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Relationship Between Jumping Ability and Running Performance in Events of Varying Distance
Abstract
Running performance consists of a combination of aerobic and anaerobic capabilities varying based on the distance of the event. It is also may be dependent on factors relating to lower body power. Lower body power is commonly assessed by various modes of jumping tests. The purpose of this investigation was to determine if jumping performance would have some relationship to running performance in different distance events. This study involved 33 competitive track & field runners who participated in events ranging from 60 m to 5000 m (10 sprinters - height = 1.72 ± 10.26 m, mass = 67.80 ± 10.83 kg; 11 middle distance runners - height = 1.77 ± 0.08 m, mass = 64.40 ± 8.02 kg; 12 long distance runners - height = 1.73 ± 0.11 m, mass = 60.42 ± 10.36 kg). All subjects were competitive NCAA Division I athletes. Subjects were tested on a single occasion in a three jump test (TSJP), which was the distance covered during three two-leg standing long jumps performed in immediate succession. Times in the 60 m, 100 m, 200 m, 800 m, 3000 m and 5000 m were obtained from recent race performances. The mean TSJP for sprinters, middle distance runners and long distance runners were 8.24 ± 1.32 m, 6.59 ± 1.23 m and 5.61 ± 0.88 m, respectively. The mean 60 m, 100 m, 200 m, 800 m, 3000 m and 5000 m performances were 7.28 ± 0.78 s, 11.25 ± 0.87 s, 23.47 ± 2.25 s, 127.17 ± 15.13 s, 562.09 ± 60.54 s and 987.65 ± 117.19 s, respectively. Significant correlations (p ≤ 0.05) were observed between TSJP and running performance for all distances (60 m - 0.97, 100 m - 1.00, 200 m - 0.97, 800 m - 0.83, 3000 m - 0.72, 5000 m - 0.71). The strength of the correlations, in general, were strongest to weakest based on event distance from the shortest distance (60 m) to the longest distance (5000 m). Thus, the contribution of muscle power, as possibly determined by TSJP, maybe most important in shorter distance races (60 m, 100 m, 200 m). However, due to the significant correlations between TSJP and middle and long distance running performance as well, the contribution of muscle power to these events (800 m, 3000 m, 5000 m) should be considered as a component for training for both sprinters and middle and long distance runners.
... Standing long jumps and multiple hops are variations of horizontally-oriented drills which share a common particularity: both of them are usually performed from a static standing posture (Figures 6 and 7). As a result, these jumps may be more appropriate for improving (and indirectly assessing) maximum acceleration capacity (Hudgins et al., 2013;Loturco et al., 2015a;Moresi et al., 2011;Sole, 2018), especially in situations where athletes have to sprint as fast as possible from stationary positions, such as, for example, during block (or static) starts in track and field events. These potential applications are particularly stimulated by a series of studies, which demonstrated the close relationships that exist between standing long jump (executed either individually or sequentially) and multiple hop performances and the sprint acceleration phase, a fact that is even more pronounced in elite sprinters and jumpers (Habibi et al., 2010;Loturco et al., 2015a;Maćkała et al., 2015;Maulder and 2005). ...
... These potential applications are particularly stimulated by a series of studies, which demonstrated the close relationships that exist between standing long jump (executed either individually or sequentially) and multiple hop performances and the sprint acceleration phase, a fact that is even more pronounced in elite sprinters and jumpers (Habibi et al., 2010;Loturco et al., 2015a;Maćkała et al., 2015;Maulder and 2005). Another common characteristic of these jumps is that both can be performed in single-or double-leg stances which, along with their simplicity, easiness of implementation, and costeffectiveness (i.e., jump distance may be determined using a simple metric tape) make these exercises very popular as alternative and indirect forms of estimating lower-limb power in both young and adult athletic populations (Fernandez-Santos et al., 2015;Hudgins et al., 2013;Pullen et al., 2022). When performed sequentially, standing long jumps and multiple hops are normally prescribed and tested within pre-determined and fixed constraints (e.g., triple, quintuple or decuple jumps) (Aoki et al., 2015;Hudgins et al., 2013;Pereira et al., 2016), thereby facilitating the collection and establishment of normative data for these measurements in different sports, competitive levels, and age categories (Coburn, 2012;Martinez-de-Quel et al., 2021;Selmi et al., 2020). ...
... Another common characteristic of these jumps is that both can be performed in single-or double-leg stances which, along with their simplicity, easiness of implementation, and costeffectiveness (i.e., jump distance may be determined using a simple metric tape) make these exercises very popular as alternative and indirect forms of estimating lower-limb power in both young and adult athletic populations (Fernandez-Santos et al., 2015;Hudgins et al., 2013;Pullen et al., 2022). When performed sequentially, standing long jumps and multiple hops are normally prescribed and tested within pre-determined and fixed constraints (e.g., triple, quintuple or decuple jumps) (Aoki et al., 2015;Hudgins et al., 2013;Pereira et al., 2016), thereby facilitating the collection and establishment of normative data for these measurements in different sports, competitive levels, and age categories (Coburn, 2012;Martinez-de-Quel et al., 2021;Selmi et al., 2020). Despite these similarities, the frequency of use of standing jumps and multiple hops among Brazilian Olympic sprint and jump coaches is very different: whereas 68% of them declared regularly prescribing multiple hops, only 21% of these coaches reported frequently using standing jumps in their training programs (Loturco et al., 2023b). ...
Plyometric training is extensively used by coaches to enhance neuromuscular performance in a wide variety of sports. Due to the high demands of sprint speed and power output in elite sprinters and jumpers, sprint and jump coaches are likely to have great knowledge on this topic. Undoubtedly, this expertise is even more pronounced for Olympic coaches, who work with some of the fastest and most powerful athletes in the world, and who are required to continually maintain these athletes at optimal performance levels. Describing and discussing the practices commonly adopted by these coaches in detail and extrapolating this experience to other sport coaching contexts and disciplines may be extremely relevant. The current article presents, explores, and illustrates the plyometric training practices of Brazilian Olympic sprint and jump coaches, with a special focus on training programming and exercise selection.
... Despite the popularity of the vertical jump for assessing power, many athletic movements require production of power in a horizontal direction (2,3,5,12,19,25). Although the standing long jump (SLJ) test has been widely used for many years, evaluation of performance has typically been based on the distance jumped without considering the physical characteristics of the performer (6)(7)(8)(9)16,19,25,30,31). ...
... Despite the popularity of the vertical jump for assessing power, many athletic movements require production of power in a horizontal direction (2,3,5,12,19,25). Although the standing long jump (SLJ) test has been widely used for many years, evaluation of performance has typically been based on the distance jumped without considering the physical characteristics of the performer (6)(7)(8)(9)16,19,25,30,31). To date, no equation exists to estimate power from jump distance and a combination of anthropometric variables. ...
... Thus, SLJ may have a greater degree of neuromotor coordination associated with its performance than the VJ (26); although this has yet to be demonstrated in highly skilled male athletes. Hudgins et al. (19) compared performances during the triple-step double-leg long jump test (TSDLJ) with best times during competition reported in NCAA Division I runners, including sprinters, middle distance runners, and long-distance runners. They used the TSDLJ as a measure of lower-body power. ...
Mann, JB, Bird, M, Signorile, JF, Brechue, WF, and Mayhew, JL. Prediction of anaerobic power from standing long jump in NCAA Division IA football players. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2021-Despite the popularity of the standing long jump (SLJ), limited research has explored the estimation of power developed during this test. The purpose of this study was to determine SLJ power from jump distance and selected anthropometric measures in NCAA Division IA football players. Height (Ht), body mass (Wt), thigh length, and lower leg length (LL) were measured in 58 players, allowing calculation of leg ratios of thigh length·Ht-1, LL·Ht-1, and TL·SL-1. Players performed 2-3 maximal familiarization trials of SLJ followed by 2 maximal jumps from a 3-dimension force plate sampling at 1,000 Hz. Standing long jump distance (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = 0.944) and power (ICC = 0.926) calculated from resultant force and velocity vectors were highly reliable. Standing Ht (r = 0.40), Wt (r = 0.36), lower leg length (r = 0.43), total leg length (thigh + LLs) (r = 0.38), and best SLJ (r = 0.52) were significantly related (p < 0.05) to peak power, but none accounted for more than 27% of the common variance. Step-wise multiple regression identified SLJ and body mass as the only significant variables necessary to predict peak power (Power [W] = 32.49·SLJ [cm] + 39.69·Wt [kg] - 7,608, R = 0.86, SEE = 488 W, CV% = 9.3%). Standing long jump contributed 56.8% to the known variance, whereas Wt contributed 43.2%. Thus, a combination of SLJ and Wt can be used to effectively estimate explosive power in Division IA college football players.
... Power output is one of the critical variables that describe individual abilities to perform physical effort. It was demonstrated that the jump height correlated with sprint time in soccer players and track runners [9], [25]. The relationship between jumping power output and height of a jump is a particularly interesting topic [7], [17]. ...
... Differences of mean values were assessed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), with Bonferroni post hoc test. The normality of distribution of variables 9 was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test (criterion p>0.05). In creating the model, the regression coefficients of each variable were calculated using the multiple regression procedure (stepwise, backward elimination method). ...
... The nonlinear model presented in this paper describes peak mechanical power developed in the vertical jump as the power function of jump height, body weight, and the depth of countermovement before the take-off. Until now, most attempts to express this relationship quantitatively have focused on creating linear models [3], [7], [9], [22] and did not include countermovement depth as an explanatory variable. It is our firm belief that the omission of this variable limits the explanatory power of these models. ...
Purpose: The study aims to identify the determinants of peak power achieved during vertical jumps in order to clarify relationship between the height of jump and the ability to exert maximum power. Methods: One hundred young (16.8±1.8 years) sportsmen participated in the study (body height 1.861±0.109 m, body weight 80.3±9.2 kg). Each participant performed three jump tests: countermovement jump (CMJ), akimbo countermovement jump (ACMJ), and spike jump (SPJ). A force plate was used to measure ground reaction force and to determine peak power output. The following explanatory variables were included in the model: jump height, body mass, and the lowering of the centre of mass before launch (countermovement depth). The model was created using multiple regression analysis and allometric scaling. Results: The model was used to calculate the expected power value for each participant, which correlated strongly with real values. The value of the coefficient of determination R2 equalled 0.89, 0.90 and 0.98, respectively, for the CMJ, ACMJ, and SPJ jumps. The countermovement depth proved to be a variable strongly affecting the maximum power of jump. If the countermovement depth remains constant, the relative peak power is a simple function of jump height. Conclusions: The results suggest that the jump height of an individual is an exact indicator of their ability to produce maximum power. The presented model has a potential to be utilized under field condition for estimating the maximum power output of vertical jumps.
... Other variables such as VO2max or VO2 response to middle-distance track running events have also been widely investigated (Hanon and Thomas, 2011;James et al., 2007). However, other possible determinant factors related to the 800 m performance such as strength, power, and sprinting capacities have received less scientific attention (Hudgins et al., 2013). ...
... However, most of these investigations have focused their analysis on very short running distances (i.e., 50 and 100 m) (Loturco et al., 2015a(Loturco et al., , 2015bSeitz et al., 2014). In regard to middle-distance track and field events, Hudgins et al. (2013) observed significant correlations between jumping ability and 800 m race time in competitive runners. Moreover, Deason et al. (1991) found a significant relationship between 800 and 300 m running times. ...
... To date, coaches and sports scientists have shown keen interest in variables related to the metabolic contribution and energetic substrates to explain the 800 m performance (Craig and Morgan, 1998;Duffield et al., 2005;Hill, 1999;Lacour et al., 1990;Spencer and Gastin, 2001). Actually, very few studies have examined the importance of different neuromuscular variables on middle-distance running performance (Hudgins et al., 2013). In addition, it has been suggested that strength training could lead to enhanced long-term endurance capacity both in well-trained individuals and elite endurance athletes (Aagaard and Andersen, 2010). ...
This study analysed the relationships between sprinting, jumping and strength abilities, with regard to 800 m running performance. Fourteen athletes of national and international levels in 800 m (personal best: 1:43-1:58 min:ss) completed sprint tests (20 m and 200 m), a countermovement jump, jump squat and full squat test as well as an 800 m race. Significant relationships (p < 0.01) were observed between 800 m performance and sprint tests: 20 m (r = 0.72) and 200 m (r = 0.84). Analysing the 200 m run, the magnitude of the relationship between the first to the last 50 m interval times and the 800 m time tended to increase (1st 50 m: r = 0.71; 2nd 50 m: r = 0.72; 3rd 50 m: r = 0.81; 4th 50 m: r = 0.85). Performance in 800 m also correlated significantly (p < 0.01-0.05) with strength variables: the countermovement jump (r = -0.69), jump squat (r = -0.65), and full squat test (r = -0.58). Performance of 800 m in high-level athletes was related to sprint, strength and jumping abilities, with 200 m and the latest 50 m of the 200 m being the variables that most explained the variance of the 800 m performance.
... In short-and long-distance running, improved performance after training jumping ability has been associated with increased muscle strength and power [27], as well as stiffness of the muscular-tendinous system (which allows for the storage and use of elastic energy more efficiently) [5,28]. Previous studies have shown that combined strength and endurance training can increase running economy, muscle strength, and performance without affecting VO2max [29], suggesting that endurance running performance may be affected by neuromuscular factors. ...
... Although the influence of neuromuscular factors on performance in endurance athletes seems clear [5,28,29,35,42], current findings suggest that combined training of neuromuscular performance and endurance does not produce changes in step length and frequency during running at the constant submaximal speed [62]. Roche-Seruendo et al. [43] also measured the neuromuscular performance of amateur adult runners by jumping capacity, finding a lack of influence of the neuromuscular performance on spatiotemporal adaptations produced during the increase in running speed. ...
The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to analyse the relationship of neuromuscular performance and spatiotemporal parameters in 18 adolescent distance athletes (age, 15.5 ± 1.1 years). Using the OptoGait system, the power, rhythm, reactive strength index, jump flying time, and jump height of the squat jump, countermovement jump, and eight maximal hoppings test (HT8max) and the contact time (CT), flying time (FT), step frequency, stride angle, and step length of running at different speeds were measured. Maturity offset was determined based on anthropo-metric variables. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of repeated measurements showed a reduction in CT (p < 0.000) and an increase in step frequency, step length, and stride angle (p < 0.001), as the velocity increased. The HT8max test showed significant correlations with very large effect sizes between neuromuscular performance variables (reactive strength index, power, jump flying time, jump height, and rhythm) and both step frequency and step length. Multiple linear regression found this relationship after adjusting spatiotemporal parameters with neuromuscular performance variables. Some variables of neuromuscular performance, mainly in reactive tests, were the predictors of spatiotemporal parameters (CT, FT, stride angle, and VO). Rhythm and jump flying time in the HT8max test and power in the countermovement jump test are parameters that can predict variables associated with running biomechanics, such as VO, CT, FT, and stride angle.
... [n=2], bounding for distance [n=1]), were of this nature (Güllich and Schmidtbleicher, 2001;Komi, 2003;Komi and Gollhofer, 1997). The relationship between jumping performance and running endurance performance has previously been established (Hudgins, Scharfenberg, Triplett, & McBride, 2013). ...
... Indeed, the current findings also show a significant improvement in time trial performance (from 2 km up to 5 km) after JT. Although the influence of JT on endurance running may be particularly important over shorter distances, its relevance for middle-and long-distance runners should also be considered in the design of training programmes (Hudgins, et al., 2013). A common myth regarding JT is related to the perceived notion that high jump volumes are necessary to induce significant improvements in performance. ...
This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the effects of jump training (JT) on measures of physical fitness and athletic performances in endurance runners. Controlled studies which involved healthy endurance runners, of any age and sex, were considered. A random-effects model was used to calculate effect sizes (ES; Hedge's g). Means and standard deviations of outcomes were converted to ES with alongside 95% confidence intervals (95%CI). Twenty-one moderate-to-high quality studies were included in the meta-analysis, and these included 511 participants. The main analyses revealed a significant moderate improvement in time-trial performance (i.e. distances between 2.0-5.0 km; ES=0.88), without enhancements in maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), velocity at VO2max, velocity at submaximal lactate levels, heart rate at submaximal velocities, stride rate at submaximal velocities, stiffness, total body mass or maximal strength performance. However, significant small-to-moderate improvements were noted for jump performance, rate of force development, sprint performance, reactive strength and running economy (ES = 0.36-0.73; p < 0.001 to 0.031; I 2 = 0.0% to 49.3%). JT is effective in improving physical fitness and athletic performance in endurance runners. Improvements in time-trial performance after JT may be mediated through improvements in force generating capabilities and running economy.
... 3,14 RFD parameters are reported to have very poor reliability and were, therefore, excluded from this study. 14 For male sprinters, there is a significant, widely documented relationship between jump performance (CMJ height), peak power and time to 5, 10, 60, 100 and 300 m. [17][18][19][20][21] Markstro¨m and Olsson 19 found very little difference in CMJ performance between sprinters and jump athletes. It is noted, however, that their jump group contained a mix of high jumpers and triple jumpers rather than a single discipline. ...
... 22,23 Within the wider jump literature, these differences between genders have been documented, but the knowledge regarding jump performance for female athletes remains limited. 18,[22][23][24] The most effective measure of CMJ performance is jump height and a large volume of research has investigated the relationship between jump height and derived take-off parameters. 6 The reviewed literature reported a very strong positive correlation (r . ...
Countermovement jumps (CMJs) are widely used in athlete training, performance monitoring and research as an indicator of power output. Despite extensive scientific research on CMJs, data for elite track and field athletes is limited, particularly for non-sprint events and female athletes. The purpose of this study was threefold: (i) to compare CMJ performance between elite sprinters and high jumpers; (ii) to compare CMJ performance between elite male and female athletes in these two events; and (iii) to determine which CMJ take-off parameters correlated most strongly with jump height. Twenty-seven elite athletes (sprinters: nine male and seven female; high jumpers: five male and six female) completed three maximal CMJs. Jump height and take-off phase parameters were obtained from the force–time data and compared between groups; additionally, time series comparisons were performed on the force, power and displacement data. There was no difference in jump height or any of the take-off parameters between the sprinters and high jumpers; however, the time series analysis indicated that the sprinters maintained a lower centre of mass position during the latter concentric phase. The male athletes jumped higher than the female athletes (by 10.0 cm or 24.2%; p < 0.001) with significantly greater body weight normalised peak power (17.9%, p = 0.002) and significantly shorter eccentric time (17.4%, p = 0.035). Jump height was most strongly correlated with peak power. In addition, jump height was also strongly correlated with positive impulse and both minimum and mean concentric centre of mass position. These results support the importance of accounting for event and gender when investigating CMJ performance.
... The relationship between jumping, both vertical and horizontal, and functional performance such as acceleration have been researched in many sports. There is a significant correlation between horizontal jump (HJ) and short acceleration distances (Loturco et al. 2015b) such as 10-and 30-m (Maćkala et al. 2015) and 60-, 100-, and 200-m sprint distances (Hudgins et al. 2013) for both time and peak speed. Yanci et al. (2014) found that correlation between sprint and vertical jumps (VJ) or HJs was highest for the 15-m sprint distance, although the most consistent correlations were between HJ and acceleration. ...
... Performance in HJ has been associated with the athletes' ability to transfer the linear momentum of force directly from the ground to the peak horizontal acceleration of the body's centre of mass. This is also critical to break the inertia (i.e. starting from a zero-velocity) and achieve high velocities over short distances (Brechue et al. 2010;Hudgins et al. 2013;Loturco et al. 2015b;Loturco et al. 2015a). Kugler and Janshen (2010) concluded that the horizontal forces are important for acceleration. ...
Aims: Aim was to investigate the effects of heavy resisted and unresisted sprint training protocols and see its effects on sprint time, vertical and horizontal jumping and sprint mechanics.
Methods: Youth male soccer players [n=27] participated in this study, they were all individually assessed for the horizontal force-velocity profile using two unresisted sprints and load-velocity profile using four progressively resisted sprints (25%, 50%, 75% and 100% body mass). For all sprints an isotonic braking device was used. They also performed vertical and horizontal jumps, counter-movement jump (CMJ) was used for the former and standing long jump (SLJ) for the latter. They were put in three groups (RST: resisted sprint training; UST: unresisted sprint training and TAU: control group-"training as usual"). Athletes performed a 4-week training intervention (5x20m resisted sprint group; 8x20m unresisted sprint group) and were tested 7 days after completing their final training session.
Results: Only RST improved all sprint times (T30, T20, T10, T5) substantially (-4.2% to-7.9% in split times) and provided trivial or small changes in sprint mechanics. The small changes were seen in sprint mechanical parameters of RFmax, Pmax and F0. UST only showed trivial effects in those parameters, while TAU showed a small decrease in both Pmax and Vmax. Regarding the jumps, RST and UST both showed a small increase in standing long jump and a trivial effect in counter-movement jump, while TAU decreased in both.
Conclusions: Main conclusion is that resisted sprinting has proven to be a worthwhile method to improve acceleration and sprint performance and can be used by practitioners across a wide array of sports. It also improved jumping performance and sprint mechanical outputs, which point toward an improvement in better application of force in a horizontal direction.
... Power output is one of the critical variables that describe individual abilities to perform physical effort. It was demonstrated that the jump height correlats with sprint time in soccer players and track runners [9], [25]. The relationship between jumping power output and height of a jump is a particularly interesting topic [7], [17]. ...
... The nonlinear model presented in this paper describes peak mechanical power developed in the vertical jump as the power function of jump height, body weight, and the depth of countermovement before the take-off. Until now, most attempts to express this relationship quantitatively have focused on creating linear models [3], [7], [9], [22] and did not include countermovement depth as an explanatory variable. It is our firm belief that the omission of this variable limits the explanatory power of these models. ...
Purpose:
The aim of this study was to identify the determinants of peak power achieved during vertical jumps in order to clarify relationship between the height of jump and the ability to exert maximum power.
Methods:
One hundred young (16.8±1.8 years) sportsmen participated in the study (body height 1.861 ± 0.109 m, body weight 80.3 ± 9.2 kg). Each participant performed three jump tests: countermovement jump (CMJ), akimbo countermovement jump (ACMJ), and spike jump (SPJ). A force plate was used to measure ground reaction force and to determine peak power output. The following explanatory variables were included in the model: jump height, body mass, and the lowering of the centre of mass before launch (countermovement depth). A model was created using multiple regression analysis and allometric scaling.
Results:
The model was used to calculate the expected power value for each participant, which correlated strongly with real values. The value of the coefficient of determination R2 equalled 0.89, 0.90 and 0.98, respectively, for the CMJ, ACMJ, and SPJ jumps. The countermovement depth proved to be a variable strongly affecting the maximum power of jump. If the countermovement depth remains constant, the relative peak power is a simple function of jump height.
Conclusions:
The results suggest that the jump height of an individual is an exact indicator of their ability to produce maximum power. The presented model has a potential to be utilized under field condition for estimating the maximum power output of vertical jumps.
... It has been suggested that adolescents with a stronger and more powerful musculoskeletal system will be able to perform body movements in a more efficient and effective manner, which may reduce their risk of sports-related injuries (Faigenbaum & Myer, 2010). Muscular strength and power also play an important role in sports performance (Suchomel, Nimphius, & Stone, 2016) and are shown to be positively associated with athletic ability and sport-specific training background (Battaglia, Paoli, Bellafiore, Bianco, & Palma, 2014;Hudgins, Scharfenberg, Triplett, & McBride, 2013). Thus, measures of muscular strength and power are regularly included in athletic talent identification programs (Issurin, 2017). ...
... With muscular strength and power shown to be positively associated with athletic ability and sport-specific training background (Battaglia et al., 2014;Hudgins et al., 2013), assessing and tracking of muscular fitness in young adolescents can provide physical education teachers and coaches with very useful information. Field-based tests, such as the MBCT and VJ, are often used for assessing of muscular fitness in physical education classes and non-elite sporting teams due to the ease of administering these tests (Artero et al., 2011). ...
This study examined the predictive ability of the medicine ball chest throw and vertical jump for muscular strength and power in adolescents. One hundred and ninety adolescents participated in this study. Participants performed trials of the medicine ball chest throw and vertical jump, with vertical jump peak power calculated via an estimation equation. One-repetition maximum and peak power for the chest press and leg press were assessed using pneumatic exercise machines. The medicine ball chest throw strongly correlated with chest press one-repetition maximum and peak power, while the vertical jump peak power strongly correlated with leg press one-repetition maximum and peak power. The predictive ability of medicine ball chest throw was better than vertical jump peak power for muscular strength and power when controlling for sex, age, height, weight, and maturation, and was not affected by involvement in sports. Results show good predictive ability of the medicine ball chest throw for muscular strength and power in adolescents, while predictable ability of vertical jump peak power is weakened when other factors are taken into account.
... In this last domain, the SLJ is often part of athletic training since it represents an explosive type of motor task. As a recognized functional test, it allows the analysis of the coordinated development of lower-body forces in the horizontal direction as a proxy for sprint performance in runners [4,5], which is also crucial in team sports such as football [6] or rugby [7][8][9]. The SLJ test is also used for several other aims: talent identification [7], prediction of player performance at different player positions [6], assessment of the efficacy of a training intervention [8,9], and anaerobic power prediction [10,11]. ...
The length of the standing long jump (SLJ) is widely recognized as an indicator of developmental motor competence or sports conditional performance. This work aims at defining a methodology to allow athletes/coaches to easily measure it using the inertial measurement units embedded on a smartphone. A sample group of 114 trained young participants was recruited and asked to perform the instrumented SLJ task. A set of features was identified based on biomechanical knowledge, then Lasso regression allowed the identification of a subset of predictors of the SLJ length that was used as input of different optimized machine learning architectures. Results obtained from the use of the proposed configuration allow an estimate of the SLJ length with a Gaussian Process Regression model with a RMSE of 0.122 m in the test phase, Kendall’s τ < 0.1. The proposed models give homoscedastic results, meaning that the error of the models does not depend on the estimated quantity. This study proved the feasibility of using low-cost smartphone sensors to provide an automatic and objective estimate of SLJ performance in ecological settings.
... The average 95% CI of training period in heavy resistance training was 9.6 [95% CIs 8.0 to 11.2] weeks, while that for plyometric training was 6.9 [95% CIs 5.8 to 8.0] weeks. The training period was found to influence the effect on running economy as discussed later, and it has been suggested that plyometric training over ≥ 10 weeks would maximize one's probability of obtaining significant improvements in jumping performance [86], which could consequently enhance running performance [87,88]. Despite these previous findings, six of eight studies have conducted plyometric training for 6 weeks or shorter [78,79,[82][83][84], which may not have been sufficient to substantially improve running economy. ...
Background
As an adjunct to running training, heavy resistance and plyometric training have recently drawn attention as potential training modalities that improve running economy and running time trial performance. However, the comparative effectiveness is unknown. The present systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to determine if there are different effects of heavy resistance training versus plyometric training as an adjunct to running training on running economy and running time trial performance in long-distance runners.
Methods
Electronic databases of PubMed, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus were searched. Twenty-two studies completely satisfied the selection criteria. Data on running economy and running time trial performance were extracted for the meta-analysis. Subgroup analyses were performed with selected potential moderators.
Results
The pooled effect size for running economy in heavy resistance training was greater ( g = − 0.32 [95% confidence intervals [CIs] − 0.55 to − 0.10]: effect size = small) than that in plyometric training ( g = -0.13 [95% CIs − 0.47 to 0.21]: trivial). The effect on running time trial performance was also larger in heavy resistance training ( g = − 0.24 [95% CIs − 1.04 to − 0.55]: small) than that in plyometric training ( g = − 0.17 [95% CIs − 0.27 to − 0.06]: trivial). Heavy resistance training with nearly maximal loads (≥ 90% of 1 repetition maximum [1RM], g = − 0.31 [95% CIs − 0.61 to − 0.02]: small) provided greater effects than those with lower loads (< 90% 1RM, g = − 0.17 [95% CIs − 1.05 to 0.70]: trivial). Greater effects were evident when training was performed for a longer period in both heavy resistance (10–14 weeks, g = − 0.45 [95% CIs − 0.83 to − 0.08]: small vs. 6–8 weeks, g = − 0.21 [95% CIs − 0.56 to 0.15]: small) and plyometric training (8–10 weeks, g = 0.26 [95% CIs − 0.67 to 0.15]: small vs. 4–6 weeks, g = − 0.06 [95% CIs 0.67 to 0.55]: trivial).
Conclusions
Heavy resistance training, especially with nearly maximal loads, may be superior to plyometric training in improving running economy and running time trial performance. In addition, running economy appears to be improved better when training is performed for a longer period in both heavy resistance and plyometric training.
... stimulus (Andrade, Beltrán, Labarca-Valenzuela, Manzo-Botarelli, Trujillo, Otero-Farias, Álvarez, Garcia-Hermoso, Toledo, Del Rio, et al., 2018b;Conley & Krahenbuhl, 1980). Furthermore, neuromuscular performance, such as jump-related explosive muscle activities, has been linked to aerobic performance at various distances (Hudgins et al., 2013). Therefore, the total energy cost of running is determined by the sum of both aerobic and anaerobic (neuromuscular factors) metabolism (Daniels et al., 1985). ...
Abstract:
Background: It is already established that plyometric training is a powerful training means for speed and power development; however, very few studies have attempted to know the impact of Plyometric Training on aerobic capacity so far. Sufficient studies were not found by the researchers on plyometric training in land and aquatic medium with & without weight vests for the development of aerobic capacity. Consequently, it was planned to
investigate the impact of plyometric training in land and aquatic medium on aerobic capacity from a comparative standpoint. Purpose: Therefore, the present experimentation was aimed to compare the effectiveness of plyometric training programs for 14 weeks on the aerobic capacity of the athletes conducted in three different conditions in land and aquatic medium. Approach: Forty-eight (N = 48) middle-distance track athletes were
finally selected based on simple randomization. The selected participants were divided into four equal groups of strength (n=12) each: i) Land Plyometric Training Group (LPTG) ii) Aquatic Plyometric Training Group (APTG) iii) Weighted Vest Aquatic Plyometric Training Group (APTGWV) and iv) Control Group (CG). The same plyometric training was performed for fourteen weeks on the respective training groups in different conditions on dry land surfaces (without a weighted vest) and aquatic medium (without a weight vest & with a weighted vest). Aerobic capacity in terms of maximum oxygen consumption i.e. VO2max (ml.kg-1.min-1) was measured through Queen’s-College-Step-Test (QCST). To draw a statistical inference on aerobic capacity among the groups in baseline & post-intervention conditions, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used. Tukey's post-hoc LSD test was employed to identify the location of difference among the groups. Statistical
inferences were drawn at p<.05 level. Results: Different plyometric training groups improved significantly in comparison to the control group in aerobic capacity. Therefore, plyometric training was found as an effective means of developing aerobic capacity. A significant difference was also observed between the land plyometric training group and the weighted vest aquatic plyometric training group in aerobic capacity. However, the rest of the experimental groups didn’t differ significantly. Conclusions: Plyometric training is not only beneficial for speed and power development but also proved as an effective means for developing aerobic capacity. It is further established that weighted vest aquatic plyometric training is the best one among the training groups for improving the aerobic capacity of the athletes. Normal aquatic plyometric training is equally effective as land
Plyometric training for improving aerobic capacity.
Key Words: - Aerobic ability; Aerobic fitness; Queen’s College Step Test (QCST); VO2max; Aquatic plyometric training; Weighted vest aquatic plyometric training.
... No presente estudo, assim como hipotetizado, o grupo que apresentou performance inferior, também apresentou o pior perfil para a aptidão física global, bem como os resultados mais baixos para os testes de salto horizontal e shuttle run. Relativamente à capacidade de salto, quando estimada a partir do salto vertical, observou-se relação com a performance na prova de 5.000m (Hudgins, Scharfenberg, Triplett, & McBride, 2013); em contrapartida, Nikolaidis et al. (2018Nikolaidis et al. ( , 2019 The purpose of this narrative review was to evaluate the game patterns variability in team sports, that is, how game patterns differ across and within different performance levels. ...
... No presente estudo, assim como hipotetizado, o grupo que apresentou performance inferior, também apresentou o pior perfil para a aptidão física global, bem como os resultados mais baixos para os testes de salto horizontal e shuttle run. Relativamente à capacidade de salto, quando estimada a partir do salto vertical, observou-se relação com a performance na prova de 5.000m (Hudgins, Scharfenberg, Triplett, & McBride, 2013); em contrapartida, Nikolaidis et al. (2018Nikolaidis et al. ( , 2019 ...
... However, little is known about the role of these anaerobic components to explain (and to differentiate) runners' performance [10], given that most published studies have examined the association between strength and power among short distance runners (10-300 m) [11]. When these components were investigated among long distance runners, a relationship was observed between jump ability and running performance [12], and also an association between isometric muscle strength and lower body flexibility with the performance of male and female recreational marathon runners, respectively [10,13]. ...
Sports performance is a multifactorial trait that can be associated with individual and environmental characteristics. In this study, the sample comprised 35 male runners, enrolled in the “InTrack” project. Information regarding variables related to runners’ training was obtained via an online questionnaire, while anthropometric and body composition variables, as well as physical fitness components (muscular power, isometric strength, local muscular endurance, agility, and aerobic capacity) were measured, and a global physical fitness score (based on physical fitness components measured) was computed. The Weltman test (3200 m) was used to estimate runners’ pace and their stride frequency. Linear regression was used, taking the running pace as dependent variable. The final model, comprising biological, physical fitness, spatiotemporal, and training variables, explained 86% of the running performance variance. Muscular power (β = −1.02; 95% CI = (−1.69)–(−0.35)), abdominal muscle endurance (β = −4.81; 95% CI = (−7.52)–(−2.10)), isometric strength (β = −422.95; 95% CI = (−689.65)–(−156.25)), global physical fitness (β = 27.14; 95% CI = 9.52–45.03), and stride frequency (β = −2.99; 95% CI = (−4.29)–(−1.69)) were significantly associated with performance, meaning that better results in tests and increasing the stride frequency leads to better performance. Individual characteristics and physical fitness components were demonstrated to be significant predictors for running performance.
... Jumping is essential to successfully complete many tasks of daily life, play, and sports such as ballet, soccer, volleyball, and basketball. Jump performance is often used as an indicator of athletic potential [36,37] and requires an ability to rapidly activate the muscles for balance control and coordination. In this study, ALL CCS demonstrated deficits in the ability to achieve jump height similar to their age-and sex-matched peers. ...
Purpose:
This study explored neuromuscular mechanisms and clinical measures that contribute to countermovement jump performance in survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL CCS) compared to age- and sex-matched peers.
Methods:
This exploratory cross-sectional observational study examined 12 participants, six ALL CCS and six age- and sex-matched peers (7-16 years). During a countermovement jump, rates of muscle activation of lower leg muscles were measured with electromyography, and joint torques and peak jump height with force plates and a motion capture system. Clinical measures included muscle extensibility, balance, and mobility measured by active ankle dorsiflexion, Bruininks-Oseretsky Motor Proficiency (BOT-2), and Timed Up and Go (TUG) tests.
Results:
Compared to peers, ALL CCS demonstrated reduced gastrocnemius muscle extensibility and tibialis anterior rate of muscle activation, decreased jump height, and poorer performance on the BOT-2 and TUG. Jump height was significantly correlated with clinical measures of the BOT-2 and TUG.
Conclusion:
These ALL CCS demonstrated neuromuscular impairments that may impact jump performance, an essential childhood physical activity. Further research is needed to explore intervention strategies to improve the neuromuscular mechanisms that contribute to high-level gross motor skills in ALL CCS.
... Οι αλλαγές της μυοτενόντιας σκληρότητας είχαν επίσης σχέση με τη βελτίωση της απόδοσης του άλματος με προδιάταση (CMJ) οπότε εν μέρει εξηγείται η βελτίωση της δρομικής οικονομίας μετά από πλειομετρική προπόνηση (22). Σύμφωνα με τη συστηματική ανασκόπηση του Balsalobre-Fernández και συν (4) η αλτική ικανότητα έχει σημαντική συσχέτιση με τους χρόνους στα 800 m, 3000 m και 5000 m σε δρομείς υψηλών επιδόσεων (36). Σε έρευνες που περιέγραψαν τις ιδιότητες του μυοτενόντιου συστήματος σε Κενυάτες δρομείς παγκόσμιας κλάσης βρέθηκε ότι αυτοί οι αθλητές είχαν υψηλότερη αλτική ικανότητα, μυϊκή ισχύ και μικρότερο χρόνο επαφής με το έδαφος, μεταβλητές δηλαδή που σχετίζονται πιθανόν περισσότερο με την αποτελεσματικότερη δρομική οικονομία. ...
Research has shown that, concurrent strength and endurance training has been considered an effective method to improve running economy (RE) and performance in endurance running athletes. Strength training improves the RE 2% -8%, making the runner consume less O2 for the same submaximal running velocity. This improvement was due to neural adaptations without observable muscle hypertrophy. However, no improvements were found in relative VO2max, when strength training was performed in conjunction with aerobic training. The purpose of this narrative review is to examine various strength training programs that have attempted to improve RE. More specifically, the effect of a) resistance training programs, aiming to improve Maximal Force, such as heavy weight training, isometric training and vibration training with heavy weight, and b) explosive training, aiming to improve Maximal Power, such as low-middle intensity resistors with explosive repetitions, plyometric training or a combination of the two above, was investigated.Complex training was also investigated. The results showed that heavy weight training and explosive training are effective concurrent training methods aiming to improve RE. In particular, improved lower-limb coordination, muscle coactivation and increased muscle stiffness, which enhances the ability of the muscles to store and utilize elastic energy more efficiently, result in reduced energy expenditure. Similarly, other neuromuscular adaptations such as vertical jump (5J) and contact time correlated with the speed in the anaerobic threshold which was associated with improved RE and running performance. The different magnitude of improvement of the RE for each specific type of strength training, probably, due to the different characteristics of the exercise protocols and trainees. Therefore, more research is needed to determine which style of strength training is more beneficial than any other. Furthermore, future studies should examine movement-specific forms of resistance training.
... Other studies that evaluated running performances over distances of 5 km (Hudgins, Scharfenberg, Triplett, & McBride, 2013;Paavolainen, et al., 1999) and 10 km (Damasceno, et al., 2015) and its relationships with RT, we noticed variations mainly in RT volumes and intensities, which represent different manifestations of strength (explosivestrength and endurance-strength). In this sense, prescription of RT exercises with loads referring to the electromyographic threshold (EMGT), for example, (Hug, Laplaud, Lucia, & Grelot, 2006) may reflect stimuli different from those commonly reported. ...
The study aimed to identify the effect of a neuromuscular resistance training protocol (NRTP) on the performance of 5-km distance runners. This study included 18 male runners (age=29.3±3.2 years, fat percentage=11.3±2.6%, body height=1.77±.04 m, body mass=73.4±4.4 kg, time in 5 km=20.6±2.4 min, training years=4.3±0.7 years). First, volunteers were anthropometrically evaluated, and they performed one-repetition maximum (1RM) 45º leg press (LP) strength test. Second, they performed an incremental protocol in the 45º LP to acquire the electromyographic threshold. Third, they completed a 5-km time trial run (5 km basal). In the fourth session, they performed NRTP in LP. And fifth, the 5-km time trial run was performed at 30 min, 48 h, 96 h, and 144 h post the NRTP intervention. A significant decrease (p≤.05) was observed when baseline values were compared with post 30 min and post 48 h (p=.02 and p=.04, respectively). However, there were significant positive differences in performance (p=.04 for time) when baseline values and post 144 h were analyzed. Therefore, it is concluded that the NRTP can be used by 5-km distance runners to improve their performance with a break of one week between the intervention and test.
... The relationship between jumping performance and running endurance performance has been previously established. 27 In this regard, an important finding in the current study was the greater increase of explosive strength performance requiring slow stretchshortening cycle (SSC) action (ie, CMJ) and fast SSC action (ie, DJ30) in the JR training group compared with the CG. Improved reactivity (ie, DJ30) may be related to increased neural drive to the agonist muscles, improved intermuscular coordination, changes in muscle size and/or architecture, changes in single-fiber mechanics, among others. ...
Context:
Plyometric training promotes a highly effective neuromuscular stimulus to improve running performance. Jumping rope (JR) involves mainly foot muscles and joints, due to the quick rebounds, and it might be considered a type of plyometric training for improving power and stiffness, some of the key factors for endurance-running performance.
Purpose:
To determine the effectiveness of JR during the warm-up routine of amateur endurance runners on jumping performance, reactivity, arch stiffness, and 3-km time-trial performance.
Methods:
Athletes were randomly assigned to an experimental (n = 51) or control (n = 45) group. Those from the control group were asked to maintain their training routines, while athletes from the experimental group had to modify their warm-up routines, including JR (2-4 sessions/wk, with a total time of 10-20 min/wk) for 10 weeks. Physical tests were performed before (pretest) and after (posttest) the intervention period and included jumping performance (countermovement-jump, squat-jump, and drop-jump tests), foot-arch stiffness, and 3-km time-trial performance. Reactive strength index (RSI) was calculated from a 30-cm drop jump.
Results:
The 2 × 2 analysis of variance showed significant pre-post differences in all dependent variables (P < .001) for the experimental group. No significant changes were reported in the control group (all P ≥ .05). Pearson correlation analysis revealed a significant relationship between Δ3-km time trial and ΔRSI (r = -.481; P < .001) and ΔStiffness (r = -.336; P < .01). The linear-regression analysis showed that Δ3-km time trial was associated with ΔRSI and ΔStiffness (R2 = .394; P < .001).
Conclusions:
Compared with a control warm-up routine prior to endurance-running training, 10 weeks (2-4 times/wk) of JR training, in place of 5 minutes of regular warm-up activities, was effective in improving 3-km time-trial performance, jumping ability, RSI, and arch stiffness in amateur endurance runners. Improvements in RSI and arch stiffness were associated with improvements in 3-km time-trial performance.
... Moreover, eight hundred meter running is an really demanding factor that requires considerable contributions from both the aerobic and anaerobic systems, due to high relative values of oxygen uptake (VO2) and high blood lactate concentrations (above 15 mmol·L-1) attained after the 800 m run (Hanon & Thomas, 2011). A small number of studies have examined the importance of different neuromuscular variables on middledistance running (Young & Salmela, 2002) performance (Hudgins, et al., 2013) and the training program and controlled diet . To improve the performance where a milli-second difference may be a deciding factor to be winner, athletes are lured towards doping . ...
Introduction: Evidence indicates that appropriate nutrition and lifestyle, therapeutic and recovery drugs together with a developing exercise programs play an important role in promoting health and performance also in middle-distance amateur runners. Aim: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect and the relationships between specific training program and controlled diet on the performances of a sample of middle-distance amateur runners. Methods: Twelve male recreation athletes, aged between 28-38 years old, with body weight ranging from 64-75 kg (mean 69.79 ± 5.79), were enclosed in a six-months training program (January-June 2018). A training program has to be developed monitoring the maximal aerobic speed through the Gacon test; oxidative stress were testing with DIFENILPICRILIDRAZIDE (DPPH) test and was given certain dietary parameters to the subjects. The trend of the performance times, were in relation to height (mean 172.78 ± 6.23) and body weight (mean 69.79 ± 5.79) of the amateur athletes. Results: The athletes participating in this study supported the tests of the initial and final tests and all, except subjects 2.6,7, showed significant quantifiable improvements in an average percentage of 3 ± 0.5%. Significant improvements were found in endurance, activity level, sport competence, physical fitness and global physical body composition. Conclusions: The study demonstrated that six-months of combined training program and specific diet has be induced improvements significantly of the performance in run middle-distance amateur athletes. Adequate can improve the performance of athletes but it is important to select food, nutrients and drink properly, as well as the times when they should be hired.
... Reactive strength represents a runners' capacity to efficiently use the SSC and elastic energy produced by the muscle-tendon complex (5). Several studies have used different jumping tests (vertical jump, 3-jump test) to identify the relationship between jump ability and distance running performance (10,17). However, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to explore the correlation between reactive strength and RE. ...
Li, F, Newton, RU, Shi, Y, Sutton, D, and Ding, H. Correlation of eccentric strength, reactive strength, and leg stiffness with running economy in well-trained distance runners. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2019-Neuromuscular characteristics play a critical role in distance running performance; however, their relationship with running economy (RE) remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the correlations between 1 repetition maximum (1RM) strength, eccentric strength, reactive strength, leg stiffness, and RE at 12-16 km·h among well-trained male runners. Twenty-eight male collegiate distance runners participated in test sessions on 3 separate days. In the first session, their 1RM squat strength, countermovement jump (CMJ), and drop jump performances were measured. In the second session, the leg press (LP) eccentric and concentric peak force, and leg stiffness (Kleg) were evaluated. In the final session, 12, 14, and 16 km·h RE, blood lactate concentration, and maximum oxygen uptake were measured. There were significant relationships between the LP eccentric peak force, eccentric:concentric peak force ratios (Efl:Cex), RE at speeds of 12, 14, and 16 km·h (r = -0.527 to -0.630; p < 0.01), reactive strength index (r = -0.419 to -0.572; p < 0.05), and Kleg (r = -0.686 to -0.761; p < 0.001) were significantly correlated with RE at 12, 14, and 16 km·h. No significant association was found between LP concentric peak force, 1RM squat strength, CMJ, and RE at any speed (p > 0.05). Superior RE among distance runners may be related to greater eccentric strength, elastic energy utilization, and stiffer lower limbs during running but not to maximal muscle strength per se. Coaches should focus on these neuromuscular characteristics to improve running performance.
... tive, it is expected that athletes with superior strength levels would be capable of applying greater amounts of force onto the ground, which is critical for overcoming inertia from a stationary position, and quickly achieve higher velocities [24][25][26] (especially in this case, when players started their sprints with overloads of 30 and 60 % BM). Accordingly, a previous study on professional soccer players has already referred to the "Newton's second law of motion" to explain a nearly perfect correlation (r = 0.94) between maximum dynamic strength in HS and 10-m sprint performance [27]. ...
This study aimed to examine the effects of different sled overloads on maximum sprint velocity achieved by female soccer players with different strength, speed, and power levels. Twenty elite female soccer players from the same club participated. On the same day, athletes performed: linear and resisted-sprint tests with 30 and 60% of body-mass over 5-, 10-, and 20-m; half-squat one-repetition maximum assessment; and half-squat maximum bar-power output. A median split analysis was used to divide players into two groups according to their velocity, half-squat one-repetition maximum, and half-squat power. Differences in percentage decreases between unresisted- and resisted-sprints comparing higher and lower groups were analyzed using magnitude-based inferences. Overall, the stronger, faster, and more powerful players were less affected by both loads, as demonstrated by their lower decreases in velocity over the different distances. However, half-squat power appeared to be more sensitive for indicating impairments in resisted-sprint performance, due to meaningful differences in percentage decreases observed between higher and lower power groups. Notably, overloads of 30 and 60% body-mass provoked substantial reductions in resisted-sprint velocity (~22.9% for 30% and ~51.4% for 60% body-mass, relative to unresisted-sprint velocity). Athletes with superior power levels are less affected by the progressive sled overloading.
... In fact, the evolutionary pathways of the fibula oscillate from region-specific robustness or slenderness according to survival needs even in taxonomically close species, including hominoids (17,45). Following that idea, in can be proposed that, in our runners' fibulae, the generally larger compliance to ML bending with respect to controls might conveniently improve the ability of the bone to store elastic energy during the contraction of the locally inserted muscles which act on the foot during running/jumping (25,(47)(48)(49). On the other hand, the weakening of the proximal and distal design of the fibula concerning ML bending could increase the risk of ML-bending fractures. ...
The cortical structure of human fibula varies widely throughout the bone suggesting a more selective adaptation to different mechanical environments with respect to the adjacent tibia. To test this hypothesis, serial-pQCT scans of the dominant fibulae and tibiae of 15/15 men/women chronically trained in long-distance running were compared with those of 15/15 untrained controls. When compared to controls, the fibulae of trained individuals had similar (distally) or lower (proximally) cortical area, similar moments of inertia (MI) for anterior-posterior bending (xMI) and lower for lateral bending (yMI) with a lower “shape-index” (yMI/xMI ratio) throughout, and higher resistance to buckling distally. These group differences were more evident in men and independent of group differences in bone mass. These results contrast with those observed in the tibia, where, as expected, structural indicators of bone strength were greater in trained than untrained individuals. Proximally, the larger lateral flexibility of runners' fibulae could improve the ability to store energy, and thereby contribute to fast-running optimization. Distally, the greater lateral fibular flexibility could reduce bending strength. The latter appears to have been compensated by a higher buckling strength. Assuming that these differences could be ascribed to training effects, this suggests that usage-derived strains in some bones may modify their relative structural resistance to different kinds of deformation in different regions, not only regarding strength, but also concerning other physiological roles of the skeleton.
... Damesceno et al. [16] measured 1RM in the half-squat, drop jump height and drop jump RSI to assess neuromuscular adaptions based on the principle that changes in lower body power, when unaccompanied by changes in anthropometry, reflect adaptations in motor unit synchronisation and recruitment [65]. The present findings suggest that CSE training improves 1RM squat strength and may benefit drop jump RSI, but it does not appear to change jump height. ...
Background
Concurrent strength and endurance (CSE) training improves distance running performance more than endurance training alone, but the mechanisms underpinning this phenomenon are unclear. It has been hypothesised that biomechanical or neuromuscular adaptations are responsible for improvements in running performance; however, evidence on this topic has not been synthesised in a review.
Objective
To evaluate the effect of CSE training on biomechanical and neuromuscular variables in distance runners.
Methods
Seven electronic databases were searched from inception to November 2018 using key terms related to running and strength training. Studies were included if the following criteria were met: (1) population: ‘distance’ or ‘endurance’ runners of any training status; (2) intervention: CSE training; (3) comparator: running-only control group; (4) outcomes: at least one biomechanical or neuromuscular variable; and, (5) study design: randomised and non-randomised comparative training studies. Biomechanical and neuromuscular variables of interest included: (1) kinematic, kinetic or electromyography outcome measures captured during running; (2) lower body muscle force, strength or power outcome measures; and (3) lower body muscle–tendon stiffness outcome measures. Methodological quality and risk of bias for each study were assessed using the PEDro scale. The level of evidence for each variable was categorised according to the quantity and PEDro rating of the included studies. Between-group standardised mean differences (SMD) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated for studies and meta-analyses were performed to identify the pooled effect of CSE training on biomechanical and neuromuscular variables.
Results
The search resulted in 1578 potentially relevant articles, of which 25 met the inclusion criteria and were included. There was strong evidence that CSE training significantly increased knee flexion (SMD 0.89 [95% CI 0.48, 1.30], p < 0.001), ankle plantarflexion (SMD 0.74 [95% CI 0.21–1.26], p = 0.006) and squat (SMD 0.63 [95% CI 0.13, 1.12], p = 0.010) strength, but not jump height, more than endurance training alone. Moderate evidence also showed that CSE training significantly increased knee extension strength (SMD 0.69 [95% CI 0.29, 1.09], p < 0.001) more than endurance training alone. There was very limited evidence reporting changes in stride parameters and no studies examined changes in biomechanical and neuromuscular variables during running.
Conclusions
Concurrent strength and endurance training improves the force-generating capacity of the ankle plantarflexors, quadriceps, hamstrings and gluteal muscles. These muscles support and propel the centre of mass and accelerate the leg during running, but there is no evidence to suggest these adaptations transfer from strength exercises to running. There is a need for research that investigates changes in biomechanical and neuromuscular variables during running to elucidate the effect of CSE training on run performance in distance runners.
... In fact, some aerobic endurance determinants like RE (Conley and Krahenbuhl, 1980;Saunders et al., 2004a) can be affected by neuromuscular variables (Turner et al., 2003). More so, neuromuscular performance (i.e., jump-related explosive muscle actions) has been related with endurance performance at different distances (Hudgins et al., 2013). Thus, the energy cost of running reflects the sum of both aerobic and anaerobic (neuromuscular factors) metabolism (Daniels, 1985). ...
Plyometric training performed at sea level enhance explosive and endurance performance at sea level. However, its effects on explosive and endurance performance at high altitude had not been studied. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the effects of a sea level short-term (i.e., four-week) plyometric training program on explosive and endurance performance at sea level and at high altitude (i.e., 3270 m above sea level). Participants were randomly assigned to a control group (n=12) and a plyometric training group (n=11). Neuromuscular (reactive strength index – RSI) and endurance (2-km time-trial; running economy [RE]; maximal oxygen uptake - VO2max) measurements were performed at sea level before, at sea level after intervention (SL+4wk), and at high altitude 24-h post SL+4wk. The ANOVA revealed that at SL+4wk the VO2max was not significantly changed in any group, although RE, RSI and 2-km time trial were significantly (p<0.05) improved in the plyometric training group. After training, when both groups were exposed to high altitude, participants from the plyometric training group showed a greater RSI (p<0.05) and were able to maintain their 2-km time trial (11.3 ± 0.5 min vs. 10.7 ± 0.6 min) compared to their pre-training sea level performance. In contrast, the control group showed no improvement in RSI, with a worse 2-km time trial performance (10.3 ± 0.8 min vs. 9.02 ± 0.64 min; p<0.05; ES= 0.13). Moreover, after training, both at sea level and at high altitude the plyometric training group demonstrated a greater (p<0.05) RSI and 2-km time trial performance compared to the control group. The oxygen saturation was significantly decreased after acute exposure to high altitude in the two groups (p<0.05). These results confirm the beneficial effects of sea level short-term plyometric training on explosive and endurance performance at sea level. Moreover, current results indicates that plyometric training may also be of value for endurance athletes performing after an acute exposure to high altitude
... O treinamento com saltos verticais é amplamente utilizado no meio esportivo para o treinamento de diversas modalidades que necessitam desenvolver a potência muscular e outras expressões da força explosiva BOSCO, 2007). Tem sido sugerido que o desempenho dos saltos verticais está relacionado com o desempenho de provas de meio-fundo e fundo (HUDGINS et al., 2013), sendo assim os saltos verticais parecem ser importantes na avaliação e treinamento de atletas de endurance. ...
No intuito de desenvolver um treinamento intervalado de sprints com um novo modo de exercício, a presente tese propôs a aplicação intermitente do teste de saltos verticais contínuos com 30s de duração (CJ30). O objetivo principal do estudo foi analisar o efeito desse treinamento (JIT), aplicado durante quatro semanas, sobre o desempenho do salto vertical com contramovimento (CMJ), a força explosiva, a aptidão anaeróbia, as variáveis determinantes do desempenho de endurance e as variáveis biomecânicas e fisiológicas da corrida em velocidade submáxima. O objetivo secundário foi verificar a relação da rigidez (vertical, KV e perna, KL) e coordenação intrassegmentos (CRP), medidas em velocidade submáxima, com a economia de corrida (EC). Vinte e dois (12 mulheres e 10 homens) corredores (as) recreacionais foram divididos randomicamente nos grupos experimental (GE) e controle (GC) por meio de sorteio. Todos os participantes realizaram treinamento contínuo em esteira, três vezes por semana, com intensidade de 70% do pico de velocidade (PV) identificado durante teste incremental. No treinamento do GE foram incluídas duas sessões do JIT por semana. Uma sessão do JIT foi composta de quatro a seis séries de CJ30 com cinco minutos de intervalo. Para análise estatística foi utilizada a ANOVA modelo misto com p ≤ 0,05 e o Effect Size (ES). Na avaliação do CMJ houve efeito moderado do treinamento apenas no GE: 4,7% (ES = 0,99) para altura do salto vertical (H), 3,7% (ES = 0,82) para potência pico (PP) e 3,5% (ES = 0,83) para potência média (PM). A taxa de desenvolvimento de torque (TDT) do quadríceps aumentou 29,5% (ES = 1,02) no GE. Na avaliação do CJ30, considerando-se apenas os primeiros saltos (20%; ≈ 5 saltos), houve um aumento moderado no GE de 7,4% (ES = 0,87) para H e 5,6% (ES = 0,73) para PP; e moderado/alto de 11,7% (ES = 1,2) para a profundidade de agachamento (ΔY). Considerando-se todos os saltos realizados no CJ30 também houve aumento de moderado a alto no GE de 10,1% (ES = 1,04) para H, 9,5% (ES = 1,1) para PP e 8,8% (ES = 1,1) para ΔY. Foi verificado aumento de moderado a alto no GE de 2,7% (ES = 1,11) para PV, 9,1% (ES = 1,28) para o VO2pico e 9,7% (ES = 1,23) para o limiar de lactato (vOBLA). No teste de EC a 9 km.h-1 verificou-se que a maioria das variáveis biomecânicas sofreram efeito do treinamento, tanto para o GE quanto para o GC, mas o consumo de oxigênio (VO2) e custo energético (CE) não sofreram efeito do treinamento. Destaca-se o aumento da rigidez vertical e da perna (8,1%), diminuição do tempo de voo (3,28%) e maior estado coordenativo do acoplamento coxa-perna (CRP; 3,4%). Verificou-se também correlação positiva do VO2 e CE com
o CRP coxa-perna (r ≈ 0,5). Por fim, pode-se concluir que a inclusão do JIT no treinamento de contínuo de endurance teve efeito significativo sobre o desempenho do CMJ (H), potência muscular (PP e PM), força explosiva (representada pela TDT), potência (H e PP dos primeiros saltos do CJ30) e capacidade (H e PP do CJ30) anaeróbia e potência (PV e VO2pico) e capacidade (vOBLA) aeróbia. Além disso, pode-se concluir que o estado coordenativo mais estável do acoplamento coxa-perna está ligado a menores valores de VO2 e CE e que KV e KL não têm relação significativa com a EC.
Palavras-chave: Treinamento Pliométrico. Treinamento Intervalado. Endurance. Coordenação Intrassegmentos.
... Unfortunately, equipment to measure RFD or mechanical power is not always cheap and accessible to all MMA athletes. However, jump performance (vertical CMJ or horizontal broad jumps) measured by height and/or distance have shown strong correlations to at least late RFD (McLellan et al. 2012) and more importantly to athletic performance, such as in high level 60 m sprinting -5000 m running (Hudgins et al. 2013), high level Judo and Taekwando athletes (Markovic et al. 2005, Franchini et al. 2012b) and ...
... The key finding of this study is the strength of the HJ in predicting weightlifting performance. The HJ has been used as an assessment tool in numerous athletic environments, and has been used to predict athletic performance across a range of running distances, long jump and triple jump, and noted as an effective assessment of lower body power 1,20 . However, the HJ has not been given much attention in regards to its position within power sports, unlike the VJ, which has been found to be strongly correlated with a number of athletic power movements, such as weightlifting, sprinting and throwing 1,30 . ...
... However, these events are shorter than the 800 m. In accordance with our findings, Hudgins et al. (2013) observed significant correlations between jumping ability and 800 m race time in competitive runners. Likewise, significant correlations between CMJ, JS, and SQ with performance in 800 m in high-level athletes have been found (Bachero-Mena et al., 2017). ...
The purpose of this study was to analyze changes in sprint, strength, hematological, and hormonal parameters in high-level 800 m athletes during a complete athletics season. Thirteen male athletes of national and international level in 800 m (personal best ranging from 1:43 to 1:58 min:ss) participated in this study. A total of 5 tests were conducted during a complete athletics season. Athletes performed sprint tests (20 and 200 m), countermovement jump (CMJ), jump squat (JS), and full squat (SQ) tests. Blood samples (red and white blood profile) and hormones were collected in test 1 (T1), test 3 (T3), and test 5 (T5). A general increase in the performance of the strength and sprint parameters analyzed (CMJ, JS, SQ, 20 m, and 200 m) during the season was observed, with a significant time effect in CMJ (P < 0.01), SQ (P < 0.01), and 200 m (P < 0.05). This improvement was accompanied by a significant enhancement of the 800 m performance from T3 to T5 (P < 0.01). Significant changes in some hematological variables: hematocrit (Hct) (P < 0.01), mean corpuscular volume (MCV) (P < 0.001), mean corpuscular hemoglobin content (MCHC) (P < 0.001), white blood cells count (WBC) (P < 0.05), neutrophils (P < 0.05), monocytes (P < 0.05), and mean platelet volume (MPV) (P < 0.05) were observed throughout the season. The hormonal response and creatin kinase (CK) did not show significant variations during the season, except for insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-1) (P < 0.05). In conclusion, our results suggest the importance of strength levels in middle-distance athletes. On the other hand, variations in some hematological parameters and a depression of the immune system occurred during the season. Therefore, monitoring of the mechanical, hematological and hormonal response in athletes may help coaches and athletes to optimize the regulation of training contents and may be useful to diagnose states of overreaching or overtraining in athletes throughout the season.
... This relationship is possibly explained by the potential for individuals with greater lower-body strength to produce greater forces during each foot strike while running (21). Lower-body power characteristics, assessed by jump performance, are also associated with sprint performance, and a number of studies have identified an inverse association between countermovement jump (CMJ) height and sprinting performance (14,17,18). Resistance training can increase lower-body strength and may also be effective for improving sprint and jump performances (12,21). ...
Sprint performance is an important characteristic for success in many sports, including rugby union. Resistance training is used to increase muscular fitness (i.e. strength, endurance and power) and may also be effective for improving sprint and jump performances. The aims of this study were to examine the effects of resistance training using two different periodized programs (linear and daily undulating) on sprint and jump performance and explore relationships between performance measures. Sixteen male (16.9 ± 1.0 y) adolescent rugby union players participated in 12 weeks of resistance training. A further 10 male (15.5 ± 1.0 y) participants were recruited as a control group. Assessments of strength (box squat), 10 and 20 m sprint (electronically timed), and jump height (maximal unloaded (body mass only) and loaded (body mass + 10 kg) countermovement jumps) were conducted before and after 12 weeks training. Large to very large increases in 1RM box squat (linear: 33.9%; p < 0.001; ES = 1.64; daily undulating: 44.5%; p < 0.001; ES = 2.33) were observed after training. Small decreases were seen in 10 (linear: -1.6%; p = 0.171; ES = -0.84; daily undulating: -2.5%; p = 0.038; ES = -0.36) and 20 m (linear: -0.5%; p = 0.506; ES = -0.20; daily undulating: -1.7%; p = 0.047; ES = -0.27) sprint times. Small-to-moderate associations between changes in lower body strength and improvements in 10 and 20 m sprint times were found. Resistance training increases lower body strength in adolescent rugby union players and increases in lower body strength may transfer to improved sprinting performance with improvements following daily undulating periodized resistance training slightly superior.
... The relative peak muscle power developed during the CMJ was more poorly correlated than the maximum height of the jump with all variations of the running time. This finding may seem surprising since the level of muscle power has been shown to determine acceleration and ability to maintain maximum speed during sprinting (Chelly & Denis, 2001;Hudgins et al., 2013). Furthermore, Vescovi and McGuigan (2008) found stronger correlations between CMJ height and running time in a straight line than in correlations with the scores recorded during agility tests (which indirectly determine the level of lower limb power). ...
Effectiveness when playing in team games depends on speed-strength (jumping) abilities. The manifestations of these abilities are usually measured using tests based on vertical jumps and sprinting. This raises the question as to whether relationships exist between variables that describe the vertical jump and running time. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationships between jumping variables, namely the height of the countermovement jump (CMJ) with arm swing and relative peak muscle power and time of the 30m-sprint (in a straight line and with direction changes) in a group of 187 young athletes who practised team sports. Measurements used a force plate and Fusion Smart Speed System. Strong significant relationships were found between the variables of the CMJ and sprint time along individual sections of the straight line and direction changes of running. However, these relationships differed between subgroups in terms of age, sporting discipline and gender. The height of the CMJ with arm swing is likely to represent a universal variable that could be used to predict the level of motor abilities among young athletes.
... Interestingly, Hudgins, Scharfenberg, Triplett, and McBride (2013) found significant negative correlations with two-leg standing long jump distance and performance times in 3,000 m and 5,000 m distance runners, which suggests that power output is important in endurance-based sports as well. ...
The purpose of this study was to understand the relationship between back squat one-repetition
maximum relative to body mass (1RMrel), countermovement jump height (CMJH), and optimal
drop height in drop jump (DHopt). Fifteen male participants completed a one repetition
maximum (1RM) back squat, maximum countermovement jump (CMJ), and drop jumps (DJ)
from incrementally increasing drop heights to determine which drop height elicited the greatest
jump height. Pearson correlation coefficients revealed that DHopt had small (r=0.214) and
moderate (r=0.464) relationships with 1RMrel and CMJH, respectively. A second analysis
(n=13) was conducted after two participants (i.e. powerlifters) were identified as possibly being
representative of a different population. The second analysis found that DHopt had strong
relationships with 1RMrel (r=0.645) and CMJH (r=0.690). Results from this study seem to
suggest that individuals with greater 1RMrel and CMJH tend to have a higher DHopt. However,
this relationship may not be observed among all populations.
Warm-up protocols with high intensities before continuous running provide potential benefits for middle-distance runners. Nevertheless , the effect of high-intensity warm-ups on long-distance runners remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to verify the effect of a high-intensity warm-up protocol on 5000 m performance in trained runners. Thirteen male runners (34 ± 10 years, 62 ± 6 kg, 62.7 ± 5.5 ml/kg/min) performed two 5000 m time trials, preceded by two different warm-ups. One high-intensity warm up (HIWU: 1x 500 m (70% of the running intensity) + 3x 250 m (100% of the running intensity) and one low-intensity warm up (LIWU: 1x 500 m (70% of the running intensity) + 3x 250 m (70% of the running intensity)), where the running intensities were calculated using the results obtained in the Cooper test. Physiological and metabolic responses, and endurance running performance parameters, were evaluated by the Counter Movement Jump (CMJ), running rating of perceived exertion (RPE), blood lactate concentration (BLa), and performance running. Total time for the 5000 m was lower using HIWU when compared to LIWU (1141.4 ± 110.4 s vs. 1147.8 ± 111.0 s; p = 0.03; Hedges' g = 0.66). The HIWU warm-up led to an improvement in pacing strategy during the time trial. After warm-up protocols, the performance on the CMJ was improved only when applying HIWU (p = 0.008). Post warm-up BLa was significantly higher for HIWU vs. LIWU (3.5 ± 1.0 mmol⸱L-1 vs. 2.3 ± 1.0 mmol⸱L-1 ; p = 0.02), with similar behavior for the RPE (p = 0.002), internal load of the session (p = 0.03). The study showed that a high-intensity warm-up protocol can improve performance in the 5000 m in trained endurance runners.
Objectives:
The purpose of this study is to determine the associations between horizontal jump and sprint acceleration, as well as maximal speed performance.
Methods:
A systematic literature search was performed using PubMed, MEDLINE (EBSCOhost), and Web of Science. The studies that were included in this review must meet the following criteria: (1) well-trained individuals over the age of 18 years old; (2) Pearson's correlation coefficients between sprint time and horizontal jump distance were provided; (3) the sprint distance was limited to 0-100 m. The quality of the studies was assessed using a modified version of the Downs and Black Quality Index test. A random-effects model was used to determine the effect sizes, and heterogeneity between studies was examined using the Q statistic and I2.
Results:
From the identified 2,815 studies, 27 studies were included in this study (two from reference lists). The sprint time of the sprint acceleration phase was moderately and negatively correlated with the standing long jump (r = - 0.45, z = 7.48, p < 0.001), single leg standing long jump (r = - 0.48, z = 3.49, p < 0.001) and horizontal drop jump distance (r = - 0.48, z = 3.49, p < 0.001), and was largely and negatively correlated with multiple jump distance (r = - 0.69, z = 6.02, p < 0.001). Out of five studies assessed the standing triple jump, three studies reported significant positive association with the sprint acceleration performance. The sprint time of maximal speed phase was very largely and negatively associated with standing long jump distance (r = - 0.73, z = 4.44, p < 0.001) and multiple jump distance (r = - 0.76, z = 6.86, p < 0.001).
Conclusions:
This review indicates the moderate to very large associations between horizontal jump and sprint acceleration and maximal speed performance, and the highest magnitude of associations between them is found in the multiple jump. Moreover, compared to the sprint acceleration performance, there are greater associations between maximal speed performance and standing long jump and multiple jump distance.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden die positiven Entwicklungstendenzen im Mittel- und Langstreckenlauf in den USA thematisiert. Der Autor verfolgt dabei das Ziel, Ursachen für diese Entwicklungen mittels einer systematischen Literaturrecherche herauszuarbeiten und das Konzept des Erfolges darzustellen. Hierbei wird im ersten Teil anhand von Nationenwertungen und Analysen der Jahresbestzeiten sowie der Platzierungen in den Weltjahresbestenlisten diese Entwicklung konkretisiert. Der zweite Abschnitt beinhaltet die möglichen Ursachen, wobei der Autor vorerst auf den High School und College Bereich, an-schließend auf den professionellen Hochleistungsbereich eingeht. Es konnte festgestellt werden, dass die positiven Entwicklungen geschlechts- und disziplinübergreifend sind und ihren Ursprung 2001 im Nachwuchsbereich hatten. Für den Hochleistungsbereich lässt sich der Beginn der positiven Tendenzen mit der Weltmeisterschaft 2007 festhalten. Der Autor kommt des Weiteren zu dem Ergebnis, dass sowohl trainingsmethodische, als auch leistungssportstrukturelle Ursachen auf allen Ebenen des US- amerikanischen Leistungssportsystems diese starken Steigerungsraten erklären lassen. Als Kernaspekt wird auf das Modell der Trainingszentren eingegangen, wobei der Autor im Schlussteil versucht, Anregungen für den deutschen Mittel- und Langstreckenlauf zu geben.
Objectives
Increased cardiorespiratory responses and changes in muscle activity and running kinematics occur in running after cycling compared with isolated running. Nevertheless, little is known about the causes of these changes. Cycling exercise decreases the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) function, which can influence subsequent running. This study aimed to clarify whether the decrease in SSC function after cycling causes cardiorespiratory and biomechanical changes in subsequent running.
Design
Cross-sectional laboratory study. Participants were divided into two groups based on SSC function: an SSC dec group (those with decreased SSC function after cycling) and an SSC non-dec group (those without decreased SSC function after cycling).
Methods
Eighteen participants (10 triathletes and 8 runners) completed maximal aerobic tests for running and cycling. After these sessions, a submaximal run-cycle-run test was performed to compare between control run (no preceding cycle) and transition run (preceded by cycling). A jump test was administered before and after the submaximal cycling. SSC function was calculated as the ratio of the jump height to the time spent in contact with the ground (reactive strength index). Gas exchange measures, heart rate, and gait parameters were collected throughout the test.
Results
Oxygen uptake and ventilation were increased by cycling in the SSC dec group but not in the SSC non-dec group. In both groups, there were no significant differences in the gait parameters between control and transition runs.
Conclusions
The decrease in SSC function after cycling would increase cardiorespiratory responses in subsequent running.
This study aimed to elucidate the effects of exercise intensity on stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) function of the lower limbs after cycling. Ten male triathletes performed a cycling graded test to determine the ventilatory threshold (VT) and two hopping-cycling (30 min of cycling at 90 or 110% VT)-hopping tests. The two hopping-cycling-hopping tests performed in random order. Power output (PO), heart rate (HR) and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were monitored throughout the 30-min cycling. Blood lactate concentrations (BLa) were measured in order to assess metabolic stress. The SSC function was calculated as the ratio of the jump height to the time spent in contact with the ground (reactive strength index [RSI]). PO, HR and RPE values during cycling at 110%VT was higher than at 90%VT (p < 0.01). BLa value after the cycling at 110%VT was higher than at 90%VT (90%VT: 2.4±1.0 vs. 110%VT: 5.9±2.8 mmol/L, p < 0.01). Regardless of the cycling exercise intensity, the RSI significantly decreased after the cycling exercise (p < 0.01). The RSI remained decreased at 15 min after the cycling exercise (p < 0.05). These results demonstrated that the SSC function decreased after cycling. Exercise intensity during cycling is likely to have no effect on the decrease in SSC function.
Background: We examined the relationships between jump performance measures, sprint tests, and 100-m competition times in 11 top-level sprinters during two successive competitive 4-week mesocycles.
Methods: Physical tests were performed 7-12 days before 3 sequential competitions. Sprinters completed standing long jump, squat and countermovement jumps, and 60-m sprint tests on each occasion. A repeated measures analysis of variance was used to compare the physical assessments and actual competition results among the three moments. A Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was used to analyze the relationships between the multiple variables over the consecutive mesocycles. Significance level was set at P < 0.05.
Results: No significant differences were observed among the periods for any jump or sprint performance measure (ES ranging from 0.02 to 0.33; P > 0.05). Very large to nearly perfect correlations were observed for all sprint and jump variables and 100-m dash times in the three moments analyzed (P < 0.05).
Conclusions: Our data indicate that simple jump measures can be prospectively used to monitor sprint performance. Notably, the standing long jump test was the most consistently related to 100-m time. This simple strategy may help track and field coaches to better adjust the competitive approach of their sprinters, thus optimizing their peak performance.
BACKGROUND: The aim of the present study was to provide physical and strength-related characteristics of 800 m athletes with regard to their initial performance level. METHODS: Fourteen male athletes of different levels in 800 m running (with personal best ranging from 1'43" s to 1'58") participated in this study and were divided into three groups according to their competitive level: High-level, Medium-level, and Low-level. Athletes performed a 800 m running trial and a battery of strength-related tests which involved sprint tests (10, 20, and 200 m), countermovement jump (CMJ), jump squat (JS), and full squat (SQ) tests. RESULTS: Significant differences between the High-level and the Low-level groups were observed in all the sprint variables measured: 10 and 20 m sprint (P<0.01), 200 m (P<0.01), showing the High-level group better performance in all the sprint tests. With regard to the strength-related tests (CMJ, JS, SQ V 1 load, SQ 1RM) although no significant differences between groups were found, a clear tendency to a better performance in all the strength-related variables for the High-level group can be observed (CMJ, P=0.08; JS, P=0.07; SQ V 1 load, P=0.1), as well as a better performance for the Medium-level group when compared to the Low-level group. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the present study indicate that the athletes with higher strength and sprint performance levels were those with a higher 800 m performance level. These findings suggest the importance of strength and sprint levels in 800 m running performance.
In an effort to evaluate the mechanisms underpinning performance in alpine ski racing, researchers have focused on the predictive validity of measures derived from fitness assessments. However, a limitation of this literature is the absence of practice time, since prolonged training may naturally develop specific fitness capacities, making some tests of physical ability less predictive of performance. We examine the relationship between fitness tests, practice, and performance using linear regressions with fitness test data, practice history data, and performance results from adolescent alpine ski racers attending professional development academies in the United States (N = 82). Only aerobic capacity (i.e. 20 m shuttle run) was significantly associated with more practice time. After controlling for practice hours, 5.5-6.5% of variance in ski performance was significantly explained by assessments of lower body power (i.e. standing long jump, triple jump), anaerobic capacity (i.e. 60 s box jump), and upper body strength/endurance (i.e. push-ups). Findings highlight the important role of anaerobic power on alpine ski racing performance, which may be developed outside of regular practice, possibly through weight training or physical maturation. The small variance explained by physical/physiological measures suggests that superior ski performance is likely a product of various skills and characteristics (e.g. technical, tactical, perceptual-cognitive, psychosocial).
The study of the spring-mass model variables in running resulted in a great contribution to the understanding of the behaviour of such model not only in humans, but in animals as well. Although the study of the running spatiotemporal parameters has contributed to obtain a deeper knowledge about the spring-mass model and its capacity to estimate and predict kinematic variables, the contribution of lower-limb stiffness to this model needed further research.
The main aim of the present PhD Thesis was to determine the effect of various influential factors on lower-limb stiffness while treadmill running in healthy adults.
Three different studies were executed to accomplish the main aim of this PhD Thesis: a unilateral cross-over study aiming at examining the test-retest reliability of the OptoGait photoelectric system for spatiotemporal parameters and lower-body stiffness analysis while treadmill running in healthy adults (Study 1). This first study is key as the entire development of this PhD Thesis has been based on the material and methods implemented and the findings reported; a unilateral cross-over study to clarify the likely relationship between reactive strength index while jumping and lower-limb stiffness while treadmill running in amateur endurance runners as well as sex differences (Study 2); and, ultimately, a unilateral cross-over study to identify the effects of footwear, foot-strike pattern, and step frequency on spatiotemporal parameters and lower-body stiffness (Study 3).
The main findings derived from this PhD Thesis suggest that: the OptoGait system can be used confidently for running spatiotemporal parameters analysis and lower body stiffness at a constant velocity for healthy adults. The spring-mass model reacts differently to tasks based on their specificity principle. Additionally, sex-related differences must be considered when assessing the stretch-shortening cycle. Lower-limb stiffness responds differently to changes in footwear condition, foot-strike pattern, and step frequency.
The findings reported here update the knowledge of lower-body stiffness while running and offer new scopes of action. A reliable and user-friendly system for running spatiotemporal parameters and lower-body stiffness analysis has been provided. Moreover, although both the SSC and lower-limb stiffness are key within the neuromuscular behaviour when elastic energy is used in sport, the specificity principle of each individual sporting task may make them behave differently; additionally, the menstrual cycle should be considered when working with female athletes since musculotendinous properties change over it. Ultimately, it is highly recommended to avoid measuring the effect of different variables on lower-limb stiffness individually as it has been shown that they influence each another, therefore, the behaviour of the spring-mass model when altering variables such as footwear, foot-strike pattern (FSP), and step frequency (SF) needs to be examined should be analysed attentively.
Many studies showed the interest and the utility of different kind of resistance training to improve the performance or the running performance’s factors in middle-long distance event.
Starting from this interest for this theme by the scientific literature and myself as an athlete, I had the possibility to set up this innovative Force-Velocity Profile method on jumping for the first time with long distance runners and triathletes.
The goal of this thesis was to test the purpose that with this kind of individualizing resistance training, based on athlete’s F-V profile, it should improve the jumping performance and consequently the biomechanics factors of running.
The effects on jumping performance factors (Pmax, F-Vimb and height of jumoing) and on running (VMA, Tc, Tv, Fr, Δy, Fmax, Kleg) were calculated with the app MyJump2 and Runmatic and their comparison in pré-post intervention with two workouts per week for twenty weeks with three subjects in training group and three subjects in control group.
The results show a significant improvement of jumping performance, a light improvement of the MAS the running economy without meaningful effects of biomechanics in training group.
This thesis gives a data bases about the effects of this resistance training in according to the F-V profile on middle-long distance runners and experimenting differently this approach to verify other effects on performance.
Plusieurs études ont montré l’intérêt et l’utilité de différents types de renforcement musculaire pour améliorer directement la performance ou les déterminants de la performance en course à pieds dans le demi-fond.
À partir de cet intérêt sur cette thématique par la littérature scientifique et moi-même autant qu’athlète, j’ai eu la possibilité de mettre en place la méthode innovante du profil Force-Vitesse en saut pour la première fois sur une population de demi fondeurs et triathlètes.
L’objectif de ce mémoire était de tester l’hypothèse qu’avec le renforcement musculaire individualisé, basé sur le profil F-V de l’athlète, il aurait permis une amélioration de la performance en saut et par conséquence des déterminants de la performance en demi-fond.
Les effets sur les variables de la performance en saut (Pmax, F-Vimb et hauteur du saut) et en course à pieds (VMA, Tc, Tv, Fr, Δy, Fmax, Kleg) ont été calculées avec les applications MyJump2 et Runmatic et leur comparaison en pré-post protocole avec deux séances par semaines pendant 20 semaines avec trois sujets dans le groupe entrainement GE et trois dans le groupe contrôle GC.
Les résultats montrent une amélioration importante de la performance en saut, amélioration modérée de la VMA et de l’économie de course sans avoir des effets significatifs sur les variables mécaniques dans le GE.
Ce mémoire permet d’avoir une base de données sur les effets du renforcement musculaire selon le profil F-V sur une population de demi-fondeurs et expérimenter différemment cet approche pour en vérifier autres effets sur la performance.
El estudio de las variables del modelo masa-muelle (spring mass model en su acepción inglesa) en la carrera han sido una gran fuente de información a la hora de conocer el comportamiento asociado a este modo de locomoción, tanto de animales como de humanos. Los parámetros espacio-temporales han definido en gran medida el comportamiento del modelo con una gran capacidad de predicción y estimación de variables tanto cinemáticas como dinámicas.
Aunque la bibliografía en este campo es amplia, todavía existe controversia acerca de cuáles son todas las variables que predefinen el comportamiento del modelo masa-muelle en cada individuo.
El objetivo principal de esta tesis ha sido conocer y ampliar el conocimiento de la implicación de diferentes variables (talla, masa, inclinación, velocidad, rigidez del pie, características neuromusculares de la extremidad inferior, nivel atlético) que influyen en dicho modelo y estudiar la posible implementación de herramientas para la aplicación del modelo de estudio en situaciones reales de carrera en suelo.
Para llevar a cabo este objetivo se realizaron una serie de estudios que culminaron en 6 artículos: i) Efecto de la variación de peso asistido por un tapiz rodante LBPP (lower body positive pressure o presión positiva en parte inferior del cuerpo) (Artículo I); ii) Efecto de la talla en los parámetros espacio-temporales y su variabilidad a diferentes velocidades (Artículo II); iii) Relación de la rigidez del arco longitudinal del pie en los parámetros espacio-temporales de carrera (
Artículo III). iv) Estudio de la influencia de los parámetros de rendimiento muscular de extremidad inferior con la capacidad de salto y las adaptaciones de los parámetros espacio-temporales a diferentes velocidades (Artículo IV). v) Determinar el efecto de la inclinación del pavimento en los parámetros espacio-temporales y examinar el efecto del nivel atlético en la adaptación corriendo en inclinación positiva (Artículo V). vi) Determinar la fiabilidad absoluta y la validez concurrente de un sistema wearable de bajo coste y un sistema optoelectrónico basado en barreras fotoeléctricas (Artículo VI).
Le but cette thèse était d’explorer l’influence du niveau d’activité physique et du niveau de performance physique sur la densité minérale osseuse, la géométrie osseuse de la hanche et le score de l’os trabéculaire chez de jeunes hommes en surpoids et obèses. Trois principales études ont été menées. Une première étude a montré que la pratique d’activités physiques a un effet positif sur le CMO, la DMO et la section transversale du col fémoral chez les hommes en surcharge pondérale. Une deuxième étude a suggéré que le niveau d’activité physique influence positivement les paramètres osseux chez les hommes en surpoids et obèses et que l’optimisation de la masse maigre, de la VO2 max (L/min) et de la force maximale des membres inférieurs peut aider à prévenir l’ostéoporose chez les hommes en surpoids et obèses. Enfin, une dernière étude, a été la première à démontrer une relation positive entre la VO2 max (ml/mn/kg) et les indices de résistance osseuse du col fémoral (le CSI, le BSI et l’ISI) chez les jeunes hommes en surpoids et obèses et a donc suggéré que l’augmentation de la VO2 max chez les hommes en surpoids et obèses pourrait aider à réduire les fractures stéoporotiques. Ces différents résultats suggèrent une adaptation ostéogénique significative des jeunes hommes en surpoids et obèses en réponse à l’entrainement physique.
This study analyzed the effects of the addition of jump interval training (JIT) to continuous endurance training (40-min running at 70% of peak aerobic velocity, three times per week for four weeks) on kinematic variables and running economy (RE) during submaximal constant-load running. Eighteen recreational runners, randomized into control (CG) or experimental (EG) groups performed the endurance training. In addition, the EG performed the JIT twice per week, which consisted of four to six bouts of continuous vertical jumping (30s) with five-minute intervals. The oxygen consumption (VO2) during the submaximal test (performed at 9 km.h) was similar before (EG: 38.48 ± 2.75 ml.kg.min; CG: 36.45 ± 2.70 ml.kg.min) and after training (EG: 37.42 ± 2.54 ml.kg.min; GC: 35.81 ± 3.10 ml.kg.min). No effect of training, group, or interaction (P>0.05) was found for RE. There was no interaction or group effect for the kinematic variables (P>0.05). Most of the kinematic variables had a training effect for both groups (support time (P<0.05); step rate (SR; P<0.05); and step length (SL; P<0.05)). In addition, according to the practical significance analysis (percentage chances of a better/trivial/worse effect), important effects in leg stiffness (73/25/2), vertical stiffness (73/25/2), SR (71/27/2), and SL (64/33/3) were found for the EG. No significant relationship between RE and stiffness were found for EG and CG. In conclusion, the results suggest that JIT induces important changes in the kinematics of the lower limbs of recreational runners, but the changes do not affect running economy.
A At th ha an na as ss si io os s B Bi is ss sa as s, , K Ko on ns st ta an nt ti in no os s H Ha av ve en ne et ti id di is s Backround. The present study assessed the relationship between various strength-power tests and maximal running velocity parameters. Methods. Nine trained males were tested on four separate occasions. On the first occasion the maximum running velocity (MRV), stride rate (SR) and stride length (SL) were measured over 35 m. On the second occasion maximal vertical jumps [squat jump (SJ), standing broad jump (SJ), counter movement jump (CMJ) and drop jumps (DJ) from heights of 30, 50 and 80 cm] were performed on a force platform: On the third occasion the maximal bilateral isometric force (MBIF) of leg extensors and the force time characteristics (f-t 10-30%, f-t 10-60% and f-t 10-90%) were determined using a leg extension machine connected to a force plate. On the final fouth occasion peak anaerobic power was measured via repeated 6 s maximum cycle sprints. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were calculated for all the aformentioned parameters. Results. The correlation coefficients showed that MRV correlated significantly with f-t 10-60% and DJ30 (r =-0.73 and r =0.73, p<0.05 respectively). In addition, SR and SL showed significant, and critical for SR, relationship with f-t 10-60% (r =-0.82, p<0.01 and r = 0.75, p<0.05 respectively). Conclusions. The present findings suggest that the ability to produce force quickly, as measured by the time to achieve 60% of maximum voluntary contraction is related to sprinting performance, with the coefficient of determination accounting for 53% of the variance in the data. These data also showed that sprinting ability is linked with drop jumping performance, especially the drop jump from a height of 30 cm. It is suggested that the above tests may prove useful in preparing and testing the sprinting ability and sprint specific strength levels.
Variations in rates of growth and development in young football players can influence relationships among various fitness qualities.
To investigate the relationships between repeated-sprint ability and other fundamental fitness qualities of acceleration, agility, explosive leg power, and aerobic conditioning through the age groups of U11 to U18 in highly trained junior football players.
Male players (n = 119) across the age groups completed a fitness assessment battery over two testing sessions. The first session consisted of countermovement jumps without and with arm swing, 15-m sprint run, 15-m agility run, and the 20-m Shuttle Run (U11 to U15) or the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test, Level 1 (U16 to U18). The players were tested for repeated-sprint ability in the second testing session using a protocol of 6 × 30-m sprints on 30 s with an active recovery.
The correlations of repeated-sprint ability with the assorted fitness tests varied considerably between the age groups, especially for agility (r = .02 to .92) and explosive leg power (r = .04 to .84). Correlations of repeated sprint ability with acceleration (r = .48 to .93) and aerobic conditioning (r = .28 to .68) were less variable with age.
Repeated-sprint ability associates differently with other fundamental fitness tests throughout the teenage years in highly trained football players, although stabilization of these relationships occurs by the age of 18 y. Coaches in junior football should prescribe physical training accounting for variations in short-term disruptions or impairment of physical performance during this developmental period.
The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of heavy resistance, explosive resistance, and muscle endurance training on neuromuscular, endurance, and high-intensity running performance in recreational endurance runners. Twenty-seven male runners were divided into one of three groups: heavy resistance, explosive resistance or muscle endurance training. After 6 weeks of preparatory training, the groups underwent an 8-week resistance training programme as a supplement to endurance training. Before and after the 8-week training period, maximal strength (one-repetition maximum), electromyographic activity of the leg extensors, countermovement jump height, maximal speed in the maximal anaerobic running test, maximal endurance performance, maximal oxygen uptake ([V·]O(₂max)), and running economy were assessed. Maximal strength improved in the heavy (P = 0.034, effect size ES = 0.38) and explosive resistance training groups (P = 0.003, ES = 0.67) with increases in leg muscle activation (heavy: P = 0.032, ES = 0.38; explosive: P = 0.002, ES = 0.77). Only the heavy resistance training group improved maximal running speed in the maximal anaerobic running test (P = 0.012, ES = 0.52) and jump height (P = 0.006, ES = 0.59). Maximal endurance running performance was improved in all groups (heavy: P = 0.005, ES = 0.56; explosive: P = 0.034, ES = 0.39; muscle endurance: P = 0.001, ES = 0.94), with small though not statistically significant improvements in [V·]O(₂max) (heavy: ES = 0.08; explosive: ES = 0.29; muscle endurance: ES = 0.65) and running economy (ES in all groups < 0.08). All three modes of strength training used concurrently with endurance training were effective in improving treadmill running endurance performance. However, both heavy and explosive strength training were beneficial in improving neuromuscular characteristics, and heavy resistance training in particular contributed to improvements in high-intensity running characteristics. Thus, endurance runners should include heavy resistance training in their training programmes to enhance endurance performance, such as improving sprinting ability at the end of a race.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate which measure of a drop jump (DJ) has the highest correlation with sprinting speed over 60 m. For use of comparison, maximal leg strengths in a front squat, countermovement jump, and squat jump were also assessed. The subjects in the study were all high-caliber female university rugby players. Subjects did DJs from 0.12, 0.24, 0.36, 0.48, 0.60, 0.72, and 0.84 m. Jump height and reactive strength index (RSI) were calculated at each drop height. Pearson correlations were used to analyze the relationship between the strength and jumping measures with sprinting speed. The DJ height from 0.84 m had the highest negative correlation with 0- to 10-m split (r = -0.66), the 10- to 30-m split (r = -0.86) and 30- to 60-m split (r = -0.86). The use of RSI is questioned as a measurement of DJ performance. It is suggested that maximal height achieved in a DJ is the most important DJ measure. If it is desired to measure ground contact time, then it may be more useful to use a second test where the jump height for the athlete is set by having the athlete jump onto a box or touch a target overhead set at a standard height and measure the ground contact time with a switch mat or force plate.
The main purpose of this study was to determine the relationships between countermovement jump (CMJ) variables and acceleration and maximum speed performance.
Twenty-three elite Australian football players were tested on a CMJ, which yielded several kinematic and kinetic variables describing leg muscle function. A 40 m sprint was also conducted to assess acceleration (10 m time) and an estimate of maximum speed (flying 20 m time). Players from one Australian Football League (AFL) club were tested and Pearson correlations for CMJ variables and sprint performance were calculated.
Jump height, peak velocity, peak force, and peak power had less than 50% common variance, and therefore represented independent expressions of CMJ performance. Generally, the correlations between CMJ variables and sprinting performance were stronger for maximum speed (small to large effect sizes) than for acceleration (trivial to moderate sizes). The variable that produced the strongest correlation with acceleration was jump height (r = -0.430, P = .041) and with maximum speed was peak power/weight (r = -0.649, P = .001).
The results indicate that if an integrated system comprising a position transducer and a force platform is available for CMJ assessment, jump height and peak power/weight are useful variables to describe leg muscle explosive function for athletes who perform sprints.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a concurrent strength and endurance training program on running performance and running economy of middle-aged runners during their marathon preparation. Twenty-two (8 women and 14 men) recreational runners (mean ± SD: age 40.0 ± 11.7 years; body mass index 22.6 ± 2.1 kg·m⁻²) were separated into 2 groups (n = 11; combined endurance running and strength training program [ES]: 9 men, 2 women and endurance running [E]: 7 men, and 4 women). Both completed an 8-week intervention period that consisted of either endurance training (E: 276 ± 108 minute running per week) or a combined endurance and strength training program (ES: 240 ± 121-minute running plus 2 strength training sessions per week [120 minutes]). Strength training was focused on trunk (strength endurance program) and leg muscles (high-intensity program). Before and after the intervention, subjects completed an incremental treadmill run and maximal isometric strength tests. The initial values for VO2peak (ES: 52.0 ± 6.1 vs. E: 51.1 ± 7.5 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) and anaerobic threshold (ES: 3.5 ± 0.4 vs. E: 3.4 ± 0.5 m·s⁻¹) were identical in both groups. A significant time × intervention effect was found for maximal isometric force of knee extension (ES: from 4.6 ± 1.4 to 6.2 ± 1.0 N·kg⁻¹, p < 0.01), whereas no changes in body mass occurred. No significant differences between the groups and no significant interaction (time × intervention) were found for VO2 (absolute and relative to VO2peak) at defined marathon running velocities (2.4 and 2.8 m·s⁻¹) and submaximal blood lactate thresholds (2.0, 3.0, and 4.0 mmol·L⁻¹). Stride length and stride frequency also remained unchanged. The results suggest no benefits of an 8-week concurrent strength training for running economy and coordination of recreational marathon runners despite a clear improvement in leg strength, maybe because of an insufficient sample size or a short intervention period.
The purpose of this study was to determine if changes in triceps-surae tendon stiffness (TST K) could affect running economy (RE) in highly trained distance runners. The intent was to induce increased TST K in a subgroup of runners by an added isometric training program. If TST K is a primary determinant of RE, then the energy cost of running (EC) should decrease in the trained subjects. EC was measured via open-circuit spirometry in 12 highly trained male distance runners, and TST K was measured using ultrasonography and dynamometry. Runners were randomly assigned to either a training or control group. The training group performed 4 × 20 s isometric contractions at 80% of maximum voluntary plantarflexion moment three times per week for 8 weeks. All subjects (mean \( \dot{V}{\text{O}}_{ 2} { \max } \) = 67.4 ± 4.6 ml kg−1 min−1) continued their usual training for running. TST K was measured every 2 weeks. EC was measured in both training and control groups before and after the 8 weeks at three submaximal velocities, corresponding to 75, 85 and 95% of the speed at lactate threshold (sLT). Isometric training did neither result in a mean increase in TST K (0.9 ± 25.8%) nor a mean improvement in RE (0.1 ± 3.6%); however, there was a significant relationship (r
2 = 0.43, p = 0.02) between the change in TST K and change in EC, regardless of the assigned group. It was concluded that TST K and EC are somewhat labile and change together.
In this study, a comparison was made between muscle strength, power and muscle and tendon (km and kt respectively) stiffness of the triceps surae muscle group and running economy (RE) in trained male runners.
Twelve well-trained male runners (age = 21 +/- 2.7 y, height = 178.1 +/- 7.1 cm, body mass = 66.7 +/- 3.2 kg, VO2max = 68.3 +/- 4.3 mL x kg(-1) x min(-1), 5000-m time = 15:04 min:s) underwent passive stiffness testing using a free oscillation method. Muscle strength was determined via a maximal isometric squat test and power determined via a maximal countermovement jump (CMJ). On a separate day, subjects performed an incremental treadmill test and their RE, lactate threshold, and VO2max were determined. Fingertip blood lactate was determined at the end of each 3-min stage. Lactate threshold was defined as a nonlinear increase in lactate accumulation.
A statistically significant correlation was found between km and VO2 at stage 6 (r = -0.69, P = .01). In addition, statistically significant correlations were observed between CMJ peak force production and VO2 at stage 2 (r = .66, P = .02), stage 3 (r = .70, P = .01), and stage 4 (r = .58, P = .04). No other statistically significant correlations were observed.
These data suggest that greater muscle stiffness and less power are associated with greater RE. Future study in this area should focus on determining the mechanisms behind this relationship and how to best apply them to a running population through training techniques.
This study examined effects of periodized maximal versus explosive strength training and reduced strength training, combined with endurance training, on neuromuscular and endurance performance in recreational endurance runners. Subjects first completed 6 weeks of preparatory strength training. Then, groups of maximal strength (MAX, n=11), explosive strength (EXP, n=10) and circuit training (C, n=7) completed an 8-week strength training intervention, followed by 14 weeks of reduced strength training. Maximal strength (1RM) and muscle activation (EMG) of leg extensors, countermovement jump (CMJ), maximal oxygen uptake (VO(2MAX)), velocity at VO(2MAX) (vVO(2MAX)) running economy (RE) and basal serum hormones were measured. 1RM and CMJ improved (p<0.05) in all groups accompanied by increased EMG in MAX and EXP (p<0.05) during strength training. Minor changes occurred in VO(2MAX), but vVO(2MAX) improved in all groups (p<0.05) and RE in EXP (p<0.05). During reduced strength training 1RM and EMG decreased in MAX (p<0.05) while vVO(2MAX) in MAX and EXP (p<0.05) and RE in MAX (p<0.01) improved. Serum testosterone and cortisol remained unaltered. Maximal or explosive strength training performed concurrently with endurance training was more effective in improving strength and neuromuscular performance and in enhancing vVO (2MAX) and RE in recreational endurance runners than concurrent circuit and endurance training.
Performance over very short distances (1-5 m) is important in soccer. We investigated this in 23 male regional-level soccer players aged 17.2 +/- 0.7 years, filming body markers to determine the average velocity and acceleration over the first step (V(S) and A(S)) and the first 5 m (V(5), A(5)). Data were related to scores on a force-velocity test, squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), and 1 maximal repetition (1 RM) half back squat. Leg and thigh muscle volumes were also assessed anthropometrically. V(5) was positively correlated with leg and thigh muscle volumes (r = 0.61, p < 0.05; r = 0.43, p < 0.05, respectively), SJ power (absolute and relative to body mass, r = 0.45, p < 0.05; r = 0.43, p < 0.05, respectively), absolute force-velocity leg power (r = 0.49, p < 0.05), and 1 RM half back squat (r = 0.66, p < 0.001). The use of dimensional exponents did not change coefficients materially. V(S) was also correlated with leg muscle volume and 1 RM back half squat (r = 0.56, p < 0.01; r = 0.58, p < 0.01, respectively) and more weakly with force-velocity leg power and SJ force (r = 0.49, p < 0.05; r = 0.46, p < 0.5, respectively). However, the CMJ was unrelated to velocity or acceleration. Sprinting ability is correlated with measures of power and force such as the force-velocity test, SJ, and 1 RM half back squat; such measures thus offer useful guidance to soccer coaches who wish to improve the short-distance velocity of their players.
In soccer, explosive actions such as jumping, sprinting, and changes of direction are essential to optimal performance not only in adults, but also in children's games. The purpose of the present investigation was to determine the influence of a short-term plyometric training within regular soccer practice on explosive actions of early pubertal soccer players during the in-season. Fourteen children (13.3 +/- 0.6 years) were selected as the training group (TG) and 11 children (13.1 +/- 0.6 years) were defined as the control group (CG). All children were playing in the same league and trained twice per week for 90 minutes with the same soccer drills. The TG followed an 8-week plyometric program (i.e., jumping, hurdling, bouncing, skipping, and footwork) implemented as a substitute for some soccer drills to obtain the same session duration as CG. At baseline and after training, explosive actions were assessed with the following 6 tests: 10-meter sprint, agility test, 3 vertical jump tests (squat jump [SJ], countermovement jump [CMJ], contact test [CT] and multiple 5 bounds test [MB5]). Plyometric training was associated with significant decreases in 10-m sprint time (-2.1%) and agility test time (-9.6%) and significant increases in jump height for the CMJ (+7.9%) and CT (+10.9%). No significant changes in explosive actions after the 8-week period were recorded for the CG. The current study demonstrated that a plyometric program within regular soccer practice improved explosive actions of young players compared to conventional soccer training only. Therefore, the short-term plyometric program had a beneficial impact on explosive actions, such as sprinting, change of direction, and jumping, which are important determinants of match-winning actions in soccer performance.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships among jumping performances and speed parameters during maximum speed phase in sprinters. Twenty-one men sprinters volunteered to participate at the beginning of the preparation training phase. All tests-including 100-m sprint running, squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), drop jump (DJ), 60-second repetitive jump (RJ), standing long jump (SLJ), standing triple jump (STJ), standing quintuple jump (SQJ), and standing 10-stride jump (STENJ)-were done on switching mats. Flight (FT) and contact times (CT) during the vertical jump tests and 10-m split times during 100-m sprint running were measured by a 2-channel precision timing system (PTS) connected to the mats. The trace marking method was used for measuring the stride length (SL) through 60 m in 100-m sprint running. Stride frequency (SF), maximum velocity (Vmax), jump height for all vertical jumps, and lower-body power in DJ and RJ were calculated. Statistical analysis showed that the highest significant correlation was found between Vmax and DJ height (r = 0.69; p < 0.05). However, the lowest significant correlation coefficient was found between SL at maximum velocity phase of sprint running and SJ (r = 0.39; p < 0.05). In conclusion, DJ height is demonstrated to be a more effective way to reflect Vmax during sprint running than the other vertical and horizontal jump tests at the beginning of the preparation training phase.
The purpose of this investigation was to examine the relationship between maximal squat strength and sprinting times. Seventeen Division I-AA male football athletes (height = 1.78 +/- 0.04 m, body mass [BM] = 85.9 +/- 8.8 kg, body mass index [BMI] = 27.0 +/- 2.6 kg/m2, 1 repetition maximum [1RM] = 166.5 +/- 34.1 kg, 1RM/BM = 1.94 +/- 0.33) participated in this investigation. Height, weight, and squat strength (1RM) were assessed on day 1. Within 1 week, 5, 10, and 40 yard sprint times were assessed. Squats were performed to a 70 degree knee angle and values expressed relative to each subject's BM. Sprints were performed on a standard outdoor track surface with timing gates placed at the previously mentioned distances. Statistically significant (p < or = 0.05) correlations were found between squat 1RM/BM and 40 yard sprint times (r = -0.605, p = 0.010, power = 0.747) and 10 yard sprint times (r = -0.544, p = 0.024, power = 0.626). The correlation approached significance between 5 yard sprint times and 1RM/BM (r = -0.4502, p = 0.0698, power = 0.4421). Subjects were then divided into those above 1RM/BM of 2.10 and below 1RM/BM of 1.90. Subjects with a 1RM/BM above 2.10 had statistically significantly lower sprint times at 10 and 40 yards in comparison with those subjects with a 1RM/BM ratio below 1.90. This investigation provides additional evidence of the possible importance of maximal squat strength relative to BM concerning sprinting capabilities in competitive athletes.
Various studies have demonstrated that resistance sprint (RS) training can produce significant changes in running speed and running kinematics. The longer-term training adaptations after RS training remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether an RS training intervention would enhance the running speed and dynamic strength measures in male rugby players. Fifteen male rugby players aged 20.5 (+/- 2.8) years who were proficient in resisted sledge training took part in the study. The subjects were randomly assigned to control or RS groups. The RS group performed two sessions per week of RS training for 6 weeks, and the control group did no RS training. Pre- and postintervention tests were carried out for 30-m sprint, drop, squat, and rebound jumps on a force sledge system. A laser measurement device was used to obtain velocities and distance measures during all running trials. The results show a statistically significant decrease in time to 5 m for the 30-m sprint for the RS group (p = 0.02). The squat jump and drop jump variables also showed significant increases in starting strength (p = 0.004) and height jumped (p = 0.018) for the RS group from pre- to post-testing sessions. The results suggest that it may be beneficial to employ an RS training intervention with the aim of increasing initial acceleration from a static start for sprinting.
Ground reaction force (GRF) data were collected on twenty adult males during running stance to establish normative standards to aid in assessment of the gait of atypical runners. Subjects ran between 30 and 40 trials across a Kistler 0.6 X 0.9 m force platform at self-selected speeds ranging from 2.5 to 5.5 m s-1. Best fit polynomials for a given descriptor variable were constructed for each subject and the polynomials were evaluated as a function of running speed. Predicted means and standard deviations (based on the polynomials) were calculated and multivariate analyses of variance were performed. The descriptor variables: impact peak, loading rate, thrust maximum, decay rate, average vertical GRF, change in vertical velocity, braking impulse, propulsive impulse and stance time were determined to be running speed dependent (p less than 0.001). Specific patterns associated with the breaking component of the antero-posterior GRF of heel-strikers included single, double and multiple peaks. Three dimensional graphic displays showed that, despite considerable group variability in medial-lateral GRF-time histories, consistency was evident in the patterns of individuals across speeds. Individual right-left asymmetries were clearly shown in these displays.
The literature contains some hypotheses regarding the most favorable ground reaction force (GRF) for sprint running and how it might be achieved. This study tested the relevance of these hypotheses to the acceleration phase of a sprint, using GRF impulse as the GRF variable of interest. Thirty-six athletes performed maximal-effort sprints from which video and GRF data were collected at the 16-m mark. Associations between GRF impulse (expressed relative to body mass) and various kinematic measures were explored with simple and multiple linear regressions and paired t-tests. The regression results showed that relative propulsive impulse accounted for 57% of variance in sprint velocity. Relative braking impulse accounted for only 7% of variance in sprint velocity. In addition, the faster athletes tended to produce only moderate magnitudes of relative vertical impulse. Paired t-tests revealed that lower magnitudes of relative braking impulse were associated with a smaller touchdown distance (p < 0.01) and a more active touchdown (p < 0.001). Also, greater magnitudes of relative propulsive impulse were associated with a high mean hip extension velocity of the stance limb (p < 0.05). In conclusion, it is likely that high magnitudes of propulsion are required to achieve high acceleration. Although there was a weak trend for faster athletes to produce lower magnitudes of braking, the possibility of braking having some advantages could not be ruled out. Further research is required to see if braking, propulsive, and vertical impulses can be modified with specific training. This will also provide insight into how a change in one GRF component might affect the others.
To study effects of concurrent explosive strength and endurance training on aerobic and anaerobic performance and neuromuscular characteristics, 13 experimental (E) and 12 control (C) young (16 - 18 years) distance runners trained for eight weeks with the same total training volume but 19% of the endurance training in E was replaced by explosive training. Maximal speed of maximal anaerobic running test and 30-m speed improved in E by 3.0 +/- 2.0% (p < 0.01) and by 1.1 +/- 1.3% (p < 0.05), respectively. Maximal speed of aerobic running test, maximal oxygen uptake and running economy remained unchanged in both groups. Concentric and isometric leg extension forces increased in E but not in C. E also improved (p < 0.05) force-time characteristics accompanied by increased (p < 0.05) rapid neural activation of the muscles. The thickness of quadriceps femoris increased in E by 3.9 +/- 4.7% (p < 0.01) and in C by 1.9 +/- 2.0% (p < 0.05). The concurrent explosive strength and endurance training improved anaerobic and selective neuromuscular performance characteristics in young distance runners without decreases in aerobic capacity, although almost 20% of the total training volume was replaced by explosive strength training for eight weeks. The neuromuscular improvements could be explained primarily by neural adaptations.
The aim of this study was to assess the relationships between various field tests in female athletes. Altogether, 83 high school soccer, 51 college soccer, and 79 college lacrosse athletes completed tests for linear sprinting, countermovement jump, and agility in a single session. Linear sprints (9.1, 18.3, 27.4, and 36.6 m) and agility tests (Illinois and pro-agility) were evaluated using infrared timing gates, while countermovement jump height was assessed using an electronic timing mat. Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficients (r) were used to determine the strength and directionality of the relationship between tests and coefficients of determination (r2) were used to examine the amount of explained variance between tests. All of the performance scores were statistically correlated with each other; however, the coefficients of determination were low, moderate, and high depending on the test pairing. Linear sprint split times were strongly correlated with each other (r= 0.775 to 0.991). The relationship between countermovement jump height and linear sprinting was stronger with the longer distances (27.4 and 36.6 m) than with the shorter distances (9.1 and 18.3 m), and showed a stronger relationship within the college athletes (r= -0.658 to -0.788) than high school soccer players (r= -0.491 to -0.580). The Illinois and pro-agility tests were correlated (r > or = 0.600) with each other as well as with linear sprint times. The results of this study indicate that linear sprinting, agility, and vertical jumping are independent locomotor skills and suggest a variety of tests ought to be included in an assessment protocol for high school and college female athletes.
The aim of the present study was to assess the relationship between various strength-power tests and maximal running velocity parameters.
Nine trained males were tested on four separate occasions. On the first occasion the maximum running velocity (MRV), stride rate (SR) and stride length (SL) were measured over 35 m. On the second occasion maximal vertical jumps (squat jump [SJ], standing broad jump [SBJ], counter movement jump [CMJ] and drop jumps [DJ] from heights of 30, 50 and 80 cm) were performed on a force platform. On the third occasion the maximal bilateral isometric force (MBIF) of leg extensors and the force time characteristics (f-t 10-30%, f-t 10-60% and f-t 10-90%) were determined using a leg extension machine connected to a force plate. On the final fourth occasion peak anaerobic power was measured via repeated 6 sec maximum cycle sprints. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were calculated for all the aformentioned parameters.
The correlation coefficients showed that MRV correlated significantly with f-t 10-60% and DJ 30 (r=-0.73 and r=0.73, P<0.05 respectively). In addition, SR and SL showed significant relationships with f-t 10-60% (r=-0.82, P<0.01 and r=0.75, P<0.05 respectively).
The present findings suggest that the ability to produce force quickly, as measured by the time to achieve 60% of maximum voluntary contraction is related to sprinting performance, with the coefficient of determination accounting for 53% of the variance in the data. These data also show that sprinting ability is linked with DJ performance, especially the drop jump from a height of 30 cm. It is suggested that the above tests may prove useful in preparing and testing the sprinting ability and sprint specific strength levels.
Resisted movement training is that in which the sports movement is performed with added resistance. To date, the effectiveness on enhancing sprint speed or vertical jump height had not been reviewed. The objectives of this review were to collate information on resisted training studies for sprinting and vertical jumping, ascertain whether resisted movement training was superior to normal unresisted movement training, and identify areas for future research. The review was based on peer-reviewed journal articles identified from electronic literature searches using MEDLINE and SPORTDiscus data bases from 1970 to 2010. Resisted sprint training was found to increase sprint speed but, in most cases, was no more effective than normal sprint training. There was some evidence that resisted sprint training was superior in increasing speed in the initial acceleration phase of sprinting. Resisted jump training in the form of weighted jump squats was shown to increase vertical jump height, but it was no more effective than plyometric depth jump training. Direct comparisons between resisted jump training and unresisted normal jump training were limited, but loaded eccentric countermovement jump squat training with unloaded concentric phase and eccentric landing was shown to generate superior results for elite jumpers. More prospective studies on resisted sprint training are required along with monitoring both kinematic and kinetic adaptations to fully determine any underlying mechanisms for any improvements in sprint speed. Based on the available data, the benefits and superiority of resisted sprint training have not been fully established. As for resisted jump training, although there are some promising findings, these results need to be duplicated by other researchers before resisted jump training can be claimed to be more effective than other forms of jump training.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship that age has on factors affecting running economy (RE) in competitive distance runners. Fifty-one male and female subelite distance runners (Young [Y]: 18-39 years [n = 18]; Master [M]: 40-59 years [n = 22]; and Older [O]: 60-older [n = 11]) were measured for RE, step rate, lactate threshold (LT), VO2max, muscle strength and endurance, flexibility, power, and body composition. An RE test was conducted at 4 different velocities (161, 188, 215, and 241 m·min(-1)), with subjects running for 5 minutes at each velocity. The steady-state VO2max during the last minute of each stage was recorded and plotted vs. speed, and a regression equation was formulated. A 1 × 3 analysis of variance revealed no differences in the slopes of the RE regression lines among age groups (y = 0.1827x - 0.2974; R2 = 0.9511 [Y]; y = 0.1988x - 1.0416; R2 = 0.9697 [M]; y = 0.1727x + 3.0252; R2 = 0.9618 [O]). The VO2max was significantly lower in the O group compared to in the Y and M groups (Y = 64.1 ± 3.2; M = 56.8 ± 2.7; O = 44.4 ± 1.7 mlO2·kg(-1)·min(-1)). The maximal heart rate and velocity @ LT were significantly different among all age groups (Y = 197 ± 4; M = 183 ± 2; O = 170 ± 6 b·min(-1) and Y = 289.7 ± 27.0; M = 251.5 ± 32.9; O = 212.3 ± 24.6 m·min(-1), respectively). The VO2max @ LT was significantly lower in the O group compared to in the Y and M groups (Y = 50.3 ± 2.0; M = 48.8 ± 2.9; O = 34.9 ± 3.2 mlO2·kg(-1)·min(-1)). The O group was significantly lower than in the Y and M groups in flexibility, power, and upper body strength. Multiple regression analyses showed that strength and power were significantly related to running velocity. The results from this cross-sectional analysis suggest that age-related declines in running performance are associated with declines in maximal and submaximal cardiorespiratory variables and declines in strength and power, not because of declines in running economy.
To investigate sprinting strategy, acceleration and velocity patterns were determined in college football players (n = 61) during performance of a 9.1-, 36.6-, and 54.9-m sprints. Acceleration and velocity were determined at 9.1-m intervals during each sprint. Lower-body strength and power were evaluated by 1 repetition maximum (1-RM) squat, power clean, jerk, vertical jump, standing long jump, and standing triple jump. Sprint times averaged 1.78 +/- 0.11 seconds (9.1 m), 5.18 +/- 0.35 seconds (36.6 m), and 7.40 +/- 0.53 seconds. Acceleration peaked at 9.1 m (2.96 +/- 0.44 m x s(-2)), was held constant at 18.3 m (3.55 +/- 0.0.94 m x s(-2)), and was negative at 27.4 m (-1.02 +/- 0.72 m x s(-2)). Velocity peaked at 18.3 m (8.38 +/- 0.65 m x s(-2)) and decreased slightly, but significantly at 27.4 m (7.55 +/- 0.66 m x s(-2)), associated with the negative acceleration. Measures of lower-body strength were significantly related to acceleration, velocity, and sprint performance only when corrected for body mass. Lower-body strength/BM and power correlated highest with 36.6-m time (rs = -0.55 to -0.80) and with acceleration (strength r = 0.67-0.49; power r = 0.73-0.81) and velocity (strength r = 0.68-0.53; power r = 0.74-0.82) at 9.1 m. Sprint times and strength per body mass were significantly lower in lineman compared with linebackers-tight ends and backs. The acceleration and velocity patterns were the same for each position group, and differences in sprint time were determined by the magnitude of acceleration and velocity at 9.1 and 18.3 m. Sprint performance in football players is determined by a rapid increase in acceleration (through 18.3 m) and a high velocity maintained throughout the sprint and is independent of position played. The best sprint performances (independent of sprint distance) appear to be related to the highest initial acceleration (through 18.3 m) and highest attained and maintained velocity. Strength relative to body mass and power appears to impact initial acceleration and velocity (through 18.3 m) in contribution to sprint performance.
To compare the effects of explosive strength (ExpS) vs. repeated shuttle sprint (RS) training on repeated sprint ability (RSA) in young elite soccer players, 15 elite male adolescents (14.5 ± 0.5 years) performed, in addition to their soccer training program, RS (n = 7) or ExpS (n = 8) training once a week for a total of 10 weeks. RS training consisted of 2-3 sets of 5-6 × 15- to 20-m repeated shuttle sprints interspersed with 14 seconds of passive or 23 seconds of active recovery (≈2 m·s⁻¹); ExpS training consisted of 4-6 series of 4-6 exercises (e.g., maximal unilateral countermovement jumps (CMJs), calf and squat plyometric jumps, and short sprints). Before and after training, performance was assessed by 10 and 30 m (10 and 30 m) sprint times, best (RSAbest) and mean (RSAmean) times on a repeated shuttle sprint ability test, a CMJ, and a hopping (Hop) test. After training, except for 10 m (p = 0.22), all performances were significantly improved in both groups (all p's < 0.05). Relative changes in 30 m (-2.1 ± 2.0%) were similar for both groups (p = 0.45). RS training induced greater improvement in RSAbest (-2.90 ± 2.1 vs. -0.08 ± 3.3%, p = 0.04) and tended to enhance RSAmean more (-2.61 ± 2.8 vs. -0.75 ± 2.5%, p = 0.10, effect size [ES] = 0.70) than ExpS. In contrast, ExpS tended to induce greater improvements in CMJ (14.8 ± 7.7 vs. 6.8 ± 3.7%, p = 0.02) and Hop height (27.5 ± 19.2 vs. 13.5 ± 13.2%, p = 0.08, ES = 0.9) compared with RS. Improvements in the repeated shuttle sprint test were only observed after RS training, whereas CMJ height was only increased after ExpS. Because RS and ExpS were equally efficient at enhancing maximal sprinting speed, RS training-induced improvements in RSA were likely more related to progresses in the ability to change direction.
The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between strength - power parameters and sprint performance and to predict sprint times from strength - power parameters.
Twenty-five male young sprinters participated in this study. Squat Jump(SJ), counter-movement jump (CMJ), drop jump height (DJH), repeated jump(RJ) and 100m sprint time from block start, including reaction time (RT) and times at 10m, 30m and 60m were measured. Reactive strength index (RSI), the difference between counter-movement and squat jump (CMJ-SJ) and the mean velocities of the intermediate sections 0-10m, 10-30m, 30-60m, 60-100 m (V0-10, V10-30, V30-60 and V60-100) were also calculated.
The canonical correlation analysis with strength - power parameters as predictors and reaction time and mean velocities as dependent variables revealed two canonical variables that explained 89.6% of the total variance. The first canonical variable (R=0.840) explained the association between SJ, RJ, DJH, RSI and all mean velocities. The second canonical variable (R=0.707) had only one predictor, CMJ-SJ, and loaded only on RT. Stepwise multiple regression analysis confirmed that RT depends only on CMJ-SJ. V0-10 depends on both DJ and SJ, while V10-30 depends only on SJ. Finally, V30-60 and V60-100 are primarily dependent on RSI. Multiple regression analysis of the 100m sprint time revealed that 46.5% of the variability could be explained by the variability of the strength- power predictors.
Performance at 100m sprint is strongly associated with strength-power parameters. The best predictor of the overall performance is probably SJ (or CMJ).
This review article summarizes the current literature regarding the analysis of running gait. It is compared to walking and sprinting. The current state of knowledge is presented as it fits in the context of the history of analysis of movement. The characteristics of the gait cycle and its relationship to potential and kinetic energy interactions are reviewed. The timing of electromyographic activity is provided. Kinematic and kinetic data (including center of pressure measurements, raw force plate data, joint moments, and joint powers) and the impact of changes in velocity on these findings is presented. The status of shoewear literature, alterations in movement strategies, the role of biarticular muscles, and the springlike function of tendons are addressed. This type of information can provide insight into injury mechanisms and training strategies. Copyright 1998 Elsevier Science B.V.
This study assessed the relationship of long and short stretch-shortening cycle test scores to sprint performances in trained female athletes. Seventeen trained, female, high school, competitive sprinters completed the following tests: countermovement jump for vertical distance (CMJ), bounce drop jump for height with minimum ground contact time (BDJ index), and ground contact time (GCT) during the BDJ and a 5-step bound (5B) test. Group mean and SD values were as follows: height, 167.7 +/- 3.7 cm; body mass, 59.9 +/- 7.2 kg; and percentage of body fat (PF), 20.3 +/- 1.8%. Sprint performances at 30-, 100-, and 300-m distances were assessed. Stretch-shortening cycle performance and sprint results (mean +/- SD) were as follows: CMJ, 33.8 +/- 3.8 cm; BDJ index, 166.7 +/- 24.7 cm/s; 5B test, 10.98 +/- 0.76 m; 30-m sprint, 4.58 +/- 0.17 seconds; 100-m sprint, 12.9 +/- 0.61 seconds; and 300-m sprint, 45.03 +/- 2.94 seconds. Correlations indicated that no relationship existed between PF and the dependent sprint variables. Significant correlations (p < 0.05) existed between CMJ and 30-m (r = -0.60), 100-m (r = -0.64), and 300-m (r = -0.55) sprint times; BDJ index and 30-m (r = -0.79) and 100-m (r = -0.75) sprint times; and 5B test and 300-m sprint time (r = -0.54). Multiple regression analysis found significant T values for BDJ index with 30- and 100-m sprints and CMJ and PF with 300 m. Results indicated that the BDJ index and CMJ tests were significantly related to sprint performances in female athletes.
Previous research has reported that plyometric training improves running economy (RE) and ultimately distance-running performance, although the exact mechanism by which this occurs remains unclear. This study examined whether changes in running performance resulting from plyometric training were related to alterations in lower leg musculotendinous stiffness (MTS). Seventeen male runners were pre- and post-tested for lower leg MTS, maximum isometric force, rate of force development, 5-bound distance test (5BT), counter movement jump (CMJ) height, RE, VO(2max), lactate threshold (Th(la)), and 3-km time. Subjects were randomly split into an experimental (E) group which completed 6 weeks of plyometric training in conjunction with their normal running training, and a control (C) group which trained as normal. Following the training period, the E group significantly improved 3-km performance (2.7%) and RE at each of the tested velocities, while no changes in VO(2max) or Th(la) were recorded. CMJ height, 5BT, and MTS also increased significantly. No significant changes were observed in any measures for the C group. The results clearly demonstrated that a 6-week plyometric programme led to improvements in 3-km running performance. It is postulated that the increase in MTS resulted in improved RE. We speculate that the improved RE led to changes in 3-km running performance, as there were no corresponding alterations in VO(2max) or Th(la).
For many sporting activities, initial speed rather than maximal speed would be considered of greater importance to successful performance. The purpose of this study was to identify the relationship between strength and power and measures of first-step quickness (5-m time), acceleration (10-m time), and maximal speed (30-m time). The maximal strength (3 repetition maximum [3RM]), power (30-kg jump squat, countermovement, and drop jumps), isokinetic strength measures (hamstring and quadriceps peak torques and ratios at 60 degrees .s(-1) and 300 degrees .s(-1)) and 5-m, 10-m, and 30-m sprint times of 26 part-time and full-time professional rugby league players (age 23.2 +/- 3.3 years) were measured. To examine the importance of the strength and power measures on sprint performance, a correlational approach and a comparison between means of the fastest and slowest players was used. The correlations between the 3RM, drop jump, isokinetic strength measures, and the 3 measures of sport speed were nonsignificant. Correlations between the jump squat (height and relative power output) and countermovement jump height and the 3 speed measures were significant (r = -0.43 to -0.66, p < 0.05). The squat and countermovement jump heights as well as squat jump relative power output were the only variables found to be significantly greater in the fast players. It was suggested that improving the power to weight ratio as well as plyometric training involving countermovement and loaded jump-squat training may be more effective for enhancing sport speed in elite players.