Article
Erotica Viewing Effects on Intimate Relationships and Self/Partner Evaluations
Counseling and Testing Center, Idaho State University, 921 S 8th Ave., Pocatello, ID, 83209, USA, .
Archives of Sexual Behavior (Impact Factor: 3.53). 12/2012; 42(4). DOI: 10.1007/s10508-012-0034-4 Source: PubMed
Figures in this publication
| Get notified about updates to this publication Follow publication |
Full-text
Available from: Nicole Prause
ORIGINAL PAPER
Erotica Viewing Effects on Intimate Relationships and Self/Partner
Evaluations
Cameron Staley
•
Nicole Prause
Received: 23 March 2011 / Revised: 16 December 2011 / Accepted: 2 July 2012
Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012
Abstract Viewing visual sexual stimuli (VSS) has been
documented to have both positive (e.g., increased sexual
arousal and sexual behaviors) and negative (e.g., higher
anxiety, devaluing of partner attractiveness) effects. Excita-
tion transfer and social comparison theories were used to
generate hypotheses that could explain these mixed findings.
Forty-four monogamous, heterosexual couples viewed ero-
tic, exciting (non-erotic films), and nature films both alone
and together. They rated their feelings of general arousal and
relationship satisfaction as well as perceptions of self and
partner sexual behaviors and attractiveness. Participants
viewing both the erotic and exciting films reported equivalent
increases in excitement; however, the erotic film was rated as
slightly more generally arousing and increased participant’s
desire to be close to their partner. Viewing the erotic films also
induced greater reports of negative affect, guilt, and anxiety.
These findings moderately support a transfer of excitation
interpretation. No effects of partner presence or absence
while viewing the films was found. Viewing erotic films led to
more positive evaluations of one’s own sexual behaviors.
These findings provide mixed support in regard to self and
partner social comparisons. Co-occurring positive and neg-
ative emotional reactions were explored as possible expla-
nation to the complex reactions to VSS.
Keywords Visual sexual stimuli Pornography
Erotica Couples Excitation transfer Social learning theory
Introduction
The effects of visual sexual stimuli (VSS) on mental health
have long been controversial. Much of the controversy
regarding VSS appears to be political, yet researchers con-
tinue to identify mixed results regarding its impact. While
much research appears to investigate whether VSS has
‘‘good’’ or ‘‘bad’’ effects, broader theoretical frameworks are
explored in this study rather than an attempt to determining
the value of VSS.
Results from studies of the impact of viewing sexual
stimuli on individuals and relationships offer some contra-
dictory findings. Laboratory studies usually document
increases in positive feelings following erotica exposure
(Allen et al., 2007) and self-reports of an expanded sexual
repertoire coincide with increased VSS use (Weinberg, Wil-
liams, Kleiner, & Irizarry, 2010). In a recent meta-analysis,
researchers have identified that repeated exposure to VSS is
associated with increased risk for developing sexually devi-
ant tendencies, experiencing difficulties in intimate rela-
tionships, and increased acceptance of rape myths (Oddone-
Paolucci, Genuis, & Violato, 2000). Other reviewers have
documented that the effects of pornography on sexual aggres-
sion depend on the discriminative ability only among men
classified as ‘‘high risk’’ based on other risk characteristics
(Vega & Malamuth, 2007). The impact of viewing VSS on
committed relationships is mixed. Clinical reports, public
opinion, and research data vary widely concerning the pre-
sumed positive and negative effects of viewing sexual stim-
uli, which has been touted both to risk dissolution of the
relationship and strengthen the relationship.
This study experimentally tested how viewing VSS alone
or with one’s partner impacted evaluations of one’s self,
views of one’s partner, and relationship satisfaction. The
effects of erotica viewing may depend on the presence of the
C. Staley (&)
Counseling and Testing Center, Idaho State University,
921 S 8th Ave., Pocatello, ID 83209, USA
e-mail: stalcame@isu.edu
N. Prause
Department of Psychiatry, Semel Neuropsychiatric Institute,
University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
123
Arch Sex Behav
DOI 10.1007/s10508-012-0034-4
partner, the type of activating film stimuli used, and the gen-
der of the participant. Identifying the mechanism that con-
tributes to these disparate effects may help characterize the
conditions under which erotica viewing is likely to be helpful
or harmful to couples. The current study tested excitation
transfer and social comparison as possible explanatory models
regarding the mixed (positive and negative) findings of VSS use.
Therapists sometimes recommend viewing sexually
explicit material to enhance low desire or improve sexual
difficulties in their clients (Brunhild, 2000; Cooper, 1985;
Moser, 1997; Tiefer, 2006). Couples in which both members
viewed VSS reported better communication about sex and
fewer sexual problems than couples in which only one or
neither member viewed VSS (Daneback, Træen, & Ma
˚
nsson,
2009). Participation in research that includes viewing erotica
also increases the likelihood of sexual activity with partners
immediately after the laboratory session (Both, Spiering,
Everaerd, & Laan, 2004). It should be noted that some indi-
viduals experience sexual arousal as negative, which will not
be addressed in this study given this complex possibility
(Janssen, Vorst, Finn, & Bancroft, 2002).
Co-viewing VSS could have anti-therapeutic repercus-
sions. Some researchers have suggested that a more idealistic
perception of one’s partner is associated with higher satis-
faction(Murray,Holmes,&Griffin,1996). ViewingVSSmay
compromise idealistic perceptions of a romantic partner’s
physical appearance or the adequacy of the couple’s sexual
behaviors. This could reducesatisfaction with both the partner
and relationship. Investigation of the relationship between
self-reported partner ideals and assessment of the current
partner and relationship revealed that the farther a partner
moves from the ideal image, the less satisfied that person is in
the relationship (Fletcher, Simpson, Thomas, & Giles, 1999).
Clinicians may have extensive discussions with their clients
prior to suggesting the use of erotica as a sexual aid; in fact,
some erotica is specifically created for conjunctive use with
therapy. This process may reduce potential adverse reactions
to the sexual material, but this specific adjunct to therapy has
not been tested empirically.
Most viewing of VSS by married persons does not occur
with the partner present (Manning, 2006). Results from stud-
ies of women whose partners may consume VSS with high
frequency suggest many detrimental effects associated with
viewing extensive VSS without acceptance by the other part-
ner (Bergner & Bridges, 2002), but these partners were included
because of their negative perception of their partner’s use.
Zillmann and Bryant (1988) took a different approach, and
assigned 160 individual participants to watch sexual material
once a week in hourly sessions for six consecutive weeks.
Repeated viewing of VSS diminished perceptions of partner’s
physical appeal, sexual performance, sexual curiosity, and affec-
tion beyond the control stimuli. It also led participants to assign
increased importance to sexual relations absent of emotional
involvement. This appears generally consistent with cross-
sectional studies that report a relationship between VSS
viewing frequency and sexual dissatisfaction, which is stron-
ger when the viewing occurs alone (Yucel & Gassanov, 2010).
The mechanism determining whether VSS is a positive or
negative influence remains unclear from cross-sectional
studies.
While a few studies have examined the impact of viewing
sexual films with people who are not romantic partners (Saun-
ders & Naus, 1993; Senn & Desmarais, 2004), the present
study was specifically focused on the effects of viewing on
romantic relationships. Married, heterosexual couples who
viewed erotic or non-erotic films for four weeks increased their
sexual activity following erotic films on film viewing nights
than on non-film viewing nights (Mann, Sidman, & Starr,
1973). However, couples viewing erotic films reported feel-
ing more‘‘down-hearted’’and increased anxiety compared to
the couples viewing non-erotic films (Mann, Berkowitz,
Sidman,Starr,&West,1974). The couple’s sexual activity also
increased while viewing non-erotic films, but this effect was not
statistically significant. The non-erotic films used in this study
were general interest films that likely produced lower levels of
any physiological arousal than the erotic films. The frequency of
sexual activity might increase if the non-erotic films were also
highly activating comparable to the erotic films without the
potential risk of negative emotional effects from the sexual
content.
Experience with VSS also differs starkly by gender, with
medium effect sizes differentiating men viewing more (Pet-
erson & Hyde, 2010). Individual differences in erotophilic
disposition or other broad personality differences may under-
lie apparent gender discrepancies (Paul, 2009). On average,
men endorse more positive results of viewing VSS on their
sexual relationship, and men and women seem to agree that
negative effects of viewing VSS occur when a female partner
is viewed as less attractive or feels pressured to perform new
sexual acts (Albright, 2008). Viewing VSS together also
might differentially impact men and women, as each endorse
beliefs that women have more repulsed and men have more
aroused responses to VSS (Reid, Byrne, Brundidge, Shoham,
&Marlow,2007). In sum, it is reasonable to expect that men
and women might not exhibit the same pattern of responses to
VSS, so gender may interact with viewing conditions.
Excitation transfer and social comparison models were
tested using an experimental task in which partners viewed
erotica alone and with their intimate partner with the osten-
sible task of ‘‘rating emotional films.’’ They were asked to
report their sexual arousal, relationship satisfaction, and
other self/partner ratings following each film. Each theory is
reviewed below, followed by hypotheses that differentiated
the outcome between these models.
Arch Sex Behav
123
Excitation Transfer
When people are physiologically aroused, they can easily be
led to attribute their arousal to romanticfeelings (Berscheid &
Walster, 1978). Dutton and Aron (1974), in their classic
protocol, studied men who had crossed a high suspension
bridge or a low concrete bridge to investigate this phenom-
enon. The high, swaying suspension bridge was assumed to
produce higher general physiological arousal than a lower,
stable bridge. Consistent with an arousal misattribution
hypothesis, males who were approached by a female inter-
viewer on the suspension bridge reported more sexual content
in response to a Thematic Apperception Test item and were
more likely to telephone the interviewer following the study
than males on the low concrete bridge. Cohen, Waugh, and
Place (1988) systematically observed 79 mixed-sex dyads
leaving a high arousal movie depicting violence and nudity or
a low arousal film about middle-class America. They found
that couples exiting the high arousal film engaged in more
affiliative behaviors (e.g., talking, touching) than couples
leaving the low arousal film.
‘‘Excitation transfer’’ is a broad term explaining how
arousal can influence subsequent perceptions, including its
misattribution. Zillmann (1983) described excitation transfer
as residual excitement from a previous situation that may
intensify a succeeding emotional state. Once aroused, sym-
pathetic nervous system (SNS) activation appears to decline
slowly (Cantor, Zillmann, & Bryant, 1975). It is during this
decline that an individual exposed to a subsequent emotion-
provoking situation is most likely to misattribute their resid-
ual arousal to the current situation. Thus, excitation transfer
from a nonsexual, activating SNS stimulus may increase
sexual responses to erotic stimuli. In one study, Cantor et al.
(1975) had subjects exercise on a bike for one minute and then
watch erotic films either immediately following or several
minutes after the exercise. When participants viewed the
films immediately after exercise, they attributed their arousal
to the exercise. When they viewed the films several minutes
after exercise, they‘‘misattributed’’their arousal to the sexual
film. Specifically, participants viewing the erotic film after a
delay rated the films as more sexually arousing. The effect has
been replicated in women and attributed specifically to SNS
activation (Meston & Gorzalka, 1995).
Social Comparison
Individuals often compare themselves to others in order to
evaluate their own abilities and attributes. Self-evaluations
of attractiveness represent one judgment impacted by social
comparisons (Cash, Cash, & Butters, 1983). This ‘‘social
comparison’’ model has been tested in a variety of domains
and has been expanded to include how our evaluations of
others are affected by social comparisons. Research has
suggested that viewing highly attractive individuals engag-
ing in exotic sexual acts can lead to negative social compar-
isons of one’s self or romantic partner’s appearance and sex-
ual behavior. Kenrick and Gutierres (1989) asked male and
female participants to view pictures of attractive or average
nude women. Participants then completed an ‘‘unrelated’’
study in which they rated an average nude female for per-
sonality, psychopathology, and attractiveness. Participants
who initially viewed the attractive nude slides rated the
subsequent average nude female as less attractive as com-
pared to participants who viewed average nude women. Male
participants who viewed attractive nudes also rated their own
partners as less attractive than men who viewed neutral pic-
tures although the effect was not found with female partici-
pants. Furthermore, the mere presence of a relational partner
when viewing VSS may activate relationship ideals that may
influence an individual’s subsequent perceptions and behav-
iors (Fitzimons & Bargh, 2003; Miller & Read, 1991).
Hypotheses
Excitation transfer theory predicts that viewing exciting,
non-erotic films should lead to similar increases in positive
perceptions of a sexual relationship and a sexual partner as
erotic films whereas non-exciting, nonsexual neutral films
should not change perceptions of the relationship of the part-
ner from baseline. According to excitation transfer, co-view-
ing exciting and sexual films should further increase the
positive perceptions of the partner and relationship, as the
presence of the partner should facilitate the misattribution of
arousal. Social comparison theory, however, predicts that
evaluations of one’s relationship and partner will be lower
after viewing erotica than viewing exciting films. Co-viewing
should further decrease positive evaluations of one’s rela-
tionship and partner as social comparisons should be
enhanced by the presence of the comparator.
Method
Participants
A total of 48 monogamous, heterosexual individuals were
recruited from Idaho State University and asked to bring their
relationship partner, for a total of 88 participants. Couples
attended private sessions and did not interact with other cou-
ples participating in the study. Most participants reported
being ‘‘white’’ (N
= 70, 79.5 %) which is somewhat more
diverse than population estimates for the state (94.6 %) and
consistent with national estimates (79.8 %) (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2008) with an average age of 25 years. Almost half
(N = 42, 47.7 %) reported being married with 41 (46.6 %)
individuals indicating their current relationship length over
Arch Sex Behav
123
three years. Additionally, most (N = 76, 86.4 %) indicated
affiliation with a religion (e.g., Protestant, Catholic, LDS)
which is somewhat higher than population estimates for the
state (73 %) and national estimates (76 %) (American Reli-
gious Identification Survey, 2009).
To minimize participation bias, recruitment materials did
not disclose that a sexual film would be viewed (Wiederman,
1999). Rather, participants were told that they were partici-
pating in a study to further understand couples’ reactions to
‘‘emotional’’ films. Studies of sexual response typically dis-
close at the point of recruitment when sexual films are used.
Given the known volunteer biases for sex research (Wie-
derman, 1999), participants were only informed of the pres-
ence of sexual films at the time of informed consent to
increase the generalizability of results. By fully disclosing the
nature of the stimuli at the time of the informed consent
procedure, soliciting questions, verbally confirming written
consent, and providing payment even to those who choose not
to participate at that time, the autonomy of the volunteers to
decline participation was maintained (Margolis, 2000). Of
those who did participate, post-experimental questionnaires
reassessed that distress was absent or minimal.
Upon entering the lab, each couple was informed that, in
addition to viewing multiple films, they would be expected to
complete questionnaires about how often they view movies,
as well as some aspects of their own behavior, including their
sexual history and general personality. Since the informed
consent disclosed the sexual content of some of the films and
questionnaires, four couples elected not to participate fully
citing the sexual films. Specifically, three couples agreed to
participate, but terminated participation after completing the
questionnaires and before the film viewing started. One cou-
ple elected not to complete the questionnaire or view the
films. This left 44 couples in the sample with complete data.
Participants were informed that their responses would be
confidential and anonymous. If either partner was enrolled in
psychology classes, that person received course credits for
participation. Each couple received $30 regardless of their
enrollment status. This study was approved by the Univer-
sity’s Human Subjects Committee.
Procedure
Couples attended one session in the laboratory with their
partner. They arrived to the session together. After providing
written informed consent, each completed a series of com-
puterized questionnaires hosted on a secure server in sepa-
rate, private spaces. Computerized questionnaires have been
shown to increase reporting of socially undesirable behavior
beyond interview and are experienced as more positive
(Locke & Gilbert, 1995; Ross, Tikkanen, & Mansson, 2000).
Participantsthenviewedfourcounterbalancedtestfilms. Each
participant viewed two erotic and two non-erotic exciting test
films. A neutral film was presented first to assess baseline
responses and then between each arousing (sexual and non-
sexual) film to facilitate a return to the participant’s baseline
arousal level (see Fig. 1). Participants were tested in two pri-
vate, windowless, sound-attenuated rooms. Two of the films,
including one sexual and one nonsexual exciting film, were
viewed with both partners together. The other two test films
were viewed separately. The order of viewing the videos
together or apart was counterbalanced within participants.
Participants were clear that their partner could not view their
computer nor responses while viewing apart. In fact, a solid,
closed door and corner separated them, making it impossible
for surreptitious monitoring of the other partner. Participants
rated their affect, feelings about their partner and own sexual
prowess, and feelings about the film. After all films and rat-
ings were completed, a questionnaire assessed participants’
understanding of the purpose of the study and their opinions
about erotica and its effects on individuals and relationships.
Sexually explicit films were 3-minutes long and depicted a
heterosexual couple engaging in equal parts of consensual
sexual activities including foreplay (1 min), oral sex (1 min),
and vaginal intercourse (1 min). These films have been used
in previous studies and rated by males and females as simi-
larly highly sexually arousing and generally pleasant (Jans-
sen, Carpenter, & Graham, 2003). Neither of the sexual films
depicted low base rate sexual activities, especially excluding
activities demonstrated to induce negative affect (e.g., anal
intercourse, sexual violence, homosexuality) (Woodard et al.,
2008).
Fig. 1 Experimental timeline: order of film presentation, viewing
conditions, and questionnaires
Arch Sex Behav
123
Sports films were used to evoke general, non-sexual
arousal and are commonly used for this purpose (cf. Arnow
et al., 2009). One contained a series of snowboarding scenes
(Miller, 2003) and the other portrayed individuals surfing
(Strassman, 1992). Arousing films all contained people and
were in color. While the films appear to be of similar com-
plexity, this could not be tightly controlled due to the complex
nature of film stimuli. They match the erotic films on ratings
of pleasantness and are equally as exciting as the erotic films
as compared to the neutral films.
1
Amusing films could have
been used to match the usually pleasant valence experienced
with sexual films (cf. Winters, Christoff, & Gorzolka, 2009).
However, amusing films generally are less activating (Rot-
tenberg, Ray, & Gross, 2007), weakening the argument for
comparison in a transfer of excitation model. Sexually coer-
cive films have been used to control for the presence of sexual
stimuli while maintaining activation level (Prause, Cerny, &
Janssen, 2005), but could have introduced the additional
potential confoundof strongnegativeaffect. Neutralfilmscon-
tained scenes from nature documentaries that results from
previous studies in ourlaboratory have indicated are not arous-
ing(generallyorsexually).
Measures
The Personal History Questionnaire was completed prior to
film viewing. Questionnaire assessments between viewing
included an abbreviated version of the Positive and Negative
Affect Schedule, items from the Dyadic Adjustment Scale,
and the Indiana Inventory of Personal Happiness.
Personal History Questionnaire
Basic demographic information was collected, including age,
gender, relationship type, and length of current relationship.
These ensured that the recruitedsamplemetrelationshipinclu-
sion criteria requested and permitted characterization of the
sample. Items from the Sexual Activities Questionnaire
(SAQ) (Thirlaway, Fallowfield, & Cuzick, 1996) were added
to ascertain sexual orientation, number of past sexual part-
ners, and masturbation frequency. Participants might vary
tremendously in their age and relationship length, and these
variables permitted testing of possible covariates, if needed.
Also, questions from a survey assessing prior erotica viewing
experience (Janssen, 2002) were included in the Personal
History Questionnaire. The novelty of the sexual stimuli might
explain variance in a variety of responses for which these
questions permit testing.
Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) Short
Form
In assessing affective response, two dimensions routinely
emerge. Positive affect reflects the extent one feels enthusi-
astic, active, and full of energy. Negative affect is charac-
terized by feelings of anger, contempt, disgust, or fear. The
PANAS includes 20 adjectives rated according to the extent
that they are felt during a specific time frame (Watson &
Tellegen, 1988). The adjectives include an even sample of
positive and negative dimensions of affect. A shortened form
of the PANAS (10 items) has been shown to be highly stable
across individuals of varying ages and backgrounds (MacK-
innon et al., 1999). The short form PANAS was administered
between each film to assess the participant’s mood and affec-
tive change following exposure to the films.
Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS)
Two items from the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, a measure of
relationship satisfaction, were used in the present study:
‘‘Agreement with partner on expressions of affection’’and‘‘In
general, how often do you think things between you and your
partner are going well.’’Participants could rate each item on a
scale from 1 (Completely disagree) to 7 (Completely agree).
These two items have been shown to correlate with the entire
DAS scale (r = .75, and r = .85, respectively). The two items
load on the affectional expression and dyadic satisfaction
subscale. These items were administered between each film
to assess participant’s satisfactionregardingtheir partnerafter
exposure to the films.
In-Session Repeated Questionnaire
In addition to the PANAS and DAS items, additional items
were administered following each film for a total of 26 items.
Ratings included feelings of increased heart rate, anxiety,
sexual arousal, desire to be close to partner, and desire to
masturbate on a 7-point Likert scale from 1 (‘‘none’’) to 7
(‘‘extremely’’) (Heiman & Rowland, 1983). Two questions
were selected from the Indiana Inventory of Personal Hap-
piness to assess satisfaction in partner’s appearance as well as
sexual performance (Zillmann & Bryant, 1988). Similar
versions of these two questions were included to assess self
evaluation. Finally, three general items about the films were
included to enhance deception (e.g.,‘‘Would you recommend
this film to a friend?’’). Following the experiment, partici-
pants were asked to write their understanding of the purpose
1
Results from pilot testing the stimuli to verify their appropriateness for
the current study are available from the corresponding author upon
request.
Arch Sex Behav
123
of the study to determine whether they were aware of the
study’s focus on responses to exciting as compared to sexual
films viewed alone or with their partner.
Data Analysis
Greenhouse-Geisser corrected exact P values are presented
for all ANOVA results with uncorrected df. Critical a was
defined as \.01. First, analyses are presented to replicate
the findings from the pilot study. Specifically, a one-way
ANOVA with film type (Sexual, Exciting, Neutral) was
conducted to ensure that the exciting and sexual films were
experienced as exciting, and the neutral was experienced as
not exciting. Second, analyses examining the effects of the
different films and the viewing condition (with or without the
partner present) are presented. Mixed ANOVA were used to
test the two competing explanations (excitation transfer,
social desirability) of the impact of erotica viewing on inti-
mate relationships.
Results
Manipulation Checks
The success of erotic and exciting films in generating exci-
tation was tested. A main effect of Film type, F(2, 85) =
10.01, p\.01, g
p
2
= .11, for ratings of excitement indicated
that participants reported more excitement during the erotic,
F(1, 87) = 12.34, p\.01, g
2
p
= .12, and exciting, F(1, 87) =
23.58, p\.01, g
2
p
= .21, films than the neutral films.
2
A main
effect of Film type, F(2, 85) = 35.74, p\.01, g
2
p
= .30, for
ratings of general arousal indicated that participants reported
more arousal during the erotic film than the neutral, F(1,
87) = 53.65, p\.01, g
2
p
= .38, or exciting, F(1, 87) = 35.69,
p\.01, g
2
p
= .29, films. Overall, both exciting and erotic films
were successful in generating excitation compared to the neu-
tral film.
After the experiment, participants were asked to describe
the purpose of the study. The participant’s description of the
purpose of the study was coded by the first author to determine
the effectiveness of the cover story. In total, only 13.6 %
(N = 12) of the sample appeared aware of the study intent to
examine their responses specifically to sexual as compared to
exciting films (e.g., ‘‘To capture response to different visual
and audio stimuli of different natures. The intent seems to be
based around sexual response.’’).
Hypothesized Model Test
A 2 (Gender: male, female) 9 3 (Film Type: neutral, exciting,
erotic) 9 2 (Partner viewing: together, apart) mixed factor
ANOVA was used to test each of seven dependent variables.
When testing desire to be close to partner, there was a main
effect of Film type, F(2, 81) = 16.35, p\.01, g
2
p
= .17, indi-
cating that participants desired to be close to their partner
more during the erotic film than the neutral, F(1, 81) = 18.66,
p\.01, g
2
p
= .19, or exciting, F(1, 81) = 22.52, p\.01, g
2
p
=
.22, films. Testing ratings of own sexual skills, a main effect of
Film type F(2, 81) = 5.72, p\.01, g
2
p
= .07, also emerged,
indicating that participants rated their own sexual behavior as
better following the erotic film than the neutral, F(1, 81) =
4.11, p = .05, g
2
p
= .05, or exciting, F(1, 81) = 10.50, p\.01,
g
2
p
= .12, film (see Fig. 2). A main effect of Gender, F(1,
81) = 8.35, p\.01, g
2
p
= .09, indicated that females rated
their own appearance lower compared to males. No signifi-
cant main or interaction effects were found for ratings of
partner appearance or partner’s sexual skills, agreement on
expression of physical affection, or satisfaction with rela-
tionship. In sum, viewing erotic films resulted in a greater
desire to be with one’s own intimate partner and higher rat-
ings of one’s own sexual behaviors.
Excitation transfer was only partially supported since the
exciting film did not increase reports on the dependent vari-
ables above the neutral film. Negative social comparisons did
not occur, since viewing erotic films increased individual’s
perception of their own sexual skills. Given that neither
excitation transfer nor social comparison models were fully
supported, additional analyses were conducted to investigate
possible intervening variables. While tests were limited to
intervening variables most strongly suggested by published
literature, unplanned analyses do increase the risk of Type I
error and should be interpreted with caution.
Fig. 2 Self-reported desire to be close to partner and satisfaction of self
and partner’s sexual behavior by film type
2
Supporting this, there were also main effects of Film type predicting
ratings of heartbeat,F(2, 85) = 67.65, p\.01,g
2
p
= .45, with participants
reporting greater increases of heartbeat during the erotic film than the
neutral, F(1, 87) = 121.58, p\.01, g
2
p
= .58, or exciting, F(1, 87) =
30.52, p\.01, g
2
p
= .26, films, and greater increases during the exciting
film than the neutral, F(1, 87) = 42.64, p\.01, g
2
p
= .33, film. However,
participants only reported increases in sexual arousal during the erotic
film.
Arch Sex Behav
123
Intervening Variables
Previous exposure to visual sexual material has been shown to
influence motivation level in response to erotic film stimuli
(Prause, Staley, & Roberts, 2012). Participants answered
‘‘How often have you viewed sexual images (e.g., photos of
nude men or women, couples engaging in sex) in magazines
or on video/DVD during the past month?’’ An exploratory
principal components analysis was conducted on the 17 item
film questionnaire to identify a cluster of items that captured
relationship health to minimize statistical comparisons. Vari-
max rotation (Kaiser, 1958) was applied. This single latent
variable was used to create a factor score for each subject. A
factor was considered reliable only if it had four or more
variable loadings above 0.6 (cf. Kukkonen, Binik, Amsel, &
Carrier, 2007). Responses from each of the Film types (Neu-
tral, Exciting, Sexual) were analyzed. One factor in the factor
analysis indicated high covariation between (1) partner
appearance, (2) partner’s sexual behavior, (3) agreement
about physical affection, (4) relationship satisfaction, and (5)
desire to be close to partner and was used to generate the
relationship satisfaction latent score.
The amount of previous experience viewing VSS was used
to predict therelationship factor latent score for the sexual and
exciting films separately. Increased time watching erotica
over the last month significantly predicted decreased ratings
on the relationship factor following viewing of the erotic film,
but not during the exciting film, F(2, 85) = 3.70, p = .05,
b
std
=-.20, R
2
= .04. In other words, the more participants
had viewed erotica in the past, the more likely they were to
report lower ratings of their relationship and their partner
when viewing erotica in the laboratory.
Viewing sexual stimuli has been shown to elicit mixed
affective responses. Positive and negative affect subscale
scores from the short form PANAS were used to test affective
responses to the different film types. A 3 (Film type: Neutral,
Exciting, Erotic) 9 2 (Partner viewing: together, apart) ANOVA
testing positive and negative affect was conducted. A main
effect of Film type, F(2, 85) = 8.91, p\.01, g
2
p
= .10, testing
ratings of positive affect indicated that participants reported
more positive affect during the exciting, F(1, 87) = 16.73,
p\.01, g
2
p
= .16, and erotic, F(1, 87) = 6.37, p = .01, g
2
p
=
.17, films than the neutral film (see Fig. 3). A main effect of
Film type, F(2, 85) = 9.62, p\.01, g
2
p
= 10, testing ratings of
negative affect
3
indicated participants also reported higher
ratings of negative affect during the erotic film than the
exciting, F(1, 87) = 9.99, p\.01, g
2
p
= .10, and neutral, F(1,
87) = 12.00, p\.01, g
2
p
= .12, films. Participants reported
significant increases in feelings of negative affect viewing
the erotic films; however, participants also reported similar
increases of positive affect while viewing the erotic and excit-
ing films compared to the neutral film.
It is possible that affective response patterns to viewing
sexual films may differ among individuals. Difference scores
from positive and negative affective responses between the
neutral and sexual films were computed for each participant,
yielding four subtypes of responders: (1) (N = 42, 48 %)
increases in both positive and negative affect, (2) (N = 8, 9 %)
decreases in both positive and negative affect, (3) (N = 16,
18 %) increase in positive affect decrease in negative affect,
(4) (N = 22, 25 %) decrease in positive affect increase in
negative affect. A post hoc one-way ANOVA was conducted
using Subtypes (1, 2, 3, 4) to test dependent variables (desire
to be close to partner, own appearance, partner appearance,
partner’s sexual skills, agreement on expression of physical
affection, and satisfaction with relationship) was conducted.
No significant effects were found for any of the dependent
variables.
Participants also may not engage with each film equally,
which could help explain why the sexual film in this study
did not exert negative effects. To test whether participants
attended equally to the films, a one-way ANOVA using Film
type (Neutral, Exciting, Erotic) to test reports of‘‘How often
did you close your eyes or look away during the films?’’was
conducted. The main effect was significant, F(2, 85) = 10.18,
p\.01, = g
2
p
.11. Contrasts indicated that participants repor-
ted looking away or closed their eyes more during the erotic
than the exciting, F(1, 87) = 15.17, p\.01, g
2
p
= .15, or neu-
tral, F(1, 87) = 18.32, p\.01, g
2
p
= .17, films. To control for
differential attention, previous primary analyses were con-
ducted using reports of looking away from the sexual film as a
covariate. This did not change the pattern of results.
Fig. 3 Self-reported positive and negative affect by film type
3
Main effect of Film type, F(2, 85) = 16.07, p\.01, g
2
p
= 16, for ratings
of guilt indicated participants reported higher ratings of guilt during the
erotic film than the exciting, F(1, 87) = 18.08, p\.01, g
2
p
= .17, and
neutral, F(1, 87) = 16.34, p\.01, g
2
p
= .16, films. Main effect of Film
type, F(2, 85) = 13.13, p\.01, g
2
p
= 14, for ratings of anxiety indicated
participants reported higher ratings of anxiety during the erotic film than
the exciting, F(1, 87) = 6.52, p = .01, g
2
p
= .07, and neutral, F(1,
Footnote 3 continued
87) = 21.04, p\.01,g
2
p
= .20 films and higher ratingsduring the exciting
film than the neutral film, F(1, 87) = 8.08, p\.01, g
2
p
= .09.
Arch Sex Behav
123
Discussion
Excitation transfer and social comparisons models were
tested as possible explanatory models for the contradictory
effects of viewing VSS noted in previous research. Couples
viewed neutral, exciting, and sexual films both together and
apart and rated their responses to each. Results indicated that
sexual films increased the desire to be close to one’s partner,
rating of one’s own sexual behaviors, and positive feelings,
but the sexual films also uniquely increased negative feelings.
Exciting films increased positive feelings, but did not evoke
changes in partner ratings or negative feelings. Whether the
films were viewed together or apart did not influence any
outcomes, which is inconsistent with both excitation transfer
and social desirability. Thus, the results did not strongly
support either model of the impact of viewing sexual stimuli
on relationships, but suggest a more complex pattern. The
observed patterns appear influenced by interactions with the
amount of visual erotica viewed in the past and mixed emo-
tional responses.
Changes in the accessibility of visual erotica in the last
decade may have impacted the extent to which social com-
parison occurred. Social comparison theory suggests that
viewing highly attractive individuals engaging in exotic
sexual activities should result in diminished perceptions of
partner’s appearance, sexual behavior, and sexual satisfac-
tion. However, participants did not report any differences on
ratings of self appearance, partner appearance, or DAS items
to any of the film types. Ratings of one’s sexual behavior
actually increased while viewing the erotic film as compared
to the exciting film. The content and availability of sexually
explicit material has changed dramatically with the growth of
the Internet (Cooper, 1998). It is possible that the stimuli
presented in this study depicting a couple engaging in sexual
activities is no longer viewed as overly exotic or behaviorally
unattainable. Thus, some positive social comparisons may
result when the sexual material is perceived as worse than the
current sexual relationship.
Both positive and negative emotions increased following
sexual stimulus exposure consistent with previous research
documenting mixed affective responses to VSS (Byrne, Fisher,
Lamberth, & Mitchell, 1973; Fisher, White, Byrne, & Kelley,
1988). Prominent theories of emotion represent positive and
negative emotions as opposite poles with the potential for
rapid vacillationbetweenpoles accountingforapparentsimul-
taneity (Norris, Gollan, Bernston, & Cacioppo, 2010). Others
suggest positive and negative affective responses could be
truly simultaneous and may diminish one another (Cacioppo,
Gardner &Bernston, 1997). The emotional response in this
study appeared primarily due to the co-occurrence of these
emotions, rather than subgroups of participants who experi-
enced the film as entirely negative or entirely positive. While
mixed emotional responses are not common (Larsen, McGraw,
& Cacioppo, 2001), they may be more prevalent following
sexual stimuli that may contain more mixed meanings than
more commonly used emotional stimuli. For example, a
happily married woman with a history of childhood sexual
abuse may experience both unpleasant flashbacks and loving
feelings for her spouse when viewing sexual stimuli.
Clinicians may be able to identify clients more likely to
benefit from viewing erotic films (Striar & Bartlik, 1999), but
currently there are few empirically-identified predictors of
poor response to visual erotica to guide them. In this study,
participants reported the highest levels of positive affect after
the exciting and erotic films compared to the neutral films.
Participants also reported increases in negative affect to the
erotic film. Many effects of such a dual emotional response to
visual sexual stimuli are possible, and the unplanned com-
parisons in this study were not necessarily powered suffi-
ciently to detect these effects. Watson, Wiese, Vaidya, and
Tellegen (1999) found that positive and negative affect reflect
two distinct dimensions rather than a single bipolar dimen-
sion. A series of studies examining the role of mixed positive
and negative affect on physiological and subjective sexual
arousal have yielded varied results (Cranston-Cuebas & Bar-
low, 1990; Koukounas & McCabe, 2001; Mitchell, DiBar-
tolo, Brown, & Barlow, 1998; Peterson & Janssen, 2006). At
this point, the impact of negative or ambivalent (co-occurring
positive and negative) responses to sexual films on sexual
arousal or relationship satisfaction is unclear.
Viewing the films alone or with a partner was not related
to responses to the films. This is not consistent with social
comparison theory. However, the manipulation of viewing
status (alone, apart) in the present study may not have been
adequate. Even though participants could not see, hear, or spy
on their partner while viewing apart, they were still viewing
the films in the same laboratory. Also, the study only assessed
changes in self-reported feelings and attitudes, and it is
unclear if subsequent partner behaviors (e.g., intercourse
incidence later in the day) might have been affected. This
study raises questions regarding the balance of favorable
affects and potential harm of viewing erotica. Participants
who viewed erotica during the previous month reported lower
ratings for a relationship factor when viewing erotica in this
experiment. Furthermore, women tended to be less satisfied
with their own physical appearance than men.
The study design may not have been an optimal test of
excitation transfer, which occurs when an optimal time win-
dow has elapsed to facilitate the misattribution of arousal.
Excitation transfer predicted that viewing arousing stimuli
would lead individuals to attribute their arousal to romantic
feelings and desire to be close to their partner. For compari-
son, Meston and Gorzalka (1996) defined a 5 min delay as
‘‘immediate’’ and did not document increased sexual attri-
bution until 15 and 30 min post general arousal. A very similar
pattern was observed in men (Cantor et al., 1975). Partici-
Arch Sex Behav
123
pants in the current study provided their ratings after viewing
the films. A longer time window between arousal induction
and assessing attributions may enhance the misattribution of
decayed arousal.
The effect of erotica viewing on self and partner percep-
tions as well as relationship satisfaction remains complex.
Further investigating the role of excitation transfer in arous-
ing non erotic stimuli using an adequate delay condition in
arousal decline and subsequent evaluations is essential. Also,
non sexual excitation from viewing VSS may still support a
transferof excitation. Understandinggeneral sympathetic acti-
vation in a sexual context may advance our understanding of
VSS effects on arousal and relational outcomes. Content and
quality of visual sexual stimuli may play a key role in generat-
ing positive or negative effects from viewing erotica. Future
research investigating the frequency of viewing VSS would
be helpful, since hours of viewing VSS online predicts gen-
eral distress (Cooper, Griffin-Shelley, Delmonico, & Mathy,
2001). Further exploration assessing co-occurring or possible
subtypes in affective response patterns may enhance our under-
standing of individual differences in emotional reactions to
sexual stimuli.
References
Albright, J. M. (2008). Sex in America online: An exploration of sex,
marital status, and sexual identity in Internet sex seeking and its
impacts. Journal of Sex Research, 45, 175–186.
Allen, M., Emmers-Sommer, T. M., D’Alessio, D., Timmerman, L.,
Hanzal, A., & Korus, J. (2007). The connection between the physi-
ological and psychological reactions to sexually explicit materials:
A literature summary using meta-analysis. Communication Mono-
graphs, 74, 541–556.
American Religion Identification Survey. (2009). Retrieved September
24, 2009 from http://www.americanreligionsurvey-aris.org/reports/
ARIS_Report_2008.pdf.
Arnow, B. A., Millheiser, L., Garrett, A., Lake Polan, M., Glover, G. H.,
Hill, K. R., et al. (2009). Women with hypoactive sexual desire
disorder compared to normal females: A functional magnetic reso-
nance imaging study. Neuroscience, 158, 484–502.
Bergner, R. M., & Bridges, A. J. (2002). The significance of heavy
pornography involvement for romantic partners: Research and
clinical implications. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 28, 193–
206.
Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1978). Interpersonal attraction. Reading,
MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing.
Both, S., Spiering, M., Everaerd, W., & Laan, E. (2004). Sexual behavior
and responsiveness to sexual stimuli following laboratory-induced
sexual arousal. Journal of Sex Research, 41, 242–258.
Brunhild, K. (2000). Psychotherapy of sexual dysfunction. American
Journal of Psychotherapy, 54, 97–101.
Byrne, D., Fisher, J. D., Lamberth, J., & Mitchell, H. E. (1974). Eval-
uation of erotica: Facts or feelings? Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 29, 111–116.
Cacioppo, J. T., Gardner, W. L., & Berntson, G. G. (1997). Beyond
bipolar conceptualizations and measures: The case of attitudes
and evaluative space. Personality and Social Psychology Review,
1, 3–25.
Cantor, J. R., Zillmann, D., & Bryant, J. (1975). Enhancement of
experienced sexual arousal in response to erotic stimuli through
misattribution of unrelated residual excitation. Journal of Person-
ality and Social Psychology, 32, 69–75.
Cash, T. F., Cash, D. W., & Butters, J. W. (1983).‘‘Mirror, mirror, on the
wall…?’’: Contrast effects and self-evaluations of physical attrac-
tiveness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9, 351–358.
Cohen, B., Waugh, G., & Place, K. (1988). At the movies: An unob-
trusive study of arousal-attraction. Journal of Social Psychology,
129, 691–693.
Cooper, A. (1985). Sexual enhancement programs: An examination of
their current status and directions for future use. Journal of Sex
Research, 21, 387–404.
Cooper, A., Griffin-Shelley, E., Delmonico, D. L., & Mathy, R. M.
(2001). Online sexual problems: Assessment and predictive vari-
ables. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity., 8, 267–285.
Cranston-Cuebas,M. A., & Barlow, D.H. (1990). Cognitive and affective
contributionsto sexualfunctioning. Annual Review of Sex Research,
1, 119–161.
Daneback, K., Træen, B., & Ma
˚
nsson, S.-A. (2009). Use of pornography
in a random sample of Norwegian heterosexual couples. Archives
of Sexual Behavior, 38, 746–753.
Dutton, D. G., & Aron, A. P. (1974). Some evidence for heightened
sexual attraction under conditions of high anxiety. Journal of Per-
sonality and Social Psychology, 30, 510–517.
Fisher, W. A., White, L. A., Byrne, D., & Kelley, K. (1988). Ero-
tophobia-erotophilia as a dimension of personality. Journal of Sex
Research, 25, 123–151.
Fitzsimons, G. M., & Bargh,J. A. (2003). Thinking of you: Nonconscious
pursuit of interpersonal goals associated with relationship partners.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 148–164.
Fletcher, G. J. O., Simpson, J. A., Thomas, G., & Giles, L. (1999). Ideals
in intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psy-
chology, 76, 72–89.
Heiman, J. R., & Rowland, D. L. (1983). Affective and physiologi-
cal sexual response patterns: The effects of instructions on sexu-
ally functional and dysfunctional men. Journal of Psychosomatic
Research, 27, 105–116.
Janssen, E. (2002). Survey on prior pornography usage. Retrieved
March 25, 2008, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/
shows/porn/etc./survey.html.
Janssen, E., Carpenter, D., & Graham, C. (2003). Selecting films for sex
research: Gender differences in erotic film preference. Archives of
Sexual Behavior, 32, 243–251.
Janssen, E., Vorst, H., Finn, P., & Bancroft, J. (2002). The Sexual
Inhibition (SIS) and Sexual Eexcitation (SES) scales: II. Predicting
psychophysiological response patterns. Journal of Sex Research,
39, 127–132.
Kaiser, H. F. (1958). The varimax criterion for analytic rotation in factor
analysis. Psychometrika, 23, 187–200.
Kenrick, D. T., & Gutierres, S. E. (1989). Influence of popular erotica on
judgments of strangers and mates. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 25, 159–167.
Koukounas, E., & McCabe, M. P. (2001). Sexual and emotional vari-
ables influencing sexual responses to erotica: A psychophysiolog-
ical investigation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 30, 393–408.
Kukkonen, T. M., Binik, Y. M., Amsel, R., & Carrier, S. (2007).
Thermography as a physiological measure of sexual arousal in both
men and women. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 4, 93–105.
Larsen, J. T., McGraw, A. P., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2001). Can people feel
happy and sad at the same time? Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 81, 684–696.
Locke, S. D., & Gilbert, B. O. (1995). Method of psychological
assessment, self-disclosure, and experiential differences: A study
of computer, questionnaire, and interview assessment formats.
Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 10, 255–263.
Arch Sex Behav
123
MacKinnon, A., Jorm, A. F., Christensen, H., Korten, A. E., Jacomb, P.
A., & Rodgers, B. (1999). A short form of the Positive and Negative
Affect Schedule: Evaluation of factorial validity and invariance
across demographic variables in a community sample. Personality
and Individual Differences, 27, 405–416.
Mann, J., Berkowitz, L., Sidman, J., Starr, S., & West, S. (1974).
Satiation of the transient stimulating effect of erotic films. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 729–735.
Mann, J., Sidman, J., & Starr, S. (1973). Evaluating social consequences
of erotic films: An experimental approach. Journal of Social Issues,
29, 113–131.
Manning, J. C. (2006). The impact of Internet pornography on marriage
and the family: A review of the research. Sexual Addiction &
Compulsivity, 13, 131–165.
Margolis, L. (2000). Ethical principles for analyzing dilemmas in sex
research. Health Education & Behavior, 27, 24–27.
Meston, C. M., & Gorzalka, B. B. (1995). Effects of sympathetic acti-
vation on physiological and subjective sexual arousal in women.
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 651–664.
Miller, W. (Producer). (2003). Warren Miller’s cold fusion: The power
of snow [Film]. United States: Madman Entertainment.
Miller, L. C., & Read, S. J. (1991). On the coherence of mental models of
persons and relationships: A knowledge structure approach. In G. J.
O. Fletcher & F. D. Fincham (Eds.), Cognition in close relation-
ships (pp. 69–100). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Mitchell, W. B., DiBartolo, P. M., Brown, T. A., & Barlow, D. H. (1998).
Effects of positive and negative mood on sexual arousal in sexually
functional males. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 27, 197–208.
Moser, C. (1997). Combining sex and medicine. In B. Bullough, V. L.
Bullough, M. A. Fithian, W. E. Hartman, & R. S. Klein (Eds.), How
I got into sex (pp. 307–316). Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
Murray, S. L., Holmes, J. G., & Griffin, D. W. (1996). The benefits of
positive illusions: Idealization and the construction of satisfaction
in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychol-
ogy, 70, 79–98.
Norris, C. J., Gollan, J., Berntson, G. G., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2010). The
current status of research on the structure of evaluative space.
Biological Psychology, 84, 422–436.
Oddone-Paolucci, E., Genius, M., & Violato, C. (2000). A meta-analysis
of the published research on the effects of pornography. The Chang-
ing Family and Child Development, pp. 48–55.
Paul, B. (2009). Predicting internet pornography use and arousal: The
role of individual difference variables. JournalofSexResearch, 46,
344–357.
Petersen, J. L., & Hyde, J. S. (2010). A meta-analytic review of research
on gender differences in sexuality, 1993–2007. Psychological Bul-
letin, 136, 21–38.
Peterson, Z., &Janssen,E.(2006). Ambivalentaffectand sexualresponse:
The impact of co-occurring positive and negative emotions on subjective
and physiological sexual responses to erotic stimuli. Archives of Sexual
Behavior, 36, 793–807.
Prause, N., Cerny, J., & Janssen, E. (2005). The labial photoplethysmo-
graph:A newinstrument forassessinggenitalhemodynamic changes
in women. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 2, 58–65.
Prause, N., Staley, C., & Roberts, V. (2012). Frontal alpha asymmetry
and motivation: Extension to sexually-motivating stimuli. Manu-
script submitted for publication.
Reid, S. A., Byrne, S., Brundidge, J. S., Shoham, M. D., & Marlow, M.
L. (2007). A critical test of self-enhancement, exposure, and self-
categorization explanations for first- and third-person percep-
tions. Human Communication Research, 33, 143–162.
Ross, M., Tikkanen, R., & Mansson, S. (2000). Differences between
Internet samples and conventional samples of men who have sex
with men: Implications for research and HIV interventions. Social
Science and Medicine, 47, 749–758.
Rottenberg, J., Ray, R. D., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Emotion elicitation
using films. In J. A. Coan & J. J. B. Allen (Eds.), Handbook of
emotion elicitation and assessment (pp. 9–28). New York: Oxford
University Press.
Saunders, R. M., & Naus, P. J. (1993). The impact of social content and
audience factors on responses to sexually explicit videos. Journal
of Sex Education and Therapy, 19, 117–130.
Senn, C. Y., & Desmarais, S. (2004). Impact of interaction with a partner
or friend on the exposure effects of pornography and erotica. Vio-
lence and Victims, 19, 645–658.
Strassman, M. (Director). (1992). Know limits: Extreme sport highlights
[Film]. United States: A Range of Light Production.
Striar, S., & Bartlik, B. (1999). Stimulation of the libido: The use of
erotica in sex therapy. Psychiatric Annals, 29, 60–62.
Thirlaway, K., Fallowfield, L., & Cuzick, J. (1996). The Sexual Activity
questionnaire: A measure of women’s sexual functioning. Quality
of Life Research, 5, 81–90.
Tiefer, L. (2006). Sex therapy as a humanistic enterprise. Sexual and
Relationship Therapy, 21, 360–375.
U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved from http://quickfacts.census.gov/
qfd/states/16000.html.
Vega, V., & Malamuth, N. M. (2007). Predicting sexual aggression: The
role of pornography in the context of general and specific risk
factors. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 104–117.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and
validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The
PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54,
1063–1070.
Watson, D. C., & Tellegen, L. A. (1988). Development and validation of
brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.
Watson, D., Wiese, D., Vaidya, J., & Tellegen, A. (1999). The two
general activation systems of affect: Structural findings, evolu-
tionary considerations, and psychobiological evidence. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 820–838.
Weinberg, M. S., Williams, C. J., Kleiner, S., & Irizarry, Y. (2010).
Pornography, normalization, and empowerment. Archives of Sex-
ual Behavior, 39, 1389–1401.
Wiederman, M. W. (1998). The state of theory in sex therapy. Journal of
Sex Research, 35, 88–99.
Wiederman, M. W. (1999). Volunteer bias in sexuality research using
college student participants. Journal of Sex Research, 36, 59–67.
Winters, J., Christoff, K., & Gorzalka, B. B. (2009). Conscious regu-
lation of sexual arousal in men. Journal of Sex Research, 46, 330–
343.
Woodard, T. L., Collins, K., Perez, M., Balon, R., Tancer, M. E., Kruger,
M., et al. (2008). What kind of erotic film clips should we use in
female sex research? An exploratory study. Journal of Sexual
Medicine, 5, 146–154.
Yucel, D., & Gassanov, M. A. (2010). Exploring actor and partner
correlates of sexual satisfaction among married couples. Social
Science Research, 39, 725–738.
Zillmann, D. (1983). Transfer of excitation in emotional behavior. In J. T.
Cacioppo & R. E. Petty (Eds.), Social psychophysiology: A source-
book (pp. 215–240). New York: Guilford Press.
Zillmann, D., & Bryant, J. (1988). Pornography’s impact on sexual
satisfaction. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 438–453.
Arch Sex Behav
123
Data provided are for informational purposes only. Although carefully collected, accuracy cannot be guaranteed. The impact factor represents a rough estimation of the journal's impact factor and does not reflect the actual current impact factor. Publisher conditions are provided by RoMEO. Differing provisions from the publisher's actual policy or licence agreement may be applicable.
-
- "Adding to the complex picture, sex stimuli also can provoke high levels of mixed (simultaneously positive and negative) emotional responses (Cacioppo & Berntson, 1994; Larsen & McGraw, 2011). In fact, mixed emotions in response to sexual stimuli appear common (Peterson & Janssen, 2007; Staley & Prause, 2013). Furthermore, reported responses to sexual stimuli and physiological responses to those same stimuli often diverge (e.g., Chivers, Seto, Lalumiere, Laan, & Grimbos, 2010). "
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Visual sexual stimuli can motivate sexual behaviors that can risk or enhance health. How one allocates attention to a sexually motivating stimulus may be important for predicting its effect on sexual feelings, sexual risk behaviors, and sexual problems. A large sample (N = 157) of men and women rated the similarity of all possible pairs of photographs of women, which had been pretested to vary in their sexual and affective content. Multidimensional scaling was used to extract two dimensions of sex and affect, including the extent to which each person relied on each dimension in making their similarity judgments. These individual weights were then used to predict sexual variables of interest. Participants who relied more on the affect information judging photograph similarity were more likely to be female, viewed erotica less frequently, reported fewer sexual partners, reported less sexual desire, and more sexual problems. Those who relied more on the erotic content in making their similarity judgments were more likely to be male, viewed more erotica weekly, experienced higher sexual desire, and were more likely to have taken an HIV test. The "double edge sword" of attention weight to affect in sexual cues is discussed for its potential to both enhance and harm sexual health. -
Article: The Case for Mixed Emotions
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: How do people feel when they experience bittersweet events comprised of pleasant and unpleasant aspects (e.g., good news accompanied by bad)? Just as acids immediately neutralize bases, some have suggested that bittersweet events' pleasant aspects might neutralize their unpleasant aspects, thereby resulting in fairly neutral emotional reactions. Some contemporary theorists also contend that happiness and sadness are mutually exclusive. We review research on the alternative possibility that bittersweet events can elicit pairs of opposite-valence, mixed emotions, with particularly close attention to the growing body of evidence that people can feel happy and sad at the same time while watching films, listening to music, and experiencing meaningful endings. We also review evidence that people sometimes experience other types of mixed emotions, including disgust accompanied by amusement and fear by enjoyment. Taken together, these data indicate that positive and negative affect are separable in experience. -
Article: Korean Men’s Pornography use, Their Interest in Extreme Pornography, and Dyadic Sexual Relationships
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Objectives: The aim of the study was to assess the connections between pornography use (both frequency and interest in extreme pornography) and dyadic sexual relationships. Methods: Six-hundred eighty-five heterosexual South Korean male college students participated in an online survey. Results: The majority (84.5%) of respondents had viewed pornography, and for those who were sexually active (470 respondents), we found that higher interest in degrading or extreme pornography was associated with the experience of role-playing sexual scenes from pornography with a partner, and a preference for using pornography to achieve and maintain sexual excitement over having sex with a partner. Conclusions: The findings were consistent but with differences from a U.S. study with the same methodology, suggesting that attention should be paid to cultural differences.
