relationship based on 4 RCTs. Conclusions Based on these analyses, aerobic exercise training of 70–100 min/week over 3 or 5 days a week should be recommended as adjunctive treatment for patients with OSA.
... Both demographics and lifestyle choices have been previously linked to cognitive and physical performance. For example, information processing speed generally declines with age, inconsistent handedness predicts memory performance and cognitive flexibility, regular aerobic exercise increases executive function, chronic tobacco and alcohol use are associated with cognitive decrements, long-term dietary preferences and habits of military personnel are associated with physical performance during training, and video game experience predicts performance on military change detection, combat identification, and unmanned aerial vehicle control tasks (Hertzog, 1991;Ceballos, 2006;Durlach et al., 2009;Guiney and Machado, 2013;Prichard et al., 2013;Keebler et al., 2014;Lin et al., 2015). To capture some of these features, the present study administered questionnaires to assess a wide range of demographic and lifestyle variables. ...
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Introduction Personnel performance under stress hinges on various factors, including individual traits, training, context, mental and physiological states, and task demands. This study explored the link between the traits of military personnel and their performance outcomes in five domains: move, shoot, communicate, navigate, and sustain. Methods A total of 387 U.S. Army soldiers participated in this study, undergoing trait assessments covering physical, cognitive, social–emotional, demographic/lifestyle, and health domains. Performance was measured through lab and field events assessing a broad range of individual and team-level skills under conditions demanding resilience to acute cognitive and physical stress exposure. Analysis used feature selection and elastic net regression. Results Analyses revealed complex associations between traits and performance, with physical, cognitive, health-related, social–emotional, and lifestyle traits playing roles in guiding and constraining performance. Measures of resilience, emotion regulation, grit, and mindfulness were identified as relevant predictors of several performance-related outcomes. Discussion Results carry implications for the selection, training, and operational effectiveness of personnel in high-stakes occupations including military and first response. Further research is necessary to explore the mechanisms underlying these associations and inform targeted interventions to boost personnel effectiveness.
... Running is also effective in reducing stress and anxiety, which are often elevated in people with MUD [22]. In terms of cognitive effects, research suggests that aerobic exercise, including running, can improve cognitive functions such as executive control, working memory, and attention [23]. For example, studies have shown that regular aerobic exercise can lead to improvements in reaction time, processing speed and overall cognitive flexibility [24]. ...
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Background: Methamphetamine use disorder (MUD) is a global health problem. Studies have shown Tai Chi is a potential treatment for MUD. We aimed to explore the effectiveness of Tai Chi in improving drug cravings, attention bias, and physical fitness in men with MUD compared with aerobic exercise. Methods: A total of forty-eight participants (mean age 39.1 ± 8.7 years) were randomly assigned to either the Tai Chi group (TC) or the running group (RG). The TC performed 60 min of moderate-intensity (65–75% HRmax) Tai Chi exercise three times a week. The RG performed 60 min of moderate-intensity (65–75% HRmax) running on a treadmill three times a week. Before and after the intervention, drug cravings, attention bias, and physical fitness were evaluated. Results: After 12 weeks, we found the TC significantly improved in attention bias (F (1, 43) = 6.023, p = 0.019, d = −0.42) and reaction time (F (1, 43) = 6.181, p = 0.017, d = −0.72). No significant improvement was found in other variables in the TC, compared to the RG (p > 0.05). Conclusions: The 12-week Tai Chi intervention improved attention bias and reaction time, compared to RG. Tai Chi exercise might be a potential auxiliary method for the rehabilitation for men with MUD.
... The Simon Task was used to measure inhibitory control, which requires individuals to suppress prepotent responses when presented with particular stimuli (Guiney and Machado, 2013). In the Simon task, participants are shown either a blue or a red circle on the screen. ...
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Introduction Physical activity is known to enhance cognitive functioning across the lifespan, yet the effects of sedentary behaviors on cognitive functioning remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to determine how an acute daily bout of prolonged sitting influenced working memory, inhibitory control, and cerebral oxygenation (HbO 2 ) in a sample of healthy young adults. Methods Forty-one young adults (aged between 18–30 years of age) participated in an exploratory design intended to establish a control standard for determining how an acute 2-h bout of prolonged sitting influenced working memory, inhibitory control, and HbO 2 . The Flanker task, Simon task, and Delayed Match to Sample were utilized to assess inhibitory control and working memory, respectively, while functional near-infrared spectroscopy assessed HbO 2 . Participants were further subdivided into a physically active (Active) group and a physically inactive group (Inactive) based on self-reported physical activity participation. Paired sample t -tests were used to determine any changes in working memory, inhibitory control, and HbO 2 from pre-to-post and between groups. Results There were no differences in working memory or inhibitory control reaction time following prolonged sitting for the entire sample ( p > 0.05) or between activity groups ( p > 0.05). There was a significant reduction in Flanker accuracy post-prolonged sitting for both the congruent ( p < 0.05) and incongruent ( p < 0.05) conditions. For those in the Inactive group, there was no difference in HbO 2 concentrations post-prolonged sitting. Those in the Active group exhibited a significant reduction in HbO 2 during the Flanker Task following prolonged sitting ( p < 0.05). Conclusions An acute bout of daily prolonged sitting significantly reduced HbO 2 in physically active young adults but not in inactive young adults. We recommend that future studies examining the effects of sedentary behaviors on microvasculature include an objective assessment of physical fitness and a direct measure of physical activity patterns and consider these values when assigning participants to the intervention condition.
... 46 Engaging in regular exercise, in particular, has been shown to improve flexibility and cognitive control. 47 13,14,[48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55] Therefore, given the established effectiveness of physical exercise in enhancing emotional functioning in typically developing children, it is likely that children with ASD would also benefit. ...
... It is observed that it comes to the fore. [8,20]. ...
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Background: This review article aims to emphasize the psychological and overall health effects of regular physical activity during the healthy aging process. Materials and Methods: In the search for scientific literature for this review, data from the US National Library of Medicine (PubMed), MEDLINE, PsycINFO and SportDiscus were used, and the terms "physical activity'', ''psychological health'', ''healthy aging'', and "overall health" were used. The relevant literature has also taken its source from the research of relevant articles from reference lists derived from data searches. Results: The literature on the effects of regular exercise on psychological and overall health is extensive and has elucidated the short-and long-term consequences of physical activity on mood, cognitive function, anxiety, depression, mental health, and overall health. Conclusion: Since it is known that regular exercise can be an effective tool in improving psychological health at almost all ages, but especially in older adults, attention should be paid to the importance of exercise in the healthy aging process. For this reason, it is thought that the implementation of exercise programs in residential areas and workplace environments will have a wide range of contributions to overall health and psychological health.
... This study demonstrated that the aerobic group was able to maintain a positive impact on cognitive function in terms of global cognitive function, executive function (mental flexibility and inhibitory control) and attention (processing speed), whereas improvements in global cognitive function and mental flexibility were maintained in the resistance group. In addition, the aerobic group showed greater improvement in inhibitory control than the control group after training; this could be because aerobic exercise leads to an increase in circulating neurotrophin levels and gray matter volume in the prefrontal cortex as well as the preservation of neural connections between the prefrontal cortex and other regions of the brain (46,47), which are responsible for inhibitory control (48). Moreover, resistance exercise increased gray matter density in the posterior cingulate cortex and increased functional connectivity among the posterior cingulate cortex, anterior cingulate cortex and hippocampus (49), which is implicated in decision-making based on action-outcome learning and related to memory (50). ...
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Background It has been reported that both aerobic exercise and resistance exercise can improve cognitive function in older people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), but it is unclear which type of exercise has a higher impact on cognitive function. Additionally, low-intensity exercise is considered safe for the elderly and can be done at home. This study aimed to compare the effects of 3-month low-intensity home-based exercises, aerobic versus resistance exercises, on cognitive function in people with MCI. Methods This study was a single-blind randomized controlled trial conducted in a suburban community. Ninety eligible participants aged 60–80 years were randomly assigned into aerobic exercise, resistance exercise or control group (30 in each group). The aerobic and resistance exercise groups underwent 3 months of low-intensity exercise at home (35 min/day, 5 days/week). The control group performed their usual daily activities. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment Thai version (MoCA), Trail Making Test Part A and B (TMT-A, TMT-B), Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT), forward and backward Digit Span Test (DST-F, DST-B) and Stick Design Test (SDT) were administered before training, 3-month after training and 3-month follow-up. Results All participants completed a 3-month exercise program, but during the follow-up, data were gathered from 28, 27, and 26 participants in the aerobic, resistance, and control groups, respectively. Both aerobic and resistance groups showed significant improvements in all outcome measures during posttraining and follow-up, except SDT, while there was no cognitive improvement in control group at posttraining and follow-up. Compared to those in the control group, the aerobic group had significant improvements in MoCA, TMT-A, TMT-B, and SCWT, while resistance group had significant improvements in MoCA and TMT-B at posttraining and follow-up. There were no differences in any outcome measures between aerobic and resistance groups, except SCWT, which was significantly greater in the aerobic group than in the resistance group posttraining. Conclusion Low-intensity exercise, whether aerobic or resistance training, was effective at improving cognitive function in older people with MCI, and the effects were sustained at the 3-month follow-up. Clinical trial registration:thaiclinicaltrials.org, TCTR20231110003.
... The theory of limited self-control holds that selfcontrol needs to consume individual resources, and the lack of self-control could easily lead to addictive behaviors [21]. The relevant research on exercise psychology showed that physical exercise could positively promote the improvement of self-control [22], and both acute and chronic physical exercise could enhance self-control [23]. It was worth noting that self-control was significantly negatively correlated with PIU (such as online game addiction), and individuals with high self-control could significantly reduce the degree of online game addiction [24,25]. ...
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Objective From the perspective of exercise psychology, to investigate the antefacts of problematic internet use (PIU) in college students, and to reveal the chain mediating effect of self-control and loneliness between physical exercise and PIU. Methods 1081 college students in Chongqing, China were investigated by Physical Activity Rating Scale (PARS-3), Self-control Scale (SCS), Loneliness Scale (UCLA), and Internet Addiction Scale (CIAS-R), and the data were statistically analyzed by SPSS25.0 and AMOS21.0 software. Results (1) There was a significant negative correlation between physical exercise and PIU, and the former has a direct negative predictive effect on the latter. (2) Physical exercise could indirectly influence the PIU of college students through the partial mediating effect of self-control and loneliness, respectively. (3) Physical exercise could also indirectly influence PIU through the chain mediation of “self-control → loneliness”. Conclusion Maintaining regular physical exercise can promote the improvement of self-control and the weakening of the loneliness experience of college students, and then help to prevent or alleviate PIU behavior, which is of great significance for psychological and behavioral health.
... Therefore, the results of this study showed that women with MA addiction continued to focus on drug-related cues before the exercise intervention but could divert their attention from drug-related cues through attention inhibition after the exercise intervention. Studies have shown that aerobic exercise has a positive impact on attentional processes, especially for selective attention [35,36]. In the present study after chronic aerobic exercise, women with MA addiction regulated attention resource allocation and selection, turning excessive maintenance of attention to drug-related cues into attention inhibition and diverting attention from drug-related cues. ...
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Objective To explore the effects of chronic exercise on attentional bias toward drug-related stimuli and on brain electrophysiological characteristics among women with methamphetamine addiction. Methods In total, 63 women with methamphetamine addiction were randomized to participate in a dance (n = 21; mean age, 32.16 ± 2.07 years), bicycle (n = 21; mean age, 32.59 ± 2.12 years), or control (maintained regular activities with little exercise; n = 21; mean age, 30.95 ± 2.81 years) group for 12 weeks. The participants in the three groups were not significantly different in terms of methamphetamine use or detoxification. Before and after the intervention, attentional bias was assessed using the dot-probe task, and event-related potentials were recorded during the task. Results The mean attentional bias scores decreased significantly after the intervention in both exercise groups but not in the control group. After 12 weeks of dance exercise, the amplitudes of the N170, N2, P2, and P3 components of the event-related potentials decreased significantly during attentional bias processing. In addition, differences in N170 amplitudes for congruent vs. incongruent conditions in the dot-probe task were no longer observed. After 12 weeks of cycling exercise, N2 and P2 amplitudes decreased significantly. By contrast, there were no significant differences in N170, N2, P2, and P3 amplitudes in the control group before vs. after the intervention. Conclusions Chronic (12 weeks of) aerobic exercise reduced attentional bias toward drug-related cues by improving attentional inhibition and reducing the maintenance of extra attention to drug-related cues among women with methamphetamine addiction. Both dance and bicycle exercise improved the early recognition of drug-related cues, weakened the influence of the memory of previous drug use, and improved attentional bias behavior by strengthening attention control. Dance exercise, but not bicycling, also regulated emotional control and improved the attention selection process. These results provide theoretical and empirical evidence that chronic aerobic exercise may reduce the attentional bias toward drug-related cues to assist in the recovery of women with methamphetamine addiction.
... Studies show that various physical activities can reduce adults' risk of chronic diseases such as obesity [5,6], cardiovascular diseases [7,8], diabetes [9]; and improve mental and neurological disorders including [10], depression [11], and Parkinson disease [12].These findings underscore the extensive and profound impact of PA in the prevention and treatment of diseases across a spectrum ranging from psychological to neurological dimensions. Additionally, recent research has suggested that physical exercise benefits the development of different areas of the neurological and psychological function of children [13][14][15] and improves CF and EF, such as attention, memory, learning, and problem-solving [16]. Specifically, aerobic exercise (AE) exhibits significant impact on EF at the level of brain mechanisms. ...
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Objective To investigate the effects of exercise on executive function in children, providing an evidence-based foundation to inform future research in school physical education and health education. Methods We searched ten databases: Cochrane Library, Scopus, OVID, Web of Science, PubMed, EBSCOhost, SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, CNKI, WANFANG DATA, VIP, and SinoMed, and eight articles were included. Applying the revised Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool for Randomized Trials (RoB2), funnel plots and Egger regression analysis were integrated with R meta-analysis to screen for publication bias. The quality of the evidence was appraised using the Grading system. Results The included literature contained 2655 participants, with 1308 in the experimental group and 1347 in the control group. The results indicated that the aerobic exercise group considerably improved inhibitory control in children compared to the control group [SMD = 0.29, 95% CI (0.05, 0.54), P = 0.018]; working memory [SMD = 0.25, 95% CI (0.07, 0.42), P = 0.005]; and cognitive flexibility [SMD = 0.36, 95% CI (0.17, 0.54), P < 0.001]. However, the findings indicated that only aerobic exercise interventions extending beyond 50 weeks positively influenced academic performance in children [SMD = 1.19, 95% CI (0.34, 2.04), P = 0.006]. The results of an Egger regression analysis revealed that the p-values for inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and academic performance were more significant than 0.1. The Grade system said that the quality of evidence was all low regarding the level of evidence. Conclusion Aerobic exercise enhanced executive function but only aerobic exercise interventions extending beyond 50 weeks demonstrated a significant effect on the academic performance of children. Due to the low quality of evidence presented in this study, additional high-quality randomized controlled trials are needed to confirm these findings.
... Cognitive function is an important topic that encompasses various mental processes in our daily life, such as memory, computation, and executive function [1,2]. Executive function is one of the major ways in which sports improve cognitive function [3,4]. It includes several of the following components: inhibition, working memory, reaction time, and cognitive flexibility [1,5]. ...
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Background: This study aimed to investigate how single-bout open-skill exercise (OSE), closed-skill exercise (CSE), and mixed-skill exercise intervention (MSE) influence executive function. Method: A total of 120 students aged between 18 and 25 were separated into three groups: closed-skill exercise, open-skill exercise, and mixed-skill exercise. A task-switching test was performed before and after a single bout of exercise intervention. The simple reaction time, choice reaction time, switch cost, and correction rate were tested in a task-switching test. The results were analyzed via a two-way analysis of variance, with a significance level of α = 0.05, to compare the effects of the intervention. Results: Only open-skill exercise exhibited a significant effect on the simple reaction time (p < 0.05). In terms of choice reaction time and switch cost, all three intervention groups exhibited significant improvements, with no significant differences observed between the three groups (p < 0.05). The correction rate did not show a significant effect post-intervention, and no significant differences were observed between the groups. The correction rate showed no significant effect after the intervention or between groups. Conclusion: All three types of exercise can shorten choice reaction time and switch cost, but only OSE can reduce simple reaction time.
... Research suggests that regular aerobic exercise can prevent weight gain and improve physical tness, cardiorespiratory health, executive functioning, and brain health, even in healthy populations (9)(10)(11)(12). ...
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Introduction Physical inactivity and sedentary behavior both increase the risk of chronic disease and mortality. Regular participation in physical activity and reducing sedentary behavior play important roles in maintaining physical health and disease prevention. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a wearable hip exoskeleton, Bot Fit, on muscle strength, muscle effort, and the kinematics of the pelvis during walking in younger adults. Methods We designed three parallel experimental conditions and randomly assigned participants to one of three groups: those assigned to exercise using an interval program of Bot Fit (interval group), those who used a power program of Bot Fit (power group), and a control group who exercised without Bot Fit. A total of 45 young adults participated in 18 exercise-intervention sessions over six weeks, and all participants were assessed at two time points: before and after the 18 exercise sessions. Each assessment evaluated muscle strength, muscle effort, and the kinematics of the pelvis during walking. In addition, the number of steps, distance, energy expenditure, and heart rate for 30 min during the exercise sessions were recorded. Results A significant increase in the maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) of the right biceps femoris (BF) was evident in the interval group while significant changes in the MVC of the bilateral BF were seen in the power group showed after Bot Fit exercise. A significant decrease of muscle effort in right BF in the interval group and right lumbar erector spinae and bilateral BF in the power group were also observed. In addition, the symmetry index of pelvic tilt significantly improved in the interval group, and greater exercise volume and intensity in both the interval and power groups compared with the control group were confirmed as measured by the number of steps, distance, energy expenditure, and heart rate. Conclusion Results of this study indicate a beneficial effect of the Bot Fit on muscle strength, walking efficiency, and pelvic movement symmetry in younger adults. Personalized exercise programs using different exercise protocol with the Bot Fit may therefore improve the physical health and gait symmetry of younger adults.
... In the pursuit of substantiating the positive impact of physical activity and exercise on cognitive function and brain health, a large body of research has been dedicated to investigating the cognitive advantages conferred by exercise (Colcombe and Kramer, 2003;Guiney and Machado, 2013;Hillman et al., 2008;Wang, Moreau, Yang, Tsai, et al., 2019b). One prevailing hypothesis, known as the selective improvement hypothesis, posits that the cognitive benefits arising from aerobic exercise may be particularly pronounced in contexts demanding a higher level of cognitive control (Colcombe et al., 2004;Hillman et al., 2014;Kramer et al., 1999). ...
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Prior research has highlighted the potential impact of aerobic exercise on cognitive functioning, particularly in situations demanding heightened cognitive control. However, the mechanism underlying this cognitive enhancement has remained unknown. To address this issue, this study examined the impact of a 4-week aerobic exercise program on cognitive control processes in young male adults (aerobic exercise group: n = 36, aged 21.42 ± 1.13 years) in comparison to a control group that received no treatment (n = 33, aged 21.82 ± 1.76 years). We employed the redundant-target Stroop task to investigate inhibition processes at both perceptual and semantic stages. Utilizing systems factorial technology and the drift diffusion model, we assessed changes in resilience capacity and the underlying cognitive mechanisms. Our primary findings revealed a significant reduction in mean response times (RTs) in the aerobic exercise group, accompanied by a decrease in RT variability when inhibiting semantic processing. Resilience capacity significantly declined in both groups at similar levels. Notably, the aerobic exercise group exhibited an enhanced drift rate during automatic response inhibition and reduced non-decision time in the condition involving the inhibition of perceptual information. This study deepens our understanding of how a 4-week aerobic exercise program enhances cognitive control, affecting distinct cognitive processes, including processing speed, information accumulation during automatic response inhibition, and sensory and motor processes in perceptual conflicts. Our research underscores the potential of aerobic exercise as a means to boost cognitive control among young adults.
... The result is consistent with previous studies. 56 Hotelling's T2 tests suggested that marginal significant differences between the two groups in the activation of the six ROI in the prefrontal cortex during the dots-triangles task. According to the non-FDR-corrected p value, R-DLPFC activation decreased in both groups, and the soccer group had higher activation of R-DLPFC Oxy-Hb than the control group. ...
... For this reason, the relationship between physical activity and attention in children and adolescents has been investigated from the field of PE (Aguayo et al., 2018;Gallotta et al., 2015;Kulinna et al., 2018;Reigal et al., 2020). In fact, several studies are related with greater selective attention and a higher level of physical fitness (Guiney & Machado, 2013); and associate a greater number of weekly hours of physical activity performed by adolescents with better cognitive functioning (Reigal et al., 2020). However, this improvement may depend on aspects such as the duration of the physical activity (McNaughten & Gabbard, 1993), the intensity (Budde et al., 2010), or the nature of the activity (Budde et al., 2008). ...
Article
The present study aimed to analyze the effects of conducting a warm-up (WC) or not (WWC) on students of the Science Degree in Physical Activity and Sport before starting a practical class. Thirty-two students of the Science Degree in Physical Activity and Sport (age: 22.38 ± 1.81 years; height: 176.09 ± 8.52 cm; weight: 22.38 ± 1.81 kg; body fat: 25.17 ± 3.20%) participated in a counterbalanced cross-sectional study in which three conditions were tested: (a) basal lineal, (b) WC, and (c) WWC. Participants recorded longer times (worse performance) in the Illinois dribbling test (basal lineal condition [20.17 ± 1.35], WWC [20.13 ± 1.37], and WC [19.32 ± 1.35]) and the Psychomotor Vigilance Task test (basal lineal condition [397.88 ± 75.98 ms]; WWC [412.19 ± 91.39 ms], and WC [368.53 ± 68.65 ms]). The warm-up prior to physical activity classes had positive effects on vigilance linked to executive functioning, and physical performance. In this sense, more research on different types of warm-up may be in order to contrast them with each other, as well as to carry out attention measurements according to the content to be imparted after the warm-ups. The present study represents a big opportunity for all physical education teachers due to warm-up is a crucial aspect that occurs in all practical sessions, also linked to the attention processes and motivational factors of the students.
... Executive functions (EF) are higher order cognitive processes that direct behaviour and action (Diamond, 2014). EF have been found to benefit more consistently from PA than other aspects of cognition, although there are differences depending on the aspect of EF examined (for a review see Guiney & Machado, 2013). In their recent review, Lubans et al. (2021) reported a small effect size (ES = 0.29) from chronic PA interventions on executive function in children. ...
Article
Physical activity (PA) benefits children's cognition, in particular executive functions (EF). Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Reading Difficulties (RD) and co‐occurring ADHD/RD have low levels of PA and difficulties with EF. This study evaluated a PA programme to determine recruitment, attrition, feasibility (e.g. in‐school or after‐school hours), intensity of PA during the programme and effect sizes. Outcomes evaluated were EF, academic attainment and social and emotional behaviour. Sixty‐nine children (35 males) aged 7–13 years participated in a delayed control design. The sample comprised 15 children with RD, 15 with high levels of ADHD symptoms, 15 with co‐occurring RD and ADHD symptoms and 24 typically developing children. Thirty‐one of the participants took part in a 12 week PA intervention designed to enhance cognition and 38 acted as a control group. The control group subsequently received the intervention and data was combined for analysis. The study was successful in recruiting participants for the intervention; more success was observed for in‐school than after‐school hours. Participants spent 46% (SD = 14) of the intervention in Moderate‐to‐Vigorous intensity PA (MVPA). A significant effect of time‐point (pre‐ vs. post‐intervention) was found for inhibition and visuospatial working memory (η ² = 0.11 and 0.18 respectively). There was no interaction with symptomatology though; all groups had higher scores on EF tasks after the intervention. It is possible to recruit and retain participants with ADHD symptoms and reading difficulties to a school‐based PA programme and adherence to measurements was good. Taking part in the programme may improve inhibition and visuospatial working memory and reduce symptomatology suggesting this is a potential source of remediation which should be explored.
... Historically, it is well documented that chronic aerobic exercise can increase cognitive performance (Kramer et al. 1999). For example, research shows that adults who are more physically active perform better during executive function tasks than those who are inactive (Archer 2012;Guiney and Machado 2013;Luque-Casado et al. 2020). Regular exercise is now generally accepted as neuroprotective and even therapeutic in reducing the risk of dementia and general cognitive decline in older adults (Ahlskog et al. 2011;Colcombe et al. 2004;Cotman and Engesser-Cesar 2002;Marques-Aleixo et al. 2021). ...
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Exercise has a profound impact on one’s health, and it is becoming increasingly accepted that exercise also benefits cognitive functioning. Yet, the neural mechanism for which cognitive enhancement occurs is less understood. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to experimentally test whether an acute exercise activity was able to increase theta power and behavioral performance during an executive functioning attentional control task. Participants were randomly assigned to either a stationary-bike exercise or a resting control condition. Thereafter, they completed the Eriksen flanker task, and most participants completed this while EEG data were recorded. From the flanker task data, we demonstrated an interaction effect from both accuracy and reaction time measurements. Importantly, the exercise group was more accurate than the control group in incongruent trials. From the EEG data, theta power was overall higher in the exercise group, especially during the congruent trials, compared to controls. Our results add to the limited but growing body of research that suggests acute exercise produces a general increase in theta power, which in turn may play a role in enhancing cognitive performance. These results, combined with previous research, could have widespread implications in multiple settings such as in the investigation of a biomarker of physical fitness, neurorehabilitation, and in education.
... Guerrero-Rosada et al., 2021;Purpura et al., 2017;Weiland & Yoshikawa, 2013); ADHD and autism(Hepark et al., 2019;Kofler et al., 2019;Pugliese et al., 2015;Rapport et al., 2013;Silverstein et al., 2020); parenting(Bernier et al., 2012;Blair et al., 2011;Fay-Stammbach et al., 2014;Hughes & Devine, 2019); bilingualism(Calvo & Bialystok, 2014;Hartanto et al., 2019;Lehtonen et al., 2018); exercise(Davis et al., 2011;Guiney & Machado, 2013;Ludyga et al., 2016); poverty and socioeconomic status(Calvo & Fig. 10 Trends in the bibliographic coupling of the top journals -More detail available at online version of the map ...
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Executive functions are a set of cognitive processes critical for psychological, social, and cognitive development which have recently received much attention. To explore more prominent keywords, countries, sources, and research clusters, bibliometric analysis is needed. This study conducts a bibliometric analysis on related documents entitled “executive function*”, adopted from Web of Science core collections. The quantitative part includes publication trends and average citations per year, top keywords, corresponding author’s country, and top journals. In the following, the qualitative analysis highlights the top 55 highly cited documents by categorizing the components of executive functions, related variables, instruments, and samples. The results show that the average citation per year related to executive functions documents has seven peaks from 1956 up to February 25, 2022. Top cited documents are mainly focused on childhood and based on 3 components of inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. This bibliometric study provides a clear perspective on the future research direction, highlighting potential opportunities and challenges in the field of executive functions.
... On the one hand, the dysfunction of specific neural circuits in ADHD patients, such as frontoparietal, dorsal, and ventral attentional networks [64], and hyperarousal [65]. PA interventions can activate brain regions associated with executive function and increase functional connectivity between brain networks [66,67], which can positively contribute to the improvement of executive function in children with ADHD. On the other hand, ADHD may be associated with an imbalance of catecholamine neurotransmitters [68]. ...
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Background Executive function is a core deficit in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study systematically reviewed the evidence for the effects of physical activity (PA) interventions on executive function in children and adolescents with ADHD and explored the moderating effects of key variables of PA on executive function. Methods Relevant literature in four electronic databases, Pubmed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Embase, were systematically searched. Revman 5.4 was used for data analysis, and combined effect sizes, heterogeneity tests, subgroup analyses, and sensitivity analyses were calculated. Egger’s test in Stata 15.0 was used for publication bias testing. Results A total of 24 articles with 914 participants were included. Meta-analysis showed that PA interventions improved inhibitory control (SMD = -0.50, 95%CI [-0.71, -0.29], P < 0.00001), working memory (SMD = -0.50, 95%CI [-0.83, -0.16], P = 0.004) and cognitive flexibility in children and adolescents with ADHD (SMD = -0.45, 95%CI [-0.81, -0.09], P = 0.01). Subgroup analysis revealed a moderating effect of intervention intensity, motor skill type, sessions of PA, and weekly exercise volume on executive function. Conclusion PA interventions had positive effects on improvements in core executive functions in children and adolescents with ADHD and were influenced by intervention intensity, type of motor skill, sessions of PA, and amount of exercise. This has practical implications for the formulation of PA interventions programs.
... Furthermore, CBT has been found to decrease obsessive beliefs (e.g., Jónsson et al., 2011;Rector et al., 2019;Whittal et al., 2005). Previous research has found that obsessive beliefs are related to executive functioning capabilities (Bradbury et al., 2011), and that aerobic exercise can improve cognitive functioning including executive functioning (e.g., Guiney & Machado, 2013, Ishihara et al., 2021, thereby potentially improving obsessive beliefs as well. It is unknown whether exercise, too, may have an effect on this important associated feature of OCD. ...
Article
Purpose: Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) has been found to be an effective treatment for OCD, but there remains a significant proportion of individuals who fail to show a treatment response. Aerobic exercise has previously been associated with decreases in anxiety and depression, as well as improvements in OCD symptoms in small-scale studies. The purpose of the present research was to use a randomized control trial design to examine the effects of exercise alone and in combination with CBT, on OCD symptoms and secondary symptoms. Method: 125 participants were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups: waitlist control, exercise, CBT, and CBT with exercise. OCD symptom severity was measured at four points over the course of treatment, secondary outcome measures were gathered at three points over treatment. Results: CBT alone and combined with exercise was associated with significantly greater OCD symptom reduction than exercise alone or the control groups. Total exercise frequency predicted OCD symptom reduction in the groups in which exercise was measured. Group membership did not significantly predict reductions in secondary outcome measures. Conclusion: Exercise frequency, rather than the presence or absence of exercise, appears to predict OCD symptom reduction, as did participation in CBT.
... Continuous passive motion (CPM) is a widely used postoperative exercise therapy that is expected to improve soft tissue repair and function and shorten hospital stay [6]. However, some studies yielded negative fndings for its efectiveness, and guidelines have made insufcient recommendations [6][7][8]. Te reason for this may be the severe pain associated with exercise therapy, which is initiated in the acute postoperative period. ...
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Background: Exercise can reduce the pain threshold momentarily and induce analgesia, which is called exercise-induced hypoalgesia (EIH). Exercise therapy for inducing EIH may be an effective treatment option for pain. We aimed at investigating whether continuous passive motion (CPM) on both healthy and affected sides could induce EIH and reduce pain in the operated knee in patients after unilateral total knee arthroplasty (TKA). Patients and Methods. In this prospective randomized controlled trial, participants were randomly assigned to two groups: a bilateral group that received bilateral exercise on the operated and healthy sides and a unilateral group that received exercise therapy only on the affected side. We enrolled 40 patients aged ≥60 years who were scheduled to undergo unilateral TKA. Visual analogue scale (VAS) scores and range of motion (ROM) on the operated side were measured immediately before and after CPM on postoperative days 2, 4, 7, and 14. The primary outcome was the difference in the VAS scores before and after CPM on postoperative day 14. The secondary outcome was the difference in the ROM before and after CPM on postoperative day 14. Results: Comparison of VAS scores before and after CPM showed no significant intergroup differences on all measurement dates. However, there was a significant difference in values on day 14 (P < 0.05). Both groups showed an increase in ROM after CPM, with significant increments observed on days 2 and 4 in the bilateral group and on day 14 in the unilateral group. There was no significant difference in values on postoperative day 14. Conclusion: Post-TKA pain was reduced by performing the same exercise on the healthy knee during CPM therapy. This could be due to EIH, and the results indicated that EIH can also influence postoperative pain immediately after surgery.
... In particular, research has found robust effects of exercise on EF , including better inhibition and working memory capacity in young adults (Padilla et al., 2014(Padilla et al., , 2013, and improved performance on two EF tasks, the Flanker and the Go/ No-Go tasks (Tsai et al., 2014) after acute 30-minute bouts of either moderate or high-intensity resistance exercise. Similarly, Guiney and Machado (2013) found widespread benefits of exercise on executive functioning, including enhanced task-switching, inhibition, and working memory; particularly, updating working memory appears to benefit from exercise in young adults more than any other executive function. A metaanalysis of research studies on exercise and its impact on executive functioning across the lifespan determined that acute exercise was moderately and positively associated with executive functioning, and remarkably, no significant differences were found between the three age groups (Verburgh et al., 2014). ...
Article
Objective: Prior research has revealed potential effects of sports expertise and physical exercise on cognition, though there is limited research examining their effects on the "hot," emotional-processing aspects of executive functioning (e.g., valence and reward processing important for decision-making). The present study aimed to address this gap by examining event-related brain potentials (ERPs) during a reward-processing task in athletes versus non-athletes, while also investigating if sport expertise and exercise influence this electrophysiological response. Method: A total of 45 participants, including 22 athletes (55% women, 45% men) and 23 non-athlete controls (57% women, 43% men) between the ages of 18-27, completed a "virtual T-maze" environment task involving a rewarded forced choice that elicits the reward positivity (Rew-P), an ERP component associated with reward processing. Rew-P peak amplitude was compared between groups, and both sport expertise and frequency of strenuous exercise were investigated as potential predictors of the Rew-P in athletes. Results: No significant Rew-P differences were found between athletes and controls (t = -1.43, p = .16, d = -.43). However, frequency of strenuous exercise (β = -.51, p = .01) and sport expertise (β = -.48, p = .01) each accounted for a significant proportion of variability in the Rew-P peak amplitude in athletes. Conclusions: Results indicate that, for young adults, sport expertise and physical exercise may each account for heightened electrophysiological reward sensitivity in athletes. Potential implications are discussed for decision-making, an integral cognitive process in sports that is driven by reward processing, and the role of reward-seeking and motivation in sport proficiency.
... Thus, it is plausible to hypothesize that exercise training could enhance the executive function of young individuals by improving cerebral blood flow. Therefore, despite the common assumption that cognitive functioning is at its peak in healthy young adults, recent research has indicated a positive association between habitual physical activity and cognitive performance 38 . Nevertheless, few studies have investigated the effects of exercise interventions on cognitive function and CBF in young individuals, and evidence is lacking regarding the potential CBF mechanisms underlying exercise-related improvements in executive function. ...
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Studies have demonstrated that exercise benefits executive function. However, it remains unclear which type of exercise is optimal for preserving executive function among young adults and the cerebral blood flow (CBF) mechanisms that underlie exercise-induced cognitive benefits. Therefore, this study aims to compare the intervention effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) on executive function and the CBF mechanism. This was a double-blinded, randomized, controlled trial study conducted between October 2020 and January 2021 (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT04830059). Ninety-three healthy young adults (25.23 ± 2.18 years old; 49.82% male) were randomized into the HIIT (N = 33), MICT (N = 32), and control (N = 28) groups. Participants in exercise groups were guided to perform 40 min of HIIT and MICT three times a week for 12 weeks, while the control group received health education for the same period. The primary outcomes, changes in executive function assessed by the trail-making test (TMT), and CBF measured by transcranial Doppler flow analyzer (EMS-9WA), were evaluated before and after the interventions. The time taken to complete the TMT task improved significantly in the MICT group compared to the control group [β = −10.175, 95%, confidence interval (CI) = −20.320, −0.031]. Additionally, the MICT group showed significant improvements in the pulsatility index (PI) (β = 0.120, 95% CI = 0.018, 0.222), resistance index (RI) (β = 0.043, 95% CI = 0.005, 0.082), and peak-systolic/end-diastolic velocity (S/D) (β = 0.277, 95% CI = 0.048, 0.507) of CBF compared to the control group. The time taken to complete the TMT was associated with the velocity of peak-systolic (F = 5.414, P = 0.022), PI (F = 4.973, P = 0.012), and RI (F = 5.845, P = 0.006). Furthermore, the accuracy of TMT was associated with PI (F = 4.797, P = 0.036), RI (F = 5.394, P = 0.024), and S/D (F = 4.312, P = 0.05) of CBF. A 12-week MICT intervention improved CBF and executive function more effectively than HIIT among young adults. Furthermore, the findings suggest that CBF was one of the potential mechanisms underlying the cognitive benefits of exercise in young people. These results provide practical evidence supporting the promotion of regular exercise to maintain executive function and improve brain health.
... Several systematic reviews and meta-analyses have described the beneficial effect of exercise interventions on cognitive domains in older adults, including executive function (Hindin and Zelinski, 2012;Guiney and Machado, 2013;Miller and Taylor-Piliae, 2014;Ohman et al., 2014;Wayne et al., 2014;Lu et al., 2016;Gomes-Osman et al., 2018;Chen et al., 2020), memory (Lu et al., 2016), language (Lu et al., 2016), and general cognition (Miller and Taylor-Piliae, 2014;Lu et al., 2016;Barha et al., 2017;Gomes-Osman et al., 2018;Northey et al., 2018); however, there are also studies showing a lack of clear benefits (Lautenschlager et al., 2008;van Uffelen et al., 2008;Snowden et al., 2011;Tsai et al., 2015;Hong et al., 2018;Lamb et al., 2018;Vidoni et al., 2021). Previously conducted randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have primarily focused on the effects of aerobic exercise (i.e., walking) on cognition in cognitively normal older adults (Erickson et al., 2011(Erickson et al., , 2019Stillman et al., 2020;Mendez Colmenares et al., 2021), and in adults at early stages of AD (Zheng et al., 2016;Stillman et al., 2020). ...
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Alzheimer’s disease is currently the leading cause of dementia and one of the most expensive, lethal and severe diseases worldwide. Age-related decline in executive function is widespread and plays a key role in subsequent dementia risk. Physical exercise has been proposed as one of the leading non-pharmaceutical approaches to improve executive function and ameliorate cognitive decline. This single-site, two-arm, single-blinded, randomized controlled trial (RCT) will include 90 cognitively normal older adults, aged 65–80 years old. Participants will be randomized to a 24-week resistance exercise program (3 sessions/week, 60 min/session, n = 45), or a wait-list control group (n = 45) which will be asked to maintain their usual lifestyle. All study outcomes will be assessed at baseline and at 24-weeks after the exercise program, with a subset of selected outcomes assessed at 12-weeks. The primary outcome will be indicated by the change in an executive function composite score assessed with a comprehensive neuropsychological battery and the National Institutes of Health Toolbox Cognition Battery. Secondary outcomes will include changes in brain structure and function and amyloid deposition, other cognitive outcomes, and changes in molecular biomarkers assessed in blood, saliva, and fecal samples, physical function, muscular strength, body composition, mental health, and psychosocial parameters. We expect that the resistance exercise program will have positive effects on executive function and related brain structure and function, and will help to understand the molecular, structural, functional, and psychosocial mechanisms involved.
... Compared with older adults, children, and adolescents, whose brains are in decline or still developing, young adults show smaller changes in brain development during training or intervention (Prakash et al., 2015;Ludyga et al., 2020;Nakagawa et al., 2020). The beneficial effects have been less explored in healthy young adults (Guiney and Machado, 2013;Lubans et al., 2016). However, the association between habitual physical activity and better cognitive performance interacts with age (Ludyga et al., 2020). ...
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Introduction Working memory (WM) is a well-known fundamental ability related to various high-level cognitive functions, such as executive functioning, decision-making, and problem-solving. Although previous studies have posited that chronic exercise may improve cognitive functions, its underlying neural mechanisms and whether habitual exercise is associated with individual WM ability remain unclear. Methods In the current study, 36 participants reported their habitual physical activity through the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ). In addition to assessments of intelligence quotient (IQ), WM storage capacity (K score), and visuomotor coordination capacity, electroencephalogram (EEG) signals were recorded while the participants performed a WM precision task fusing conventional visual and motor retrospective cue (retro-cue) WM tasks. Results We found that greater amounts of and higher frequencies of vigorous-intensity exercise were highly correlated with smaller recall errors in the WM precision task. Contralateral delay activity (CDA), a well-known WM-related event-related potential (ERP) component evoked by the valid retro-cue, predicted individual behavioral recall error. Participants who met the medium or high level of IPAQ criteria (the regular exercise group) showed smaller behavioral recall error and larger CDA than participants who did not meet the criteria (the irregular exercise group). The two groups did not differ in other assessments, such as IQ, WM storage capacity, and visuomotor coordination ability. Discussion Habitual exercise was specifically correlated with individual differences in WM precision, rather than IQ, WM storage capacity, and visuomotor coordination ability, suggesting potential mechanisms of how modulations of chronic exercise improve cognition through visual and/or motor WM precision.
... Within the last few decades, researchers have established that inhibitory control is impacted by a diverse range of external factors, including age (Allain et al., 2005), education (Dorbath et al., 2013), fitness level (Guiney and Machado, 2013) and emotional affect (Yang et al., 2013). Crucially, numerous studies have also demonstrated that executive functioning is remarkably trainable (Draganski et al., 2004;Bialystok, 2006;Bialystok and DePape, 2009), with language-related variables like bilingualism sometimes outweighing all other modulating factors (Hartanto and Yang, 2019). ...
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Recent studies have begun to examine bilingual cognition from more nuanced, experienced-based perspectives. The present study adds to this body of work by investigating the potential impact of code-switching on bilinguals’ inhibitory control abilities. Crucially, our bilingual participants originated from a predominantly dual-language environment, the interactional context which is believed to require (and therefore, potentially train) cognitive control processes related to goal-monitoring and inhibition. As such, 266 French Canadian bilinguals completed an online experiment wherein they were asked to complete a domain-general (Flanker) and a language-specific (bilingual Stroop) inhibitory control task, as well as extensive demographic and language background questionnaires. Stepwise multiple regressions (including various potential demographic and linguistic predictors) were conducted on the participants’ Flanker and Stroop effects. The results indicated that the bilinguals’ propensity to code-switch consistently yielded significant positive (but unidirectional) inhibitory control effects: dual-language bilinguals who reported more habitual French-to-English switching exhibited better goal-monitoring and inhibition abilities. For the language-specific task, the analysis also revealed that frequent unintentional code-switching may mitigate these inhibition skills. As such, the findings demonstrate that dual-language code-switchers may experience inhibitory control benefits, but only when their switching is self-reportedly deliberate. We conclude that the bilinguals’ interactional context is thus of primary importance, as the dual-language context is more conducive to intentional code-switching. Overall, the current study highlights the importance of considering individualistic language experience when it comes to examining potential bilingual executive functioning advantages.
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This article argues that understanding the primary functions of cognitive processes in our evolutionary past can help to develop effective cognitive enhancement methods. The adaptive problems our ancestors faced forged interconnected cognitive and motor mechanisms supporting various movement-based problem-solving processes. However, the physical and social challenges these cognitive-motor capacities originally evolved to address are no longer prevalent in modern societies. Consequently, many adaptive problem-solving mechanisms linked to a wide range of body movements are often underused and insufficiently developed in modern contexts, contributing to age-related cognitive decline. From this view, and considering current cognitive enhancement techniques such as cognitive training, neurostimulation, physical exercise, and combined cognitive and physical training, the present article introduces an evolutionary-inspired cognitive enhancement framework. This framework advocates for developing strategies and training methods that stimulate our evolved cognitive-motor adaptations. In particular, therapeutic interventions should incorporate adaptive problems and whole-body movement solutions into modern technologies and computer-based tasks.
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This study aimed to examine the effects of 8-week step aerobic exercises on the rhythm skills and static balance of young individuals. 53 university students participated in the research voluntarily. Participants practiced step aerobic exercises with a licensed trainer for 8 weeks. The participants' static balance and rhythm skills were observed before and after the study. At the end of the study, participants' BMI, static balance performance and rhythm skill performances changed significantly. Additionally, it was determined that there was a significant negative way relationship between the participants' balance performances and rhythm skills. Based on the research findings, it can be said that regular step aerobic exercises can be used as an effective method in developing the static balance and rhythm skills of young individuals.
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Background The different clinical presentations of fibromyalgia (FMS) may play independent roles in the unclear etiology of cognitive impairments and depressive symptoms seen in this population. Understanding how these clinical presentations are associated with FMS's clinical and neurophysiological aspects is important when developing effective treatments. Aim To explore the relationship between memory complaints and depressive symptoms, and the different clinical and neurophysiological characteristics of FMS. Methods Cross-sectional data analysis from a randomized clinical trial. Baseline demographics, physical fitness, sleep, anxiety, depression, cortical excitability, and pain (clinical and mechanistic) data from 63 FMS subjects were used. Multiple linear and logistic association models were constructed. Results Final regression models including different sets of predictions were statistically significant (p < 0.001), explaining approximately 50% of the variability in cognitive complaints and depression status. Older subjects had higher levels of anxiety, poor sleep quality, lower motor threshold, and higher relative theta power in the central area, are more likely to have clinical depression. Higher anxiety, pain and theta power were associated with an increase memory complaint. Conclusion Depression symptoms seem to be associated with TMS-indexed motor threshold and psychosocial variables, while memory complaints are associated with pain intensity and higher theta oscillations. These mechanisms may be catalyzed and/or triggered by some behavioral and clinical features such as older age, sleep disruption, and anxiety. The correlation with clinical variables suggests the increasing of theta oscillations is a compensatory response in patients with FMS, which can be explored in future studies to improve the treatment for FMS.
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( This reprinted article originally appeared in the Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1935, Vol 18, 643–662. The following abstract of the original article appeared in PA, Vol 10:1863.) In this study pairs of conflicting stimuli, both being inherent aspects of the same symbols, were presented simultaneously (a name of one color printed in the ink of another color—a word stimulus and a color stimulus). The difference in time for reading the words printed in colors and the same words printed in black is the measure of the interference of color stimuli on reading words. The difference in the time for naming the colors in which the words are printed and the same colors printed in squares is the measure of the interference of conflicting word stimuli on naming colors. The interference of conflicting color stimuli on the time for reading 100 words (each word naming a color unlike the ink-color of its print) caused an increase of 2.3 sec or 5.6% over the normal time for reading the same words printed in black. This increase is not reliable, but the interference of conflicting word stimuli on the time for naming 100 colors (each color being the print of a word which names another color) caused an increase of 47.0 sec or 74.3% of the normal time for naming colors printed in squares.… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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This study examined age-related changes in complex executive function (EF) in a large, representative sample (N = 2,036) aged 5 to 17 using the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS; Naglieri & Das, 1997a). Relations between complex EF and academic achievement were examined on a sub-sample (N = 1,395) given the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-Revised (Woodcock & Johnson, 1989). Performance on the three complex EF tasks improved until at least age 15, although improvement slowed with increasing age and varied some across tasks. Moreover, the different developmental patterns in the correlations between completion time and accuracy provide clues to developmental processes. Examination of individual achievement subtests clarified the specific aspects of academic performance most related to complex EF. Finally, the correlation between complex EF and academic achievement varied across ages, but the developmental pattern of the strength of these correlations was remarkably similar for overall math and reading achievement, suggesting a domain-general relation between complex EF and academic achievement.
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Older driver research has mostly focused on identifying that small proportion of older drivers who are unsafe. Little is known about how normal cognitive changes in aging affect driving in the wider population of adults who drive regularly. We evaluated the association of cognitive function and age with driving errors. A sample of 266 drivers aged 70 to 88 years were assessed on abilities that decline in normal aging (visual attention, processing speed, inhibition, reaction time, task switching) and the UFOV®, which is a validated screening instrument for older drivers. Participants completed an on-road driving test. Generalized linear models were used to estimate the associations of cognitive factors with specific driving errors and number of errors in self-directed and instructor navigated conditions. All error types increased with chronological age. Reaction time was not associated with driving errors in multivariate analyses. A cognitive factor measuring speeded selective attention and switching was uniquely associated with the most errors types. The UFOV® predicted blind-spot errors and errors on dual carriageways. After adjusting for age, education, and gender, the cognitive factors explained 7% of variance in the total number of errors in the instructor-navigated condition and 4% of variance in the self-navigated condition. We conclude that among older drivers, errors increase with age and are associated with speeded selective attention, particularly when that requires attending to the stimuli in the periphery of the visual field, task switching, errors inhibiting responses, and visual discrimination. These abilities should be the target of cognitive training.
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This is a brief review of current evidence for the relationships between physical activity and exercise and the brain and cognition throughout the life span in non-pathological populations. We focus on the effects of both aerobic and resistance training and provide a brief overview of potential neurobiological mechanisms derived from non-human animal models. Whereas research has focused primarily on the benefits of aerobic exercise in youth and young adult populations, there is growing evidence that both aerobic and resistance training are important for maintaining cognitive and brain health in old age. Finally, in these contexts, we point out gaps in the literature and future directions that will help advance the field of exercise neuroscience, including more studies that explicitly examine the effect of exercise type and intensity on cognition, the brain, and clinically significant outcomes. There is also a need for human neuroimaging studies to adopt a more unified multi-modal framework and for greater interaction between human and animal models of exercise effects on brain and cognition across the life span.
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To investigate the relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive variability in preadolescent children. Forty-eight preadolescent children (25 males, 23 females, mean age = 10.1 years) were grouped into higher- and lower-fit groups according to their performance on a test of aerobic capacity (VO2max). Cognitive function was measured via behavioral responses to a modified flanker task. The distribution in reaction time was calculated within each participant to assess intraindividual variability of performance. Specifically, the standard deviation and coefficient variation of reaction time were used to represent cognitive variability. Preadolescent children, regardless of fitness, exhibited longer reaction time, increased response variability, and decreased response accuracy to incongruent compared to congruent trials. Further, higher-fit children were less variable in their response time and more accurate in their responses across conditions of the flanker task, while no group differences were observed for response speed. These findings suggest that fitness is associated with better cognitive performance during a task that varies cognitive control demands, and extends this area of research to suggest that intraindividual variability may be a useful measure to examine the relationship between fitness and cognition during preadolescence.
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This review provides a historical overview of physical activity interventions designed by American educators and an evaluation of research that has assessed the effects of exercise on children's mental function. Historical descriptions of the emergence of American physical education doctrine throughout the 20th century were evaluated. Prior reviews of studies that assessed the effects of single acute bouts of exercise and the effects of chronic exercise training on children's mental function were examined and the results of recent studies were summarized. Physical activity interventions designed for American children have reflected two competing views: activities should promote physical fitness and activities should promote social, emotional, and intellectual development. Research results indicate that exercise fosters the emergence of children's mental function; particularly executive functioning. The route by which physical activity impacts mental functioning is complex and is likely moderated by several variables, including physical fitness level, health status, and numerous psycho-social factors. Physical activity interventions for children should be designed to meet multiple objectives; e.g., optimize physical fitness, promote health-related behaviors that offset obesity, and facilitate mental development.
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The hippocampus shrinks in late adulthood, leading to impaired memory and increased risk for dementia. Hippocampal and medial temporal lobe volumes are larger in higher-fit adults, and physical activity training increases hippocampal perfusion, but the extent to which aerobic exercise training can modify hippocampal volume in late adulthood remains unknown. Here we show, in a randomized controlled trial with 120 older adults, that aerobic exercise training increases the size of the anterior hippocampus, leading to improvements in spatial memory. Exercise training increased hippocampal volume by 2%, effectively reversing age-related loss in volume by 1 to 2 y. We also demonstrate that increased hippocampal volume is associated with greater serum levels of BDNF, a mediator of neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus. Hippocampal volume declined in the control group, but higher preintervention fitness partially attenuated the decline, suggesting that fitness protects against volume loss. Caudate nucleus and thalamus volumes were unaffected by the intervention. These theoretically important findings indicate that aerobic exercise training is effective at reversing hippocampal volume loss in late adulthood, which is accompanied by improved memory function.
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A growing body of literature provides evidence for the prophylactic influence of cardiorespiratory fitness on cognitive decline in older adults. This study examined the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and recruitment of the neural circuits involved in an attentional control task in a group of healthy older adults. Employing a version of the Stroop task, we examined whether higher levels of cardiorespiratory fitness were associated with an increase in activation in cortical regions responsible for imposing attentional control along with an up-regulation of activity in sensory brain regions that process task-relevant representations. Higher fitness levels were associated with better behavioral performance and an increase in the recruitment of prefrontal and parietal cortices in the most challenging condition, thus providing evidence that cardiorespiratory fitness is associated with an increase in the recruitment of the anterior processing regions. There was a top-down modulation of extrastriate visual areas that process both task-relevant and task-irrelevant attributes relative to the baseline. However, fitness was not associated with differential activation in the posterior processing regions, suggesting that fitness enhances attentional function by primarily influencing the neural circuitry of anterior cortical regions. This study provides novel evidence of a differential association of fitness with anterior and posterior brain regions, shedding further light onto the neural changes accompanying cardiorespiratory fitness.
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Research has shown the human brain is organized into separable functional networks during rest and varied states of cognition, and that aging is associated with specific network dysfunctions. The present study used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine low-frequency (0.008 < f < 0.08 Hz) coherence of cognitively relevant and sensory brain networks in older adults who participated in a 1-year intervention trial, comparing the effects of aerobic and non-aerobic fitness training on brain function and cognition. Results showed that aerobic training improved the aging brain's resting functional efficiency in higher-level cognitive networks. One year of walking increased functional connectivity between aspects of the frontal, posterior, and temporal cortices within the Default Mode Network and a Frontal Executive Network, two brain networks central to brain dysfunction in aging. Length of training was also an important factor. Effects in favor of the walking group were observed only after 12 months of training, compared to non-significant trends after 6 months. A non-aerobic stretching and toning group also showed increased functional connectivity in the DMN after 6 months and in a Frontal Parietal Network after 12 months, possibly reflecting experience-dependent plasticity. Finally, we found that changes in functional connectivity were behaviorally relevant. Increased functional connectivity was associated with greater improvement in executive function. Therefore the study provides the first evidence for exercise-induced functional plasticity in large-scale brain systems in the aging brain, using functional connectivity techniques, and offers new insight into the role of aerobic fitness in attenuating age-related brain dysfunction.
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The present investigation is the first to explore the association between childhood aerobic fitness and basal ganglia structure and function. Rodent research has revealed that exercise influences the striatum by increasing dopamine signaling and angiogenesis. In children, higher aerobic fitness levels are associated with greater hippocampal volumes, superior performance on tasks of attentional and interference control, and elevated event-related brain potential indices of executive function. The present study used magnetic resonance imaging to investigate if higher-fit and lower-fit 9- and 10-year-old children exhibited differential volumes of other subcortical brain regions, specifically the basal ganglia involved in attentional control. The relationship between aerobic fitness, dorsal and ventral striatum volumes and performance on an attention and inhibition Eriksen flanker task was also examined. The results indicated that higher-fit children showed superior flanker task performance compared to lower-fit children. Higher-fit children also showed greater volumes of the dorsal striatum, and dorsal striatum volume was negatively associated with behavioral interference. The results support the claim that the dorsal striatum is involved in cognitive control and response resolution and that these cognitive processes vary as a function of aerobic fitness. No relationship was found between aerobic fitness, the volume of the ventral striatum and flanker performance. The findings suggest that increased childhood aerobic fitness is associated with greater dorsal striatal volumes and that this is related to enhanced cognitive control. Because children are becoming increasingly overweight, unhealthy and unfit, understanding the neurocognitive benefits of an active lifestyle during childhood has important public health and educational implications.
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Studies generally describe the relationship between physical fitness and cognitive function by measuring only one or two specific cognitive tasks. In addition, in spite of the significant increase in life expectancy, the age of participants in these studies does not extend beyond a mean age of 70 years. This study was thus designed to examine the relationship between physical fitness and function in multiple cognitive domains in subjects older than those previously reported. Thirty-eight individuals, aged 65.3 to 85.3 years, performed a graded, progressive, maximal exercise test. Based on a median score of peak VO2, participants were divided into low-fitness and moderately-fit groups. Cognitive function was assessed by means of a computerized neuropsychological battery. The moderately-fit group achieved significantly better scores on the global cognitive score (U = 97, p = 0.04), and a significant correlation was found between peak VO2 and attention, executive function, and global cognitive score (rs = .37, .39, .38 respectively). The trend for superior cognitive scores in the moderate-fitness compared to the low-fitness groups was unequivocal, both in terms of accuracy and reaction time. Maintenance of higher levels of cardiovascular fitness may help protect against cognitive deterioration, even at an advanced age. An adequately powered randomized controlled trial should be performed to further evaluate this hypothesis.
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To assess the effects of aerobic exercise training on neurocognitive performance. Although the effects of exercise on neurocognition have been the subject of several previous reviews and meta-analyses, they have been hampered by methodological shortcomings and are now outdated as a result of the recent publication of several large-scale, randomized, controlled trials (RCTs). We conducted a systematic literature review of RCTs examining the association between aerobic exercise training on neurocognitive performance between January 1966 and July 2009. Suitable studies were selected for inclusion according to the following criteria: randomized treatment allocation; mean age > or =18 years of age; duration of treatment >1 month; incorporated aerobic exercise components; supervised exercise training; the presence of a nonaerobic-exercise control group; and sufficient information to derive effect size data. Twenty-nine studies met inclusion criteria and were included in our analyses, representing data from 2049 participants and 234 effect sizes. Individuals randomly assigned to receive aerobic exercise training demonstrated modest improvements in attention and processing speed (g = 0.158; 95% confidence interval [CI]; 0.055-0.260; p = .003), executive function (g = 0.123; 95% CI, 0.021-0.225; p = .018), and memory (g = 0.128; 95% CI, 0.015-0.241; p = .026). Aerobic exercise training is associated with modest improvements in attention and processing speed, executive function, and memory, although the effects of exercise on working memory are less consistent. Rigorous RCTs are needed with larger samples, appropriate controls, and longer follow-up periods.
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This study examined the effects of two short physical training programs on various parameters of heart rate variability (HRV) and on executive performance in older people. Twenty-four sedentary men and women aged 65-78 years were randomly assigned to an aerobic exercise program or a stretching program three times a week for 12 weeks. Resting HRV was measured in time and frequency domains in each participant before and after the 12-week programs. Executive performance was measured with the Wisconsin card sorting test (WCST). Significant group-session interactions emerged for the standard deviation of normal beat-to-beat (R-R) intervals, the root-mean-square of successive R-R, and high frequency power. Only the aerobic training group increased vagal-mediated HRV parameters. Moreover, only the participants in the aerobic training group improved their performance on the WCST. These results highlight the role of aerobic exercise as an important cardiac and brain protective factor, and suggest a direct link between exercise, HRV, and cognition in the aged population.
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The benefits of fitness for cognitive performance in healthy older adults have repeatedly been demonstrated. Animal studies, however, have revealed differential relationships between physical and motor fitness and brain metabolism. We therefore investigated whether for older humans different dimensions of fitness are differentially associated with cognitive performance and brain activation patterns. Seventy-two participants (mean age 68.99 years, SD = 3.66; 52 females) completed four psychometric tests reflecting two primary abilities of higher cognitive functioning (executive control, perceptual speed) and a battery of fitness tests comprising two fitness dimensions (physical and motor fitness). We found that not only physical fitness indexed by cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength, but also motor fitness including movement speed, balance, motor coordination and flexibility showed a strong association with cognitive functioning. Additionally, functional brain imaging data revealed that physical and motor fitness were differentially related to cognitive processes. Results are discussed with regard to the compensation hypothesis and potential consequences for intervention work.
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Nearly 200 studies have examined the impact that either acute or long-term exercise has upon cognition. Subsets of these studies have been reviewed using the traditional narrative method, and the common conclusion has been that the results are mixed. Therefore, a more comprehensive review is needed that includes all available studies and that provides a more objective and reproducible review process. Thus, a meta-analytic review was conducted that included all relevant studies with sufficient information for the calculation of effect size (W = 134). The overall effect size was 0.25, suggesting that exercise has a small positive effect on cognition. Examination of the moderator variables indicated that characteristics related to the exercise paradigm, the participants, the cognitive tests, and the quality of the study influence effect size. However, the most important finding was that as experimental rigor decreased, effect size increased. Therefore, more studies need to be conducted that emphasize experimental rigor.
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In serial stage models, perception and action are usually thought to be linked to each other by an S-R translation mechanism. However, phenomena of S-R compatibility suggest a more direct relationship between perceptual and action domains. We discuss behavioral and psychophysiological evidence that irrelevant stimulus information automatically activates response codes, but then decays over time.In a series of reaction time studies and electrophysiological experiments, we investigated both temporal and functional properties of the assumed automatic response activation process. We found that the amount of interference due to irrelevant spatial information depends upon how long its availability precedes that of the information relevant for response selection. This indicates that response activation decays rather quickly. If response-relevant and irrelevant spatial information are simultaneously available, electrophysiological measurements show that automatic activation of the spatially corresponding response rises soon after stimulus onset, but then dissipates and gets replaced by the activation of the response indicated by the relevant stimulus attribute.We conclude that these findings do not support a pure translation account, but rather suggest the presence of two parallel and (at least partially) independent routes from perception to action: A direct route, allowing for automatic activation of response codes if stimulus and response features overlap, and an indirect route linking S and R codes in an arbitrary manner. Via the direct route responses may be primed independent of task-specific contingencies, while the correct response is selected via the indirect route. This use suggests that (a) the transmission of stimulus information to response stages does not (fully) depend on task relevance and that (b) different stimulus features can be transmitted asynchronously and independently from one another.
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In general, executive function can be thought of as the set of abilities required to effortfully guide behavior toward a goal, especially in nonroutine situations. Psychologists are interested in expanding the understanding of executive function because it is thought to be a key process in intelligent behavior, it is compromised in a variety of psychiatric and neurological disorders, it varies across the life span, and it affects performance in complicated environments, such as the cockpits of advanced aircraft. This article provides a brief introduction to the concept of executive function and discusses how it is assessed and the conditions under which it is compromised. A short overview of the diverse theoretical viewpoints regarding its psychological and biological underpinnings is also provided. The article concludes with a consideration of how a multilevel approach may provide a more integrated account of executive function than has been previously available.
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Response selection account of task switching assumes that switching between competing task sets is accompanied by time cost (termed switch cost) as a source of prolongation of response selection process. The aim of the present study was to test the prediction of response selection account for switching conditions in which the level of interference between task sets, i.e., response selection requirement of tasks was manipulated. Switch task (parity and magnitude task) in combination with a version of NoGo signal task was used in two experiments. The overlap of task rules was manipulated between experiments. In the Experiment 1A the Stimulus-Response mappings (task rules) were bivalent: the same response outcomes were used in both tasks, in the Experiment 1B the rules were univalent (different response outcomes for the two tasks). Larger switch cost and intense reduction of switch cost subsequent to a NoGo signal were predicted for the bivalent switching conditions. In contrast with our prediction effective switching performance following task set inhibition was present in univalent condition. Explaining our results we refer to differences between interference conditions in terms of the mutual inhibitory effects between the task (S-R) rules.
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In the ageing process, neural areas¹,² and cognitive processes³,⁴ do not degrade uniformly. Executive control processes and the prefrontal and frontal brain regions that support them show large and disproportionate changes with age. Studies of adult animals indicate that metabolic⁵ and neurochemical⁶ functions improve with aerobic fitness. We therefore investigated whether greater aerobic fitness in adults would result in selective improvements in executive control processes, such as planning, scheduling, inhibition and working memory. Over a period of six months, we studied 124 previously sedentary adults, 60 to 75 years old, who were randomly assigned to either aerobic (walking) or anaerobic (stretching and toning) exercise. We found that those who received aerobic training showed substantial improvements in performance on tasks requiring executive control compared with anaerobically trained subjects.
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Until recently, gait was generally viewed as a largely automated motor task, requiring minimal higher-level cognitive input. Increasing evidence, however, links alterations in executive function and attention to gait disturbances. This review discusses the role of executive function and attention in healthy walking and gait disorders while summarizing the relevant, recent literature. We describe the variety of gait disorders that may be associated with different aspects of executive function, and discuss the changes occurring in executive function as a result of aging and disease as well the potential impact of these changes on gait. The attentional demands of gait are often tested using dual tasking methodologies. Relevant studies in healthy adults and patients are presented, as are the possible mechanisms responsible for the deterioration of gait during dual tasking. Lastly, we suggest how assessments of executive function and attention could be applied in the clinical setting as part of the process of identifying and understanding gait disorders and fall risk. © 2007 Movement Disorder Society
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Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to examine the pattern of activity of the prefrontal cortex during performance of subjects in a nonspatial working memory task. Subjects observed sequences of letters and responded whenever a letter repeated with exactly one nonidentical letter intervening. In a comparison task, subjects monitored similar sequences of letters for any occurrence of a single, prespecified target letter. Functional scanning was performed using a newly developed spiral scan image acquisition technique that provides high-resolution, multislice scanning at approximately five times the rate usually possible on conventional equipment (an average of one image per second). Using these methods, activation of the middle and inferior frontal gyri was reliably observed within individual subjects during performance of the working memory task relative to the comparison task. Effect sizes (2–4%) closely approximated those that have been observed within primary sensory and motor cortices using similar fMRI techniques. Furthermore, activation increased and decreased with a time course that was highly consistent with the task manipulations. These findings corroborate the results of positron emission tomography studies, which suggest that the prefrontal cortex is engaged by tasks that rely on working memory. Furthermore, they demonstrate the applicability of newly developed fMRI techniques using conventional scanners to study the associative cortex in individual subjects. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
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