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Development of a specific exercise programme
for professional orchestral musicians
Cliffton Chan,
1
Tim Driscoll,
2
Bronwen Ackermann
1
1
Discipline of Biomedical
Science, Sydney Medical
School, The University of
Sydney, Lidcombe, Australia
2
School of Public Health,
Sydney Medical School,
The University of Sydney,
Camperdown, Australia
Correspondence to
Cliffton Chan, Discipline of
Biomedical Science, Sydney
Medical School, The University
of Sydney, PO Box 170,
Lidcombe, NSW 1825,
Australia;
cliffton.chan@sydney.edu.au
Accepted 2 November 2012
Published Online First
4 December 2012
ABSTRACT
Background Musculoskeletal problems are common in
professional orchestral musicians, and little is known
about effective prevention strategies. Exercise is
suggested to help in reducing work-related upper limb
disorders and accordingly a trial of a specific exercise
programme for this population was planned. Formative
and process evaluation procedures were undertaken
during the development of the programme to ensure high
methodological credibility.
Methods Literature reviews on exercise interventions
for musicians as well as for neck, shoulder, abdominal,
lower back and hip/pelvic body regions were undertaken.
Current preventative and rehabilitation models were
reviewed including undergraduate curriculums,
postgraduate training programmes, and opinion from
academic and clinical physiotherapists. Five series of
progressive exercises were developed as a result. These
were reviewed by expert physiotherapists who were
blinded to the proposed progression difficulty of the
exercises. A revised draft was produced for further
review. This final programme was pilot trialed and
feedback from the participants and physiotherapist
instructors were obtained.
Results No evidence-based literature regarding an
exercise programme for professional orchestral musicians
was found. An exercise programme was subsequently
developed with progressive stages that followed an
adapted exercise prevention and rehabilitation model. The
blinded ranking of each exercise series produced varied
results particularly in the abdominal and shoulder series.
Feedback from the participants and instructors in the
pilot study resulted in changes to the exercise difficulty,
and the class format and structure.
Conclusions Using available evidence on exercise
prescription in collaboration with clinical consensus and
current best practice, a specific exercise programme was
developed to prevent and/or reduce occupational injuries
in professional orchestral musicians.
Musicians suffer a high incidence and severity of
performance-related musculoskeletal disorders
(PRMDs).
1
National and international surveys
document the lifetime prevalence of PRMDs in
professional orchestral musicians as anywhere
between 39% to 87%, depending on the survey
methodology, and a current playing-related pain
point prevalence of 50% in Australian professional
orchestral musicians.
1–3
Professional orchestral
musicians develop highly selective patterns of
neuromuscular activation in response to the
precise playing demands occurring over extensive
periods of time.
4
This ongoing cumulative load on
the musculoskeletal and neuromuscular systems
may result in adaptive changes including postural
imbalances and asymmetrical strength and mobil-
ity, especially of the trunk and upper limbs.
56
Despite this, there has been little investigation of
healthcare approaches to the management of these
PRMDs, and there is a need for research to provide
better evidence of how to effectively manage
them.
In occupational health literature, exercise is
recommended as an appropriate preventative inter-
vention for work-related injuries.
7
However, there
is little evidence to support the use of exercise for
effective injury prevention or management in pro-
fessional orchestral musicians.
8
One small study
involving professional musicians from one orches-
tra found benefits in reduced PRMD incidence and
severity following the implementation of a
15-week intervention package including some
generic exercises.
9
Three other studies investigated
the effect of exercise programmes on university
music students. These studies included generic
strength, postural or aerobic exercises and were
reported to reduce the presence, frequency and
intensity of PRMDs and to improve instrumental
playing posture.
10–12
It was decided that while
concepts of core stability would be retained, as
this appeared to be a common feature associated
with the positive outcomes of these trials, it
would be worth developing much more specific
and targeted exercises to implement in the current
study.
This paper describes the development of a pro-
gramme aimed to adapt or create exercises specific-
ally targeted for professional orchestral musicians
based on the problematic regions identified in
PRMD literature and analysis of the loading
created by instrumental movements and postures.
As no available evidence on best practice existed,
an exercise programme was developed that had
high face validity and could be implemented con-
sistently when trialled nationally.
The article reported here has three aims:
A. To present the methods used to develop an
evidence-based exercise programme that targets
prevention of common injuries in professional
orchestral musicians
B. To describe the components of the programme
C. To trial the programme.
METHODS
Phase 1. Development of the exercise programme
The exercise programme was developed by inte-
grating evidence obtained from a comprehensive
literature review, national physiotherapy under-
graduate and postgraduate courses, and common
exercise prescription approaches. The resulting
Injury Prevention 2013;19:257–263. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2012-040608 257
Original article
draft programme was then subjected to an external formative
evaluation process.
A literature search was conducted in April 2010 using
Medline, Cochrane Clinical Trials, PEDro, CINAHL and AMED.
The search terms included musician with exercise,prevention,
rehabilitation and programme using ‘or’and ‘and’as Boolean
operators that yielded five studies suitable for inclusion
(figure 1). A broader literature search was also carried out to
include combinations of exercise interventions and body
regions. The search terms included exercise programme,prevention,
management,rehabilitation and stabilisation with neck, cervical
spine,lower back, lumbar spine,shoulder, glenohumeral,abdominal,
hip and pelvis using ‘or’and ‘and’as Boolean operators from
which 68 studies were included as potential resources for this
project (figure 2). The latter terms were chosen as these were
common injury regions identified through previous literature
reviews, and through a large-scale baseline assessment of the
premier symphony orchestras of Australia as part of the Sound
Practice study.
1313
Limits on both literature searches included
‘human studies’and ‘English’.
To identify best practice in exercise programme implementa-
tion, physiotherapists nationally-acknowledged as experts in
the field of exercise prescription were interviewed. Current
teaching practice from two well-established undergraduate
physiotherapy curriculums and six post-graduate sports exercise
courses in Australia were also incorporated. Five series of exer-
cises with progressive stages were developed to target the
common problematic PRMDs in the orchestral musician
population.
Four physiotherapists (each with over 20 years of experience)
were invited to participate in a formative evaluation process.
These physiotherapists had worked with musicians and were
known for their use of exercise in rehabilitation. Two also
worked in an academic environment. The illustrated series of
proposed exercises and instructions were presented to each of
the physiotherapists individually in a randomised order. They
were instructed to rank each series from easiest to most chal-
lenging so that ‘the best order of progression is achieved’, and
provide feedback on the exercises. The physiotherapists were
also asked whether they felt any other exercises should be
Figure 1 Flowchart of literature
search results of musician exercise
intervention literature in Medline,
Cochrane, PEDro, CINAHL and AMED
databases.
Figure 2 Flowchart of a literature
search of exercise interventions for
different body regions in Medline,
Cochrane, PEDro, CINAHL and AMED
databases.
258 Injury Prevention 2013;19:257–263. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2012-040608
Original article
added or replaced in the programme. Discrepancies between the
physiotherapists’suggested order and the initial order of pro-
gressions were considered along with the detailed comments
about the exercise choice. A final draft was produced by the
authors after discussing the changes with two of the phy-
siotherapists involved in the initial ranking process.
This programme was designed to be trialled at a national level
and hence involved the recruitment of experienced physiothera-
pists from around Australia to run programmes. To improve the
reliability of programme delivery, a detailed manual was pro-
duced to instruct both physiotherapists and participants in how
to perform the exercise programme. A training session for par-
ticipating physiotherapists was conducted to encourage a stan-
dardised approach to delivery of the programme and adherence
to the research protocol. This involved learning the exercises,
reviewing the exercise instructions, reinforcing the safety pre-
cautions and procedure of progression through each series, and
outlining the class format and structure. The physiotherapists
were required to observe one class run by one of the course
developers before conducting an exercise class themselves. The
physiotherapists were required to have Clinical Pilates training
to further improve the consistency of their approach, particu-
larly for the early stages of each exercise series.
The exercise classes were conducted at one orchestra’s prem-
ises, outside of work hours (before rehearsal, in the lunch hour
or after rehearsal) to make the programme as convenient and
accessible as possible. This was decided in collaboration with
orchestral management, whose support was important to
ensure programme viability, improve participation and reduce
attrition. Each class was proposed to be 40 min long: 5 min
each of warm-up and cool-down, and 30 min of exercises. The
programme was designed to run over 8 weeks, with two classes
per week. This was expected to produce changes in neuromus-
cular patterning and strength gains as a result of neural and
physiological adaptations.
14 15
For cost effectiveness reasons, a group setting was chosen as
the delivery method. At the initial exercise class, the partici-
pants did warm-ups, cool-downs and Stage One of each series
together. From week two, participants were instructed to use
the exercise manual to continue exercises from Stages One to
Six with physiotherapist guidance and supervision.
Phase 2. Pilot trial of the exercise programme
A trial was undertaken with professional musicians from one
of the symphony orchestras to evaluate the different elements
of the exercise programme. This included the ratio of physio-
therapist to participants, exercise instructions, class times and
length, and overall class structure. Participants were supplied
with a record sheet to monitor the dosage performed for each
exercise and the progress of the stage in each exercise series.
This record also allowed the physiotherapist to track progress
over the course of the programme. A comments section was
included in the record to allow the physiotherapist to write
exercise reminders for the participant. Participants and phy-
siotherapists were able to provide feedback to the authors
throughout the trial and at the end of the trial via semi-
structured interviews. A decision would be made by the
authors (CC and BA) whether the feedback necessitated
changes to be made to the programme.
RESULTS
Five articles related to musicians and exercise therapy were
identified from the literature review (figure 1).
9–12 16
A larger
number of exercise therapy clinical trials and systematic
reviews were found for non-musician populations (figure 2).
Exercise programmes were excluded if they had insufficient
detail to replicate the trial, exercises were functionally unsuit-
able for musicians, and the exercise programme was a compo-
nent of a series of concurrent interventions.
An exercise model was developed to best integrate existing evi-
dence and strategies identified by clinicians and researchers
(figure 3). Most of the programme was based on fundamental
sports rehabilitation principals resulting in a programme that
consisted of: (1) activating the muscles concerned with stability
and satisfactory postural control of the region in the early
stages; (2) added external perturbations or resistive loads in the
middle stages; and in the late stages; (3) exercises were used that
both increased muscle endurance demands and were applied in a
specific functional position relating to common patterns of
movement during instrumental performance.
17–20
Other exercise
design considerations to take account of the musicians’normal
work demands included the need to reduce load on the wrist
joints by leaning on the forearms in upper limb weight-bearing
positions, and using loops in the resistance band rather than
having to grip the band with the hand when performing the
exercise.
Neck series
Progressions of cervical spine exercise therapy strengthening the
deep neck flexors and extensors were adapted for musicians.
21 22
Figure 3 Adaptation of common
elements in early, mid and end-stages
of injury prevention/rehabilitation
exercise programmes.
Injury Prevention 2013;19:257–263. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2012-040608 259
Original article
In the final stages, varying degrees of resistance was applied to
the neck from a variety of angles to load the deep neck muscle
system in an attempt to replicate the challenges of maintaining
a healthy neck position while sustaining the weight of
instruments.
Shoulder series
A progressive series of scapular stability and rotator cuff exer-
cises were included focusing on restoring shoulder muscle
balance and movement control.
23
This progressed to stages that
added resistance and increased the functional context of the
exercises into instrumental performance biomechanical
patterning.
24
Spinal series
The early stages of the spinal series consisted of low load acti-
vation of the lumbar multifidis.
25
Later stages progressively
integrated the lumbar multifidus into a range of more func-
tional activities with appropriate use of load and a variety of
external perturbations to mimic the movements used during
performance.
26 27
Abdominal series
A focus on activation of the abdominal muscles during com-
monly prescribed Clinical Pilates exercises was included, pro-
gressing into more difficult stages using an unstable base of
support.
28 29
Finally, these exercises were adapted into more
functional activation patterns in both sitting and standing.
30
Hip series
A focus was placed on the endurance and strength of the
gluteal muscle group, including hip abduction and external
rotation exercises.
31
The intermediate stages combined these
exercises with upper body movement.
32
The final stage incor-
porated the elements in the previous exercises in all three
planes of movement.
33
Warm-up and cool-down
A warm-up component was included involving diaphragmatic
breathing, and large body movements such as spinal curl
downs, neck and shoulder rolls, and thoracic and lumbar rota-
tions.
34
A cool-down component repeated some of the exercises
in the warm-up component, with the addition of sustained
stretches (of the upper trapezius, levator scapulae, quadratus
lumborum, oblique abdominis and hamstrings).
35
A summary of the ranking scores from the expert phy-
siotherapists’randomised review process is shown in table 1.
The physiotherapists’ranking of difficulty for the exercises
were similar in the hip series, and moderately similar in the
neck and spinal series. The results that differed most between
the physiotherapists related to the abdominal and shoulder
series. In reference to the selection of exercises, one reviewer
commented ‘I have seen many musicians with pain who have
too much stability and can’t relax these muscles’in relation to
the abdominal and spinal series. The abdominal, spinal and
shoulder series of the exercise programme were subsequently
modified in particular, exercises early in the series that were
considered too difficult were adjusted to provide more support
and those considered too easy or ‘too much stability’later in
the programme had more dynamic movement elements added.
Pilot trial
A total of 13 musicians, nine females and four males, partici-
pated in this trial with a mean age of 44.7 years (SD 10.3). The
participants’mean years of professional playing time was
21.8 years (SD 13.0). String instruments were the most com-
monly played by the musicians (table 2). Comments received
during the trial and at the semi-structured interviews indicated
resistance band difficulties in the shoulder series and a need for
more resistance in the abdominal series; and that class structure
and schedule, and a small number of exercise instructions in
the exercise manual, needed minor modifications.
The levels of resistance band were upgraded in the intermedi-
ate stages of the abdominal exercises, and downgraded for the
shoulder exercises. The class structure was modified because
participants required more assistance in the early stages of the
exercises—the group class format was increased from 1 week to
2 weeks, and the individualised progression format was
initiated from week three. A physiotherapist to participant
ratio of 1 : 6 appeared to be the best compromise to provide sat-
isfactory supervision and allow maximum participation. The
highest attendance rate occurred when the class was held
during the lunch break between rehearsals. The duration of the
exercise class had to be reduced to allow adequate time for
musicians to prepare to return to rehearsal, leaving 25 min for
Table 1 Proposed order of progression of series, by reviewers
Series of exercise
Author proposed order of
exercise progressions
Neck Shoulder Spinal Abdominals Hip
Reviewer Reviewer Reviewer Reviewer Reviewer
12341234123412341234
1*1†1*1†1*1323111†111
2 *212†212*22342232222
3 *3544353*31154521333
4 *4431445*64666445444
5 *6352534*464†3354565
6 *5263626*555†5663656
*Denotes the physiotherapist reviewer did not provide a numerical response.
†Denotes the reviewer suggests a change to this exercise.
Table 2 Instruments played by the musicians in the pilot trial
Instrument Count (n=13)
Violin 2
Viola 3
Cello 3
Double Bass 1
Flute 1
Clarinet 1
Oboe/Cor Anglais 2
260 Injury Prevention 2013;19:257–263. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2012-040608
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the exercise component and 5 min for each of the warm-up and
cool-down. The final structure and content of the programme
are shown in table 3.
DISCUSSION
The use of formative and process evaluation methods to
develop a novel and targeted exercise programme for profes-
sional orchestral musicians appeared to be an effective strategy.
The programme described here incorporated current fundamen-
tal sports rehabilitation principals, and adapted existing exercise
therapy evidence in a logical and informed manner.
17–35
The
exercises and progressions chosen were based on those
commonly taught and practiced in Australia in general physio-
therapy modified to apply functionally to music performance.
While the current study has been targeted specifically for pro-
fessional orchestral musicians, this model for designing an exer-
cise programme may help other researchers develop suitable
programmes for other musician populations.
Musicians have a high reported incidence of neck problems
across the instrumental groups.
3
The research in cervical spine
rehabilitation by Jull and colleagues influenced the inclusion of
deep neck stabilisation and joint position sense principles in this
series of exercises.
21 22
There was also an emphasis on improving
muscle efficiency by reducing commonly hypertonic muscles (ie,
sternocleidomastoid, levator scapulae, upper trapezius) as well
as decreasing overuse of breath control muscles (ie, scalenes).
Scapular stabilisation and rotator cuff endurance exercises are
frequently-used approaches in the early stages of shoulder
rehabilitation and shoulder instability programmes.
23 24
These
exercises were considered important for musicians because
shoulder pain and dysfunction are commonly reported, and
proximal stability at the shoulder has been shown to be
important for increasing hand dexterity and strength.
51336
There is published evidence that the trunk muscles, in par-
ticular the deeper layers of the lumbar multifidus, are import-
ant for segmental spinal control and that these muscles may be
inhibited in their control by the presence of low back pain
(LBP).
25 26
Optimising function of the lumbar multifidus
reduces recurrence of acute LBP and disability.
27 37
As LBP is
relatively common in the professional musician population it
was considered useful to include a series of exercises strength-
ening and challenging the lumbar multifidus in all three planes
of movement. Large variations in the type of exercises used and
the optimal mechanisms by which to activate these muscles
exist in the literature. The rehabilitation strategies of
Richardson and colleagues were adopted and modified as appro-
priate for musicians.
28
MuchoftheevidenceoncoretrainingcomesfromLBPstudies
and Pilates trials and is well summarised elsewhere.
28 29
There is
evidence to support the re-training of proper transversus abdom-
inis and internal oblique activation, especially when wind and
brass players use abdominal musculature as an integral part of
their breath control. It is likely that all musicians should use a vari-
able degree of abdominal muscle activity to support a dynamic
sitting and standing playing posture. Hence, a series of exercises
incorporating the core abdominal muscles in different positions
and a number of different external perturbations were included.
Lumbo-pelvic control is important to support dynamic upper
body movements, such as those involved in instrumental playing.
30
In this hip series, focus was placed on strengthening the gluteal
muscle group to increase proprioceptive feedback and control of
lower limb alignment.
31 32
These elements were further challenged
by integrating these exercises with upper body movements. To
improve dynamic postural control during standing, the final stage
used a combination of neuromuscular characteristics such as lower
extremity proprioception, balance, flexibility and strength.
33
The warm-up component encouraged large full body move-
ments associated with playing an orchestral instrument and
was based on recommendations from the sports literature.
34
The cool-downs included moving the joints and muscles used
in the exercise programme throughout range.
35
Some static
stretches were included for muscles that were considered to be
hypertonic in musicians based on their patterns of use.
The most agreement in exercise progression and choice
between the physiotherapist reviewers was for the hip series, and
the least agreement was for the abdominal and shoulder series.
The higher variance in reviewer feedback may indicate the large
variety of prevention and rehabilitation approaches currently in
practice, and the wide spectrum of strategies used for different
populations, mostly arising from the sports literature. Two of the
reviewers also commented that they typically only prescribed
individualised sport/activity-specific programmes and felt it was
difficult to comment on a generic group exercise programme.
The formative evaluation processes were vital in ensuring the
programme was highly credible and likely to produce progressive
and functional strengthening goals, with only some minor pro-
gramme elements requiring further change during the process
evaluation phase of the pilot trial. Working closely with orchestra
management staff was necessary for the programme to be
designed in a way that was compatible with the context and prac-
ticalities of the orchestral environment and schedules.
Table 3 List of exercises in final exercise programme
Series Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 Stage 6
Neck Deep neck
flexor in supine
Deep neck flexor and
extensor co-activation
in supine
Deep neck flexor and
extensor co-activation with
cervical movements in 4
point kneel
Deep neck flexor and
extensor activation with
cervical rotation in 4 point
kneel
Deep neck stabilisation
with cervical movements
under constant light
resistance
Deep neck stabilisation
with cervical movements
under changing resistance
Shoulder Middle and
lower trapezius
activation
Serratus anterior
activation in Weight
Bearing position
Scapular stability with
thoracic movements
Supported scapular
Stability with resisted
arm movements
Unsupported dynamic
scapular stability with arm
and trunk movements
Unsupported dynamic
scapular stability with arm
and full body movement
Spinal Prone leg lift Swimming arm and
leg
Single leg slide in 4 point Superman arm and legs Sitting on dura disc forward
lean
Sitting or standing on dura
disc forward lean in multi
directions
Abdominals Single leg fall
out
Single leg circles Opposite leg and arm fall out
on unstable surface
Opposite leg and arm
circles on unstable
surface
Abdominal activation with
resistance in sitting
Abdominal activation with
resistance in standing
Hip Deep hip
external rotator
activation
Deep hip external
rotator activation with
sit to stand
Deep hip stabilisers with
resisted stepping and hip
abduction
Single leg stance with
upper body movement
Brolga with upper body
movement
Star excursion balance
Injury Prevention 2013;19:257–263. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2012-040608 261
Original article
During the pilot study, the feedback from participants indi-
cated that exercises chosen did focus on areas where musicians
had poor strength and control and did not overload structures
already used during instrumental playing. There were self-
reported positive changes in their posture and playing. The musi-
cians indicated that the physiotherapist supervision was useful in
teaching and refining basic exercise class components and techni-
ques, enabling them to perform the exercises as well as possible.
They reported enjoying the programme, and appreciated that the
programme was available within the work schedule because
many of them did not have enough time outside work to attend
such classes. To play music at an elite level requires efficiency of
effort as in any other high performance domain. There were con-
cerns initially expressed by some musicians about developing
muscle fatigue that may affect their practice or performance.
Once the musicians realised that this exercise programme focused
on movement control and increasing strength of supporting mus-
culature in a functional context without negative effects on per-
formance, they participated enthusiastically.
Feedback from physiotherapist instructors indicated that
they felt that the exercises were at an appropriate level of diffi-
culty for this population. They were surprised at the poor base-
line strength of most of the targeted muscle groups in this elite
population. These physiotherapists had considerable experience
in prescribing exercises in other populations, usually in sports
domains. They recognised there was a noticeable difference in
the physical demands of music performance and understood
the need for the specific approach adopted for this study.
CONCLUSION
Using a formative and process evaluation approach allowed the
development and revision of a novel evidence-based exercise
programme for professional orchestral musicians. The final pro-
gramme incorporated available published evidence, clinical
experience and expert feedback to design and test a proposed
intervention thoroughly before widespread implementation and
assessment. This exercise programme aims to optimise compli-
ance and cost-efficacy that could accommodate a demanding
orchestra schedule. This programme is currently being trialled
with a large group of professional orchestral musicians as part
of the Sound Practice project to evaluate its effectiveness in
addressing the incidence and intensity of PRMDs, and changes
to the musicians’playing postures and effort levels.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the physiotherapists
who assisted with the pilot trial exercise classes and the review processes involved
in developing this programme.
Contributors CC, TD and BA have all made substantial contributions to the
following: (1) the conception and design of the study, or acquisition of data, or
analysis and interpretation of the data, (2) drafting the article or revising it critically
for important intellectual content, and (3) the final approval of the attached
manuscript.
Funding This work was supported by Australian Research Council, Australian Council
of the Arts and the eight participating orchestras (Australian Opera and Ballet
Orchestra, Sydney Symphony, Melbourne Symphony Orchestra, Orchestra Victoria,
Adelaide Symphony Orchestra, Queensland Symphony Orchestra, Tasmanian
Symphony Orchestra, West Australian Symphony Orchestra) (LP0989486).
Competing interests None.
Patient consent Obtained.
Ethics approval The University of Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee
approved this project (HREC 12523).
Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.
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What is already known about this subject
▸Professional orchestral musicians experience a high lifetime
prevalence of performance-related musculoskeletal disorders
(PRMDs)
▸There are limited evidence-based intervention strategies for
PRMDs
What this study adds
▸A novel exercise programme was specifically designed for
professional orchestral musicians to target the PRMDs
reported in this occupational group by incorporating clinical
experience, expert feedback and available published evidence
▸Special considerations in the prescription of prevention and
rehabilitation programmes for professional orchestral musi-
cians, such as specific types of exercises and exercise
progressions
262 Injury Prevention 2013;19:257–263. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2012-040608
Original article
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WHO launches Global Alliance for Care of the Injured
Alert readers will recall that tertiary prevention involves caring for already injured victims in
such a way that the consequences of their injuries are minimised. Consequently, WHO has
launched a Global Alliance to address the millions of injury victims who suffer lifelong disability.
This is a special problem in low-income countries where ‘people with life-threatening but surviv-
able injuries are six times more likely to die (36% mortality) than in high-income settings (6%
mortality).’To diminish such inequalities, WHO launched Global Alliance for Care of the Injured
(GACI) at the 66th World Health Assembly. GACI is a network of organisations and professional
societies that collaborate to improve care for the injured. It now operates in 12 member
organisations.
Building booms and regulatory gaps raise vulnerability to tornadoes and other
disasters
We do not often think of tornadoes as the cause of preventable injuries, but as FairWarning
points out, this is not necessarily true. It suggests that many in parts of America’s tornado hot
zone face dangers due to population growth and a tendency to discount threats. The centre of
the latest disaster, Moore, Oklahoma, has seen its population surge since the 1960s, and much
of the tornado-prone areas has not taken into account the dangers. Building codes do not
require safe rooms despite research demonstrating how a few thousand dollars can save lives
(The New York Times, Economics of Natural Hazards).
Injury Prevention 2013;19:257–263. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2012-040608 263
Original article
