No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Effects of Microplastic on Fitness and PCB Bioaccumulation by the Lugworm Arenicola marina (L.)
Abstract
It has been speculated that marine microplastics may cause negative effects on benthic marine organisms and increase bioaccumulation of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Here, we provide the first controlled study of plastic effects on benthic organisms including transfer of POPs. The effects of polystyrene (PS) microplastic on survival, activity, and bodyweight as well as the transfer of 19 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), were assessed in bioassays with Arenicola marina (L.). PS was pre-equilibrated in natively contaminated sediment. A positive relation was observed between microplastic concentration in the sediment and both uptake of plastic particles and weight loss by A. marina. Furthermore, a reduction in feeding activity was observed at a PS dose of 7.4% dry weight (DW). A low PS dose of 0.074% increased bioaccumulation of PCBs by a factor 1.1 - 3.6, an effect that was significant for ΣPCBs and several individual congeners. At higher doses, bioaccumulation decreased compared to the low dose, which however, was only significant for PCB105. PS has statistically significant effects on the organisms' fitness and bioaccumulation, but the magnitude of the effects was not high. This may be different for sites with different plastic concentrations, or plastics with a higher affinity for POPs.
... Mostly originating from the degradation of larger plastic items, their durability and the challenges associated with their removal make them one of the most ubiquitous and, therefore, troubling forms of marine pollution (Villarrubia-Gómez et al. 2018;Picó and Barceló 2019). Plastic particles can enter food webs through accidental ingestion either by both pelagic and benthic organisms (Cole et al. 2011;Besseling et al. 2013;Hall et al. 2015;Courtene-Jones et al. 2017;Mizraji et al. 2017;Scherer et al. 2017;Setälä et al. 2016;Pinheiro et al. 2020;Urbina et al. 2023) or by accidentally attaching to external organs, such as gills, during respiration (Watts et al. 2014;Gray and Weinstein 2017;Leads et al. 2019). Growing research on the impacts of plastics across various species and habitats Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues highlights the particular vulnerability of benthic organisms (Lusher et al. 2017a;Cera et al. 2020;Berlino et al. 2021;Darabi et al. 2021). ...
... MP ingestion presents several potential threats to these vital organisms and the processes they support. Physical impacts, such as damage to the digestive tract, reduced food consumption, weight loss, and decreased growth rates, have been documented in marine organisms (Li et al. 2021;Jeyavani et al. 2022;Besseling et al. 2013;Wright et al. 2013;Urbina et al. 2023). Chemical impacts are equally concerning, as MPs can act as vectors for toxic substances that may bioaccumulate in tissues, potentially reducing fecundity (Sussarellu et al. 2016) and causing energy depletion (Wright et al. 2013;Watts et al. 2015;Urbina et al. 2023). ...
Microplastic (MP) pollution is a significant threat to marine environments not only due to its widespread presence but also because of the alarming emergence of ingestion records among benthic organisms. In this study, MP prevalence was assessed in the stomach of the crustaceans Lithodes santolla and Grimothea gregaria and the gastropods Nacella deaurata and N. concinna. Particles were analyzed with Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Overall, the analysis revealed that the particles were mainly microfibers composed of cellulose/rayon (60%), followed by MPs (30%), and undetermined not registered in the library (10%). Higher prevalence was found in marine benthic grazers compared to scavengers, with the latter showing low particle prevalence in their stomach contents. Grazers presented a significantly higher abundance per individual but a lower size of ingested particles compared to scavengers. When grouped by trophic levels, tertiary consumers presented significantly lower abundances per individual but larger sizes of the ingested particles. Pearson’s correlations showed no significant associations between particle abundance/size and species body size. The results of this study may suggest that continued MP pollution in marine environments and the associated accidental ingestion by marine organisms will alter the energy flow and organic matter availability in benthic food webs, with species that perform certain functional traits more susceptible to being affected.
... MPs can pose a physical hazard, similar to a large piece, by internal abrasion and clogging the feeding appendages or digestive tract (Cole et al. 2013). Microplastics can also negatively affect microalgae composition and may reduce algal uptake rates and feeding activities (Besseling et al. 2013). Especially after being assimilated by the organism, MPs can transfer toxic chemicals to living tissue (Wardrop et al. 2016). ...
Biodiversity conservation, ecosystem, and public health are negatively triggered by plastics used in all areas of modern life. Micro and nano plastics, one of them, are widely occurring pollutants that have great interest. The increasing levels of micro-nano plastics such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinylchloride (PVC), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) in the ecosystem negatively affecting environmental health and living organisms globally because of undeniable prevalence in the air, soil and especially aquatic ecosystem. Microplastics, which have very slow decomposition rates, stay and accumulate for a long time in the environment where they can interact with organisms. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are considered point sources of micro-nano plastics released into the environment and the last line of defense that creates a barrier between microplastics and the environment. Although microbial species such as bacteria, algae, and fungi can break down plastic, they can not completely mineralize plastic due to various factors such as enzymatic mechanisms, substrates and co-substrates concentration, temperature, pH, and oxidative stress. Therefore, the underlying mechanism of micro-nano plastic formation and specifying the factors affecting their transport, distribution, and deterioration is very important. So far, no specific treatment technology has been developed to specifically remove MPs and NPs from wastewater and sludge, apart from existing conventional treatment techniques. So, the main purpose of this book chapter focusing on current evidence of microplastic accumulation in the aquatic environment and soil, we will emphasize the harmful effects, fate, and remediation processes of existing and potential microplastic types on living things to protect the environment and life on earth. Also, to fill the information gap, recent research innovations regarding the development of purification technologies targeting MPs and NPs will be discussed.
... For example, exposure of the microalga Tetraselmis chuii to polyethylene (PE) particles (1-5 μm) led to a decline in its growth (Davarpanah & Guilhermino, 2015). Specie belonging to Crustacea, Artemia sp. on exposure of 3-6 hours, to PS (1-20 μm) reported to concentrate $1.2 Â 106 particles (Besseling et al., 2013). Similarly, Mytilus galloprovincialis (Mollusca) exposed to PVC, accumulated PS & PE about 21.6-2160 mg/l in 91 days for 2-hours exposure, which decreased their survival, increased pyrene bioaccumulation and decreased defense against antioxidants (Avio et al., 2015). ...
The widespread presence of plastic debris in marine ecosystems was first highlighted as a serious concern in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the 1972 London Convention. This realization identified plastic pollution as one of the major global environmental issues. Majorities of plastic debris are neither recycled nor incinerated, as a result, it eventually makes its way into lakes, rivers, and oceans. Analysis of water and sediment worldwide indicates that microplastics and nanoplastic are ubiquitous in soils, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. Microplastic and nanoplastics are distributed throughout marine environments via processes such as biofouling and chemical leaching, contaminating both pelagic and benthic species. Despite growing recognition of the hazards posed by microplastics and nanoplastics, regulatory efforts remain hampered by limited understanding of their broader ecological impacts, particularly how diverse factors translate into population declines and ecosystem disruptions.
This review examines the pathways of microplastic and nanoplastic pollution, their interactions with other environmental stressors such as climate change and chemical pollution, and their effects on marine food webs. The review highlights the urgent need for further research into the behavior and fate of nanoplastics, which are the degradation product of microplastics, owing to their nano size they pose additional risks, unique properties, and potential for widespread ecological impacts. Studies have demonstrated that smaller microplastics and nanoplastics, particularly nanoplastics, are more toxic than larger microplastics. Additionally, microplastics and nanoplastics serve as vectors for contaminants such as heavy metals, exacerbating their toxicity. They also translocate through marine food chains, posing potential health risks. While evidence of their impact continues to grow, the chronic toxicity of microplastics and nanoplastics remains poorly understood, emphasizing the need for further research, particularly at the cellular level, to fully understand their effects on marine ecosystems and human health. This review also concludes with a call for standardized measurement methods, effective mitigation strategies, and enhanced international cooperation to combat this escalating threat. Future research should prioritize the complex interactions between microplastics and nanoplastics, other pollutants, and marine ecosystems, with the ultimate goal of developing holistic approaches to manage and mitigate the impact of plastic pollution.
Practitioner Points
Microplastic/nanoplastic translocate through marine food webs, affecting species and human health.
Nanoplastics are more toxic than microplastics, exacerbating environmental risks.
Nanoplastic aggregation influences their distribution and ecological interactions.
Future research should focus on nanoplastic behavior, transport, and toxicity.
... Previous research has demonstrated that chemical pollutants such as nonylphenol and triclosan can attach to the surfaces of MPs. When aquatic organisms ingest these MPs, the pollutants are absorbed and accumulate in their bodies [6][7][8]. There is significant evidence suggesting that MPs could exert harmful effects on people's health through both exposure and toxicity pathways [9][10][11]. ...
Microplastic (MP) pollution has recently emerged as a critical global environmental issue. Laundry wastewater is a significant contributor to MP pollution, containing high concentrations of MPs. Although coagulation has recently been widely applied to remove MPs from such wastewater, its efficiency remains poor, and the removal mechanisms are not yet fully elucidated. In this study, the occurrence and characteristics of MPs in raw domestic laundry wastewater were investigated. The coagulation process was combined with ultrafiltration (UF) membrane filtration to enhance MP removal. The results showed that the concentrations of MPs in laundry wastewater ranged from 9000 to 11,000 particles/L, with fibrous particles constituting the majority (42.6%) and polyester accounting for 68.2% of detected MPs. Using aluminium chloride and ferric chloride as coagulants, maximum removal efficiencies of 91.7 and 98.3% were achieved, respectively. Mechanistic analysis revealed that charge neutralization played a dominant role during coagulation. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy further demonstrated the formation of new functional groups, substituted benzene rings, and the presence of Fe-O and Al-O bonds, indicating the interaction between MPs and coagulants. Furthermore, the UF membrane was used to remove fibrous MPs and MPs with low densities. These MPs had not been removed with pre-coagulation. The removal efficiency of these MPs reached 96 ± 2%, reducing their concentration to only 60 particles/L in the UF permeate. These findings highlight the synergistic potential of coagulation and UF membrane filtration for effective MP removal and provide a valuable reference for advancing wastewater treatment technologies targeting MP pollution.
... Decreased growth, organ toxicity and pathology, endocrine disruption, migration to organs, decreased feeding and/or weight loss, reduced reproductive outcomes and inflammation, in particular, were reported in previous studies (Ghosh et al., 2021;Gopal et al., 2022;Naidoo & Glassom, 2019;Reinold et al., 2021;Rochman et al., 2013;Sussarellu et al., 2016;Wright et al., 2013). MPs have been found in various marine species in the food pyramid chain, including detritus, producers, herbivores, primary carnivores, secondary carnivores, and quaternary consumers from various locations around the world (Besseling et al., 2013;Browne et al., 2008;Murphy et al., 2022;Reinold et al., 2021;Van Cauwenberghe & Janssen, 2014). ...
In this study, microplastics (MPs) contaminations in Kodek Bay, North Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, were investigated from water, sediment, and marine animal samples to evaluate the impact of waste discharges from anthropogenic activities and river run-off around the bay. The samples were collected from three site categories: port, residential area, and aquaculture floating net cages. Water quality in each site was also observed. Three marine animals with different feeding regimes were selected to assess MPs contamination, including pompano (Trachinotus blochii), crab (Ocypode kuhlii), and oyster (Crassostrea sp.). A series of extraction protocols followed by stereomicroscope observation were conducted to identify the MPs' abundance, form type, and color. Next, the MPs polymer type was characterized using Fourier Transform Infra Red (FT-IR) at a frequency range 4000–400 cm-1 resolution 4.0 with Bruker Alpha II spectrometer. The results showed no significant difference (P < 0.5) in MPs abundance in water (15.75–20 part.L⁻¹) and sediment (10.25–12.3 part.kgDW⁻¹) samples between the sites as well as between marine animals (23.20–27.03 part.ind⁻¹). Various MPs types and color proportions were observed from water and sediment from different sampling locations and marine animal body parts. The MPs form types found include fragment (6–58%), film (7–49%), fiber (2–25%), and pellet (20–78%), while based on the MPs particle colors, the proportion were black (14–78%), yellow (7–33%), blue (2–25%), red (8–30%) and green (2–30%). Analysis of functional groups and polymers from water, sediments, and marine animal samples indicated the presence of PS (Polystyrene) and PE (Polyethylene). The study results indicated widespread MP contamination in the Kodek Bay area. The results serve as a scientific-based recommendation for policymaking to further prevent MPs contamination in the area.
... In addition to their hydrophobic properties, their increased surface area facilitates the absorption of persistent organic pollutants. The ingestion of microplastics can therefore transfer these organic pollutants to aquatic organisms (Batel et al., 2016;Besseling et al., 2013). ...
Carvalho, D.G.de; Gaylarde, C.C.; Lourenço, M.F.de P.; Machado, W.T.V., and Baptista Neto, J.A., 0000. Seasonal variations in microplastic pollution in beach sediments along the eastern coast of Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Journal of Coastal Research, 00(00), 000-000. Charlotte (North Carolina), ISSN 0749-0208. Microplastics (MPs) have become a pollutant of intense global concern. Sandy beaches represent fragile ecosystems facing this new threat, since these environments have become deposits for large amounts of plastic waste. Despite this, current knowledge about MP distribution on beaches and the scale of pollution is still lacking, especially in South America. For the first time, the distribution and features of MPs in the sand of 27 beaches along the eastern sector of Rio de Janeiro State shore were studied. MPs were present on all the beaches, but the quantities varied with the season. During the summer, 562 particles were found, whereas in winter, this number exceeded 2987 MP particles. Polymers were identified by attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy as polyethylene, high-density and low-density polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. MPs in fragment form comprised almost 50% of the total, with fibers being the next most common form. Calculation of the car-bonyl index allows the detection of aging in a selected number of MPs of different polymer types. The summer/winter variation indicated sea and wind forces to be the main determining factors for MP distribution. ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Sand, seasonal variation, MP polymers, carbonyl index.
... p0060 Microplastics harm Artemia franciscana and Calanus finmarchicus physiological conditions, behavioral capacity, and feeding capacity impairment, modify growth and development, decrease fat accumulation, modify predator behavior, cause cellular death, and modify the metabolism of energy, inflammatory response, and oxidative stress (Cole et al., 2019;Enfrin et al., 2020;Lee et al., 2019;Trevisan et al., 2019). The marine lugworm Arenicola marina lost weight as a result of its inability to feed due to the uptake of microplastics (Besseling et al., 2013). Furthermore, the growth and reproduction processes of the benthic organism Hyalella azteca are inhibited by the ingestion of polyethene ( (Greve & Binzer, 2004). ...
Microplastic pollution is a worldwide problem that negatively impacts the marine ecosystem's food supply. Their highest concentrations are found in mid-ocean gyres and along coastal lines. Because they frequently have sizes that are similar to those of prey as well as are mistaken for food, microplastics pose a threat to marine life. When consumed, may cause a variety of harmful effects on marine life, which could make it easier for hydrophobic contaminants to find their way into aquatic environments. This chapter explains the effects of microplastic pollution on both humans and marine organisms. Various studies have shown that eating microplastics has caused fish to ingest chemical toxins, which can harm their digestive systems, choke marine life, serve as a pathway for the spread of bacteria, and reduce their ability to grow and reproduce. Fish and human survival are more at risk as a result of these threats. Marine scientists have thus found it necessary to spread awareness to the public about the risks associated with using products that endanger the health of marine organisms as well as the ecosystem. Further, we have discussed gathering and assessment of marine microplastics, analytical approaches for the characterization of microplastics, control of microplastic contamination in marine ecosystems, and techniques for the separation of microplastics from the marine environment. This chapter will help the researchers working on microplastic pollution, its control, and its effects on marine systems along with human health.
... Due to their small size, MPs may disrupt the activity of organisms and cause blockage, inflammation, and accumulation in tissues 18 . MPs have been shown to reduce photosynthesis and growth of microalgae 19 , and also negatively affect feeding activity of zooplankton 20 and worms 21 . In addition, they probably cause adverse effects on gills, stomach, and hepatopancreas of crabs 22 and cause negative changes in tissues and organs of the fish 23 . ...
Introduction: This study aims to evaluate knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) of people towards Microplastics (MPs). Materials and Methods: Data were collected from 500 residences in Kerman city, southeast Iran, in 2023 through a questionnaire that was designed and validated by the authors. Results: More respondents were female (65%), 18–30 years old (43%), undergraduate (48%), and students (35%), and 63% of respondents sorted garbage. Respondents had good knowledge towards general information, but not towards expert information. The highest percentage of respondents with correct answers to the knowledge questions (80%) had the knowledge about environmental pollution to MPs, causing diseases in humans. The maximum percentage of respondents agreed to the attitude questions (57%) agreed with the point that food sellers should recommend cloth bags to shoppers instead of plastic bag, and 60% of them would like to know more about MPs. In terms of practice, 41% of the respondents stated that they usually leave plastic waste in the environment. Conclusion: The current study showed that there is limited information about MPs in books and among the public. Education and offering free reusable bags were considered as the effective policies to reduce MPs pollution. Also, less environmental awareness and poor management were considered as challenges to reduce emission of MPs.
... While earthworms were not affected when ingesting small amounts of MPs (<0.5% w/w) [139], the ingestion of larger amounts of MPs (1%-2% w/w) reflected in higher mortality and slower growth [139,140]. Significant ingestion of MPs also led to altered burrowing behavior, altered feeding behavior [141], and reduced reproduction [142]. At a molecular level, earthworm exposure to MPs altered catalase (CAT) activity [143][144][145][146]. CAT is a common and highly active enzyme in organisms that directly catalyzes the decomposition of H 2 O 2 to nontoxic water and O 2 . ...
The short review describes the sources of microplastics in agricultural soil, the redistribution of microplastics within the soil and the effect of microplastics on soil and plant health as well as on plant growth. It details efforts to substitute plastics in farming with biomass derived materials.
... Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) exchange microplastics. Microplastics act as carriers for the accumulation of different toxic substances like polychlorinated biphenyls (Besseling et al. 2013), phenanthrene (Ma et al. 2016), mercury (which includes concentration in gills) (Barboza et al. 2018b), and venlafaxine, an antidepressant with chirality ). This process is facilitated by the transfer of microplastics through the food chain in ecosystems. ...
Since 1950, there has been a notable surge in plastic production, with approximately 381 million tons of plastics being produced by 2015, sparking global apprehension regarding plastic pollution. Microplastics, which are plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, result from the degradation of plastic-based products across various ecosystems. These particles accumulate in freshwater and seawater bodies, urban and rural areas, as well as ocean in sediments. The primary and secondary sources of microplastics in water bodies include plastic pellets, fragmentation of plastic objects, fishing activities, and offshore drilling, with ocean seabeds serving as significant repositories for plastics. Various analytical techniques, including Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and near-infrared spectroscopy, are discussed in this chapter as effective tools for the identification and quantification of microplastics in water. Concerns about the ecosystem impacts of microplastics in both freshwater and marine environments, as well as their diverse effects on aquatic life such as marine invertebrates, fish, algae, zooplankton, and sea turtles, highlight potential risks to human health through microplastic ingestion and the presence of plastic constituents in human tissues. To address microplastic pollution sustainably, management strategies should encompass regulations and policies to control plastic production and usage, with a focus on regional collaboration, public awareness campaigns, and educational initiatives. Implementing preventive measures such as the 3Rs (reduce, reuse, recycle) is crucial, and international cooperation is imperative to tackle the global issue of microplastic pollution. Sustainable waste management practices and removal technologies are vital for mitigating microplastic pollution in aquatic environments, given the persistence and low degradability of microplastics. The lack of research on microplastics in less affluent nations underscores the need for comprehensive studies, particularly in freshwater settings. Challenges include the difficulty in detecting and quantifying microplastics, the absence of standardized reporting, and the necessity for enhanced methodologies in wastewater treatment facilities. Sustainable strategies for plastic waste management, adherence to circular economy principles, and active public engagement are recommended to diminish plastic and microplastic pollution.
... MP uptake has been observed in over 300 marine species, including zooplankton, benthic invertebrates, fish, sea reptiles, seabirds, and marine mammals (Gallo et al., 2018;Luan et al., 2019;Savoca et al., 2021). Without enzymatic pathways specific to synthetic polymer break down, the assimilation of MPs can inflict a variety of physical effects (depending on the size and shape) in most aquatic organisms, including gut obstruction and ulcerative lesions; weight loss from decreased food and nutrient intake; reduce respiration rates from MP entrapment in the gills; interfere with other tissues or organs (i.e., lysosomal, circulatory, hemolymph) via translocation; impact development, metabolic parameters, or cellular function; impair mobility, brain function and reproductive output; or reduce life expectancy (Browne et al., 2008;Teuten et al., 2009;Andrady, 2011;Besseling et al., 2013;Lambert et al., 2013;Wright et al., 2013b;da Costa et al., 2017;Law, 2017;Nelms et al., 2019;Hale et al., 2020). ...
We examined the ecological and toxicological implications of the microplastic, Cyanox®53, found in sediments and varnish clams across seven beaches in Burrard Inlet, British Columbia (BC). Using the simulation models embedded within Estimation Programs Interface (EPI) Suite™, the potential persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity of Cyanox®53 was assessed to evaluate the risk to varnish clams foraging on sediment containing this contaminant. Moreover, we used a bioenergetic model, based on the blue-listed surf scoter species, to estimate the risk of daily ingestion of Cyanox®53 per body weight in overwintering seabirds. Our findings indicate that varnish clams collected from Burrard Inlet accumulate on average 0.46 particles of Cyanox®53/clam, and based on bioenergetic modeling, results in surf scoters potentially consuming 78 (for males) to 83 (for females) pieces of Cyanox®53 daily from foraged varnish clams. EPI Suite™ predicted Cyanox®53 to be persistent, however, unlikely to bioaccumulate as a “traditional” chemical. Furthermore, the estimation of potential acute and chronic toxicity of Cyanox®53 to aquatic organism surrogates, such as fish, Daphnia magna, and green algae, was inconclusive due to model variability and limitations within EPI Suite™. To fully understand the potential risks of Cyanox®53 further investigation is warranted.
... MPs are also produced industrially as beads or pellets used in cleaning and hygiene products [8][9][10]. MPs are pervasive, bio-accumulative, and often found ingested by seabirds, fishes, muscles, and even zooplanktons [8,[11][12][13][14], and thus pose a serious concern. Also, they cause adverse effects such as intestinal blockage, inflammation, oxidative stress, and reduced growth [15][16][17]. ...
Microplastic (MP) contamination has become a concern due to its ubiquitous presence. Recent studies have found MPs to be present in multiple human organs. This study was carried out to evaluate the presence and characterize MPs in indoor dust deposition. Deposited dust was collected from fifteen households in Dhaka city. The samples underwent quantification of MPs using stereomicroscopy. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was performed to understand the polymer composition. MPs of the size group ranging from 50 to 250 μm were the most dominant. The deposition rates varied from 7.52 × 10³ MPs/m²/day to 66.29 × 10³ MPs/m²/day, with the mean deposition rate being 34 × 10³ MPs/m²/day. Notably, the number of occupants and the height of the sampling location above the ground level were found to influence the deposition rates. Various polymers, including polyester (PET), polyethylene (PE), Nylon, and polypropylene (PP), were identified. The estimated mean inhalation exposure was 2986 ± 1035 MPs/kg-BW/day. This work highlights the need for additional research to explore indoor microplastic deposition and its potential effect on human health in the densely inhabited and severely polluted megapolis of Dhaka, Bangladesh.
... Rochmanet al., 2013, shows that tiny particles of low density polyethylene (LDPE) were when exposed to environmental bay condition for three consecutive months then firstly it was fed by the fishes soon after two months the tissue of the fish had greater concentration ofpersistent bio-accumulative and toxic substances (PBTS) which results to the liver stress, glycogen depletion, fatty vaculation and cell necrosis which shows the negative impacts of these toxins . Upto 2014, a total 21 Eco-toxicological effects of MPs was investigated in which ingestion occur either directly or by praying The overall impact on the ingestion of MPs on the fishes include reduction of feeding activity (Besseling et al., 2013, de Sá et al., 2015 oxidative stress (Della Torre et al., 2014) , Geno toxicity (Della Torre et al., 2014) neurotoxicity (Oliveira et al., 2012, Oliveira et al., 2013, Luis et al., 2015, Ribeiro et al., 2017 growth delay ( Della Torre et al., 2014, Au et al., 2015, Redondo-Hasselerharm et al., 2018 reduction in reproductive fitness (Lee et al., 2013, Cole et al., 2015 and ultimately death (Lee et al., 2013, Au et al., 2015, Cole et al., 2015, Mazurais et al., 2015. ...
... Pond turtles fed the highest dose of PE had lower serum triglyceride concentration than controls. In addition to direct effects that microplastics might have on reptiles, microplastics bind lipophilic compounds such as PCBs, thus making microplastics a potential vehicle for exposure to a variety of EDCs (Besseling et al., 2013). Lastly, EDCs, such a nonylphenol, can leach out of plastics and enter the food chain by ingestion or absorption, as has been shown in fish (Hamlin et al., 2015). ...
... Plastic debris floating on the sea surface becomes increasingly fragmented by wave action and ultraviolet radiation, gradually forming what is referred to as microplastics (MPs) (Wright et al., 2013;Frias and Nash, 2019). Due to their small size, MPs are ingested by various marine organisms, even by zooplankton (Cole et al., 2013;Desforges et al., 2015), resulting in the accumulation of persistent organic pollutants in organisms (Yamashita et al., 2011;Besseling et al., 2013). This bioaccumulation of MPs has a variety of negative effects on marine life, including decreasing growth (Kaposi et al., 2014;Jeong et al., 2016;Martínez-Gómez et al., 2017) and fertility (Au et al., 2015;Jeong et al., 2016), and increasing mortality (Lee et al., 2013;Au et al., 2015). ...
... Specific concerns for organisms exposed to plastic chemicals and particles, which present a multiple-stressor scenario due to combined physical and chemical exposure, include changes in behavior, impeded growth and reproduction, respiratory stress, and changes in gene and protein expression indicating cellular and tissue-level damage. Owing to their specific physical properties, some shapes and size ranges of MNPs appear to be more toxic than others, with microfibers and tire wear particles currently of greatest toxicological concern (Au et al., 2015;Barboza et al., 2018;Besseling et al., 2013;Capolupo et al., 2020;Capolupo et al., 2021;Green et al., 2016;Hägg et al., 2023;Horn et al., 2020;Jabeen et al., 2018;Jacob et al., 2020;Jovanovic, 2017;Kim et al., 2021;Monclûs et al., 2022;Siddiqui et al., 2022;Siddiqui et al., 2023;Sørensen et al., 2023;Stienbarger et al., 2021;Tian et al., 2021). While most research is available on aquatic organisms, these impacts also encompass terrestrial ecosystems, for which fewer data exist, with nascent studies highlighting similar issues for soil organisms (e.g., earthworms) as for marine and freshwater denizens (Lwanga et al., 2016;Rillig et al., 2017;Zhu et al., 2019). ...
The ubiquitous and global ecological footprint arising from the rapidly increasing rates of plastic production, use, and release into the environment is an important modern environmental issue. Of increasing concern are the risks associated with at least 16,000 chemicals present in plastics, some of which are known to be toxic, and which may leach out both during use and once exposed to environmental conditions, leading to environmental and human exposure. In response, the United Nations member states agreed to establish an international legally binding instrument on plastic pollution, the global plastics treaty. The resolution acknowledges that the treaty should prevent plastic pollution and its related impacts, that effective prevention requires consideration of the
transboundary nature of plastic production, use and pollution, and that the full life cycle of plastics must be addressed. As a group of scientific experts and members of the Scientists' Coalition for an Effective Plastics Treaty, we concur that there are six essential “pillars” necessary to truly reduce plastic pollution and allow for chemical detoxification across the full life cycle of plastics. These include a plastic chemical reduction and simplification, safe and sustainable design of plastic chemicals, incentives for change, holistic approaches for alternatives, just transition and equitable interventions, and centering human rights. There is a critical need for scientifically informed and globally harmonized information, transparency, and traceability criteria to protect the environment
and public health. The right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment must be upheld, and thus it is crucial that scientists, industry, and policy makers work in concert to create a future free from hazardous plastic contamination.
... The surface of microplastics has undergone certain changes compared to new plastics, especially in this regard, which has led to a stronger adsorption capacity of microplastics for pollutants (heavy metals, organochlorine pesticides, etc.), thereby exacerbating the pollution of the sea area. For example, the amount of trace metal elements adsorbed on the surface of new resin particles is much lower than that of resin particles on beaches [12]. Therefore, the detailed classification of these plastics is of great significance for the study of microplastics. ...
Based on the rapid development of offshore fisheries and aquaculture in recent years, this paper focuses on the increasingly serious pollution and destruction of the ecological environment, especially the serious problem of white pollution represented by microplastics. The author of this article focuses on the study of microplastic white pollution and analyzes and studies the surface sediments of aquaculture waters in Zhoushan Islands, Zhejiang, and Maowei Sea, Guangxi, as well as typical tidal flats around them. Compare by collecting data on surface sediments, microplastics on tidal flats, and microplastic types in nearby tidal flats from two locations. The microplastics in the two regions are divided into fragments, fibers, foams, and films based on their appearance and shape. The proportion of fibers is the highest, and the particle size of microplastics is mainly below 1mm. The color of microplastics is mainly lighter, with the highest amount of white. The chemical components of microplastics include polyester, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, and polyamide. The research results are helpful for routine marine biological surveys and can serve as a basis for evaluating marine debris, especially microplastics
... MPs have been identified as substances that can detrimentally affect aquatic digestion, potentially leading to issues such as intestinal obstruction, animal malnutrition, and altered energy intake [11]. Ingestion of MPs can lead to a range of issues, including obstructed digestive tracts, inflammation, organ damage, and the accumulation of toxic chemicals in the body. ...
Microplastics (MPs) pollution represents a nascent environmental contaminant that has recently infiltrated human life and the food chain. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the presence of MPs in different brands of Iranian sausages. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of MPs particles were conducted using stereo- and fluorescent microscopy, FT-IR (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy), and SEM-EDS (Scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) techniques. Samples were collected from the most commonly consumed sausage brands in Iranian markets. The findings showed that the various sausage brands contained an average abundance of 25.7 ± 21.68 (range 10–70) and 55.45 ± 45.5 (range 10–175) particles/kg based on optical and fluorescent microscopy analyses, respectively. Predominantly, MPs were identified in fiber form (77–89 %), with a smaller proportion present in fragmented form (11–23 %). Polymer analysis using FT-IR identified polyethylene (PE) and polystyrene (PS) as the primary constituents. Furthermore, the estimated annual intake (EAI) of MPs was calculated at 804 and 3517 particles/kg bw/year for adults and children, respectively, based on optical microscopy observations. In comparison, fluorescent microscopy indicated an intake of 1734 and 7589 particles/kg bw/year for the respective age groups. These results emphasize the potential of MPs contamination to penetrate into different food products including sausages through processing routes, which can threaten human health.
... Nanoplastics are also used in many personal care products such as cosmetics and sunscreen, where they facilitate the transfer of various drugs and chemicals inside the body [48]. Continuous usage of these personal care products leads to dermal exposure to nanoplastics in humans [49]. ...
Microplastics or nanoplastics are particles of plastic with a size range of 1 to 1000 nm and have emerged as a big public health concern due to their pervasive presence in the environment and their potential to gradually harm human health. This study provides an overview of the capability of nanoplastics to cause complex and diverse effects on human health, consisting of information from pre-existing research from multidisciplinary fields such as toxicology, environmental science, epidemiology, and public health.
Microplastic pollution has emerged to be a crucial environmental concern. Despite the growing body of research on microplastic ingestion in oceans and marine organisms, there is a knowledge gap concerning the effects of microplastic exposure on freshwater ecosystems, which support diverse communities of plants, animals, and microorganisms. The freshwater snail Biomphalaria alexandrina is a valuable model for dissecting the ecological impact of many pollutants in aquatic environments. This study aimed to investigate the impacts of ingesting microplastic particles on B. alexandrina, particularly focusing on polyvinyl chloride (PVC), widely used in plastic applications, piping, electrical, and vehicle equipment, which results in their frequent presence in ecosystems. A combination of behavioral, physiological, biochemical, and histological assessments revealed profound effects of microplastic ingestion by these mollusks. These effects include the accumulation of PVC particles in their intestines, a reduction in feeding behavior, decreases in survival and growth rates, disruptions in biochemical parameters, induction of oxidative stress, and histological damage to their digestive glands. Additionally, our data suggest that the adverse impacts are concentration-dependent, with higher PVC concentrations causing more severe harm. Our findings advance our understanding of the potential consequences of microplastic pollution in freshwater habitats and inform targeted mitigation strategies.
Microplastics (MPs) remain in the aquatic environment for long periods due to their persistence, and there are concerns that they may adversely affect aquatic ecosystems. On the other hand, there is the problem that the number of research cases on MPs for aquatic organisms has been limited in Japan. In this study, we aimed to understand the actual presence of MPs in the digestive tract of freshwater fish and the relationship between MPs in the digestive tract of fish and their habitat. In the survey of MPs in the digestive tract of Gnathopogon elongatus elongatus, there was a significant difference in the number of MPs between the June and October samples, suggesting the effect of activation of its feeding behaviour during the breeding season. In the survey of MPs in the sediment, Polyester fibers were the most abundant MPs in the sediment, suggesting that fibrous MPs sourced from laundry wastewater flow into the Shokanji River and Shokanji Pond and are deposited in the sediment environment. Comparison of the components of MPs in the digestive tract of G. elongatus elongatus and MPs in the sediment indicated that it also ingests MPs present in the sediment when preying on benthic organisms.
Plastic cannot decompose entirely in natural ecosystems due to its persistent covalent bonds, hydrophobicity, and resistant functional groups. It disintegrates into micro or nano form due to certain physical, chemical, or biological factors. Plastic's micro and nano forms can readily enter the food chain, resulting in the bioaccumulation and biomagnification of harmful substances. In view of the facts concerning plastic degradation, this review article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of microplastic degradation processes, degradation mechanism, uptake and translocation, and toxicity mechanism. A prominent search in Google Scholar used the keywords microplastics, degradation mechanisms, biotoxicity, and toxicity mechanism to strengthen and identify the concepts related to MPs and their effect on ecosystems. Plastics, with a lifespan of 100–1000 years, undergo degradation due to environmental weathering. Degradation processes include chemical, thermal, photochemical, and biological. Factors like composition, structure, and additives influence degradation. Advanced oxidation methods are popular for chemical degradation, showing UV radiation can degrade 7–22% of floating plastic. The eradication of microplastics from the ecosystem has become a significant challenge for protecting humans and other organisms. Future research should identify environmental parameters affecting plastic degradation, predict plastic fate, and develop technologies for pollution reduction, mainly focusing on microplastics and nanoplastics' formation and degradation.
Plastic polymers pose a significant challenge due to their resistance to degradation, resulting in their persistent
accumulation in the environment and exacerbating a critical environmental concern. Urgent innovation and
novel management technologies are essential to tackle this issue. Plastic biodegradation, distinguished by its
environmentally friendly and safe attributes, has garnered substantial attention as a viable solution. Insects are
pivotal in this process, utilizing their gut microbes to facilitate plastic degradation. The enzymatic action within
the digestive tracts of diverse insect hosts and their microbial symbionts contributes to the breakdown of these
polymers. This comprehensive review delves into the current landscape and strategies aimed at combating plastic
pollution, with a specific focus on the involvement of insects such as mealworms (Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus),
superworms (Zophobas atratus Blanchard), greater wax moths (Galleria mellonella Linnaeus), and various other
insect species in the degradation of plastics. This review explores the different insects involved in plastic
degradation, the mechanisms by which insects degrade plastics and delineates the characteristics of resultant
degradable products. Furthermore, it investigates the future potential for plastic degradation by insects and
examines the prospective developmental pathways for degradable plastics. Ultimately, this review provides an
array of solutions by using various insects to pervasive the issue of plastic pollution.
Airborne microplastics are emerging pollutants originating from disposable tableware, packaging materials, textiles, and other consumer goods. Microplastics vary in shape and size and exposed to external factors break down into even smaller fractions. Airborne microplastics are abundant in both urban and natural environments, including water bodies and glaciers, as particles can travel long distances. The potential toxicity of airborne microplastics cannot be underestimated. Microparticles, especially those < 10 µm, entering the human body through inhalation or ingestion have been shown to cause serious adverse health effects, such as chronic inflammation, oxidation stress, physical damage to tissues, etc. Microplastics adsorb toxic chemicals and biopolymers, forming a polymer corona on their surface, affecting their overall toxicity. In addition, microplastics can also affect carbon dynamics in ecosystems and have a serious impact on biochemical cycles. The approaches to improve sampling techniques and develop standardized methods to assess airborne microplastics are still far from being perfect. The mechanisms of microplastic intracellular and tissue transport are still not clear, and the impact of airborne microplastics on human health is not understood well. Reduced consumption followed by collection, reuse, and recycling of microplastics can contribute to solving the microplastic problem. Combinations of different filtration techniques and membrane bioreactors can be used to optimize the removal of microplastic contaminants from wastewater. In this review we critically summarize the existing body of literature on airborne microplastics, including their distribution, identification, and safety assessment.
Plastic contamination in the Southern Ocean is a growing issue. This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of marine microplastics (MPs) (0.1–5 mm) in surface sediments in Potter Cove and nearby areas around Argentina's Carlini station (25 de Mayo/King George Island, South Shetlands). Sediment samples from 31 sites (2020−2022) were collected to examine whether MP pollution originates from station activities or ocean currents. All samples contained MPs, averaging 0.18 ± 0.12 MPs/g of sediment, mainly microfibers (MFs) and irregular microfragments (MFRs) (0.11–6.23 mm) and irregular microfragments (MFRs) (0.09–4.57 mm). Infrared spectroscopy identified 13 polymer types, including cellulosic materials, polyester, and polyamide, with most MPs < 1 mm, showing aging signs, similar to laundry wear. This widespread distribution suggests contamination may stem from both local activities and external sources. Findings underscore the urgent need for MP pollution management and further research to identify sources and develop effective mitigation strategies.
Plastics have become an indispensable part of our lives due to their low cost and long lifespan, and their production is increasing. They are broken down into small structures, such as microplastics and nanoplastics, through different pathways. Compared to macro-sized plastics, their penetration and transport rates are significantly higher. They can remain without degradation for many years when released into the environmental habitat. They can be toxic due to the chemical structures added to provide flexibility or resistance to high and low temperatures during plastic production. Therefore, they can become an essential pollutant in the ecosystem. They can cause adverse effects on aquatic organisms by disrupting the balance of various water parameters, causing bioaccumulation in aquatic environments, and threatening the aquatic ecosystem. These small-sized plastics can cause anomalies in the organs of aquatic organisms. Toxicity is observed in the tissues of fish exposed to nano and microplastics in aquatic environments. They can cause developmental, reproductive, and gastrointestinal system disorders, oxidative stress, and toxicity by showing bioaccumulation in the tissues. The effects of these substances on organisms such as high trophic level fish constantly increase. In recent years, zebrafish and embryos have frequently been preferred to evaluate the toxic effects of plastics. This review aims to evaluate the effects of micro and nanoplastics, which pose a risk to ecosystems and organisms due to increasing plastic usage, on zebrafish as a model organism through a series of systems such as reproductive toxicity, neurotoxicity, locomotor activity, cardiotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, oxidative stress, and developmental toxicity.
Microplastics have frequently been regarded as a threat to aquatic organisms due to their potential to enhance the accessibility of organic pollutants. However, studies of microplastics as “carriers” in the process of bioaccumulation have only been conducted on a few organic contaminants. In this study, we employed machine learning algorithms to predict the sorption capacity of 83 exogenous organic pollutants (in CCL4) on microplastics, the prediction model exhibits exceptional predictive performance, achieving R2 values of 0.8651 and 0.6962, RMSE values of 0.4625 and 0.1841 for the sorption coefficients Kf and n, respectively, and quantitatively estimated the contribution of microplastics to the bioaccumulation levels of organic pollutants in Gadus morhua. By considering both natural and microplastic-ingesting pathways, we demonstrated that the ingestion of microplastics containing organic pollutants facilitates the entry of organic pollutants into Gadus morhua. However, due to their robust sorption capacity, microplastics transport the organic pollutants accumulated through the natural pathway out of the fish, thereby preventing bioaccumulation. These findings elucidate the “cleaning” mechanism of microplastics concerning various organic pollutants in aquatic organisms, providing valuable insights for accurately assessing the risk of microplastics in aquatic environments.
Plastic debris has emerged as a significant contributor to marine pollution, posing substantial threats to marine ecosystems due to its persistence, ubiquity, and inherent toxicity. This issue has been exacerbated by the continuous introduction of microplastics into the oceans from the degradation of marine plastics or transportation from land sources. Microplastics are minute plastic particles indiscernible to the naked eye and disseminated across vast distances via rivers, lakes, streams, and floodwaters. Microplastics can be categorized based on their size or by sources of origin. They can either originate from primary sources where they are added intentionally (personal care products, plastic recycling, and cleaning agents) or secondary sources where they are released as a product of plastic degradation (fragmented plastics like fishing nets, tires, and single-use packaging). These microscopic pollutants serve as vectors for highly toxic chemicals in the ocean, some of which are persistent and endocrine-disrupting. Microorganisms mistake these particles for food, ingesting them with adsorbed chemicals, which later culminate in adverse effects on the ecosystem via bioaccumulation and contamination of the food chain. The regular detection of microplastics in the human body further underscores the severity of the issue. Recognized globally as a significant concern, efforts are currently underway to mitigate the adverse impacts of plastics and microplastics on the environment and human health.
We live in a plastic era, and microplastics (MPs) (shorter than 5 millimeters in length)—the smaller pieces of plastic broken down from larger ones—find their sources from a variety of plastic polymers. Microplastics are often classified into three broad types: microbeads—found in skin care products; plastic pellets—come from industrial manufacturing; and microfibers—coming from synthetic textiles. Microfiber pollution is an emerging issue, with synthetic microfiber pollutants entering our waterways and ultimately contaminating the air and soil. Nonbiodegradable polymers such as nylon, PP, PET, and PE account for these synthetic microfibers, sourced primarily from textile industries and domestic washing. The synthetic filaments that make up our clothing, when washed along with the effects of water, friction, abrasion, and detergents, lead to the shedding of those filaments, eventually ending up in water streams. Textiles at every stage, from production to use to disposal, leach out synthetic microfibers flowing through untreated wastewater effluents, absorbing toxic chemicals, heavy metals, and oil, becoming lethal pollutants in rivers, lakes, and oceans (Das et al. Bioresource Technol 102:7381–7387, 2011). So now the tiny microfibers are dispersed throughout the water, leading to contamination, restricted not just in the water but in the soil and land. The inclusion of the contaminants into the aquatic and land food chains is heading for a global impact on human health and the ecosystem. This chapter deals with the synthetic clothing, mostly polyester, nylon, and acrylic mixed with microfiber, as new budding pollutants of water and how it is forging into ecological consequences on a global scale. Studies report that these polluted and contaminated microfibers cause stomach damage, inflammation, endocrine system disruption, and cardiotoxicity in both marine animals and humans.
Plastic debris causes extensive damage to the marine environment, largely due to its ability to resist degradation. Attachment on plastic surfaces is a key initiation process for their degradation. The tendency of environmental marine bacteria to adhere to poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) plastic surfaces as a model material was investigated. It was found that the overall number of heterotrophic bacteria in a sample of sea water taken from St. Kilda Beach, Melbourne, Australia, was significantly reduced after six months from 4.2-4.7×10(3) cfu mL(-1) to below detectable levels on both full-strength and oligotrophic marine agar plates. The extinction of oligotrophs after six months was detected in all samples. In contrast, the overall bacterial number recovered on full strength marine agar from the sample flasks with PET did not dramatically reduce. Heterotrophic bacteria recovered on full-strength marine agar plates six months after the commencement of the experiment were found to have suitable metabolic activity to survive in sea water while attaching to the PET plastic surface followed by the commencement of biofilm formation.
Assessing the hazard posed by sediments contaminated with hydrophobic organic compounds is difficult, because measuring the freely dissolved porewater concentrations of such low-solubility chemicals can be challenging, and estimating their sediment-water partition coefficients remains quite uncertain. We suggest that more accurate site assessments can be achieved by employing sampling devices in which polymers, with known polymer-water partition coefficients, are used to absorb the contaminants from the sediment. To demonstrate the current accuracy and limitations of this approach, we compared use of three polymers, polydimethylsiloxane, polyoxymethylene, and polyethylene, exposed to a single sediment in two modes, one in which they were exhaustively mixed (tumbled) with the sediment and the other in which they were simply inserted into a static bed (passive). Comparing porewater concentrations of specific polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners with results obtained using air bridges, we found the results for tumbled polymers agreed within 20%, and the passive sampling agreed within a factor of 2. In contrast, porewater estimates based on sediment concentrations normalized to f(OC)K(OC), the weight fraction of organic carbon times the organic-carbon normalized partition coefficient, averaged a factor of 7 too high. We also found good correlations of each polymer's uptake of the PCBs with bioaccumulation by the polychaete, Neanthes arenaceodentata. Future improvements of the passive sampling mode will require devices that equilibrate faster and/or have some means such as performance reference compounds to estimate mass transfer limitations for individual deployments.
Plastics debris in the marine environment, including resin pellets, fragments and microscopic plastic fragments, contain organic contaminants, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, petroleum hydrocarbons, organochlorine pesticides (2,2'-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane, hexachlorinated hexanes), polybrominated diphenylethers, alkylphenols and bisphenol A, at concentrations from sub ng g(-1) to microg g(-1). Some of these compounds are added during plastics manufacture, while others adsorb from the surrounding seawater. Concentrations of hydrophobic contaminants adsorbed on plastics showed distinct spatial variations reflecting global pollution patterns. Model calculations and experimental observations consistently show that polyethylene accumulates more organic contaminants than other plastics such as polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride. Both a mathematical model using equilibrium partitioning and experimental data have demonstrated the transfer of contaminants from plastic to organisms. A feeding experiment indicated that PCBs could transfer from contaminated plastics to streaked shearwater chicks. Plasticizers, other plastics additives and constitutional monomers also present potential threats in terrestrial environments because they can leach from waste disposal sites into groundwater and/or surface waters. Leaching and degradation of plasticizers and polymers are complex phenomena dependent on environmental conditions in the landfill and the chemical properties of each additive. Bisphenol A concentrations in leachates from municipal waste disposal sites in tropical Asia ranged from sub microg l(-1) to mg l(-1) and were correlated with the level of economic development.
One of the most ubiquitous and long-lasting recent changes to the surface of our planet is the accumulation and fragmentation of plastics. Within just a few decades since mass production of plastic products commenced in the 1950s, plastic debris has accumulated in terrestrial environments, in the open ocean, on shorelines of even the most remote islands and in the deep sea. Annual clean-up operations, costing millions of pounds sterling, are now organized in many countries and on every continent. Here we document global plastics production and the accumulation of plastic waste. While plastics typically constitute approximately 10 per cent of discarded waste, they represent a much greater proportion of the debris accumulating on shorelines. Mega- and macro-plastics have accumulated in the highest densities in the Northern Hemisphere, adjacent to urban centres, in enclosed seas and at water convergences (fronts). We report lower densities on remote island shores, on the continental shelf seabed and the lowest densities (but still a documented presence) in the deep sea and Southern Ocean. The longevity of plastic is estimated to be hundreds to thousands of years, but is likely to be far longer in deep sea and non-surface polar environments. Plastic debris poses considerable threat by choking and starving wildlife, distributing non-native and potentially harmful organisms, absorbing toxic chemicals and degrading to micro-plastics that may subsequently be ingested. Well-established annual surveys on coasts and at sea have shown that trends in mega- and macro-plastic accumulation rates are no longer uniformly increasing: rather stable, increasing and decreasing trends have all been reported. The average size of plastic particles in the environment seems to be decreasing, and the abundance and global distribution of micro-plastic fragments have increased over the last few decades. However, the environmental consequences of such microscopic debris are still poorly understood.
The Procellariiformes are the birds most affected by plastic pollution. Plastic fragments and pellets were the most frequent items found in the digestive tract of eight species of Procellariiformes incidentally caught by longline fisheries as well as beached birds in Southern Brazil. Plastic objects were found in 62% of the petrels and 12% of the albatrosses. The Great shearwater, Manx shearwater, Cory's shearwater and Antarctic fulmar were found to have greater quantities and frequencies of occurrence of plastic. There was no significant difference in the number of plastics between the birds from longline fisheries and beached birds. No correlation was found between the number of prey and number of plastics in the digestive tract of the birds analyzed, but this does not discard the hypothesis that, in some cases, the presence of plastic in the digestive tract has a negative effect on the feeding efficiency of these birds.
Plastics debris is accumulating in the environment and is fragmenting into smaller pieces; as it does, the potential for ingestion by animals increases. The consequences of macroplastic debris for wildlife are well documented, however the impacts of microplastic (< 1 mm) are poorly understood. The mussel, Mytilus edulis, was used to investigate ingestion, translocation, and accumulation of this debris. Initial experiments showed that upon ingestion, microplastic accumulated in the gut. Mussels were subsequently exposed to treatments containing seawater and microplastic (3.0 or 9.6 microm). After transfer to clean conditions, microplastic was tracked in the hemolymph. Particles translocated from the gut to the circulatory system within 3 days and persisted for over 48 days. Abundance of microplastic was greatest after 12 days and declined thereafter. Smaller particles were more abundant than larger particles and our data indicate as plastic fragments into smaller particles, the potential for accumulation in the tissues of an organism increases. The short-term pulse exposure used here did not result in significant biological effects. However, plastics are exceedingly durable and so further work using a wider range of organisms, polymers, and periods of exposure will be required to establish the biological consequences of this debris.
Millions of metric tons of plastic are produced annually. Countless large items of plastic debris are accumulating in marine habitats worldwide and may persist for centuries ([ 1 ][1]–[ 4 ][2]). Here we show that microscopic plastic fragments and fibers ([Fig. 1A][3]) are also widespread in the
Thermoplastic resin pellets are melted and formed into an enormous number of inexpensive consumer goods, many of which are discarded after a relatively short period of use, dropped haphazardly onto watersheds and then make their way to the ocean where some get ingested by marine life. In 2003 and 2004 pre-production thermoplastic resin pellets and post-consumer plastic fragments were collected and analyzed for contamination for persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Samples were taken from the North Pacific Gyre, and selected sites in California, Hawaii, and from Guadalupe Island, Mexico. The total concentration of PCBs ranged from 27 to 980 ng/g; DDTs from 22 to 7100 ng/g and PAHs from 39 to 1200 ng/g, and aliphatic hydrocarbons from 1.1 to 8600 microg/g. Analytical methods were developed to extract, concentrate and identify POPs that may have accumulated on plastic fragments and plastic pellets. The results of this study confirm that plastic debris is a trap for POPs.
The purpose of this study was to provide data to be used in The Netherlands for development of ecotoxicologically based quality criteria for oil-contaminated sediments and dredged material. In addition, the relation of toxicity to specific oil boiling-point fraction ranges was explored. Natural marine sediment, with a moisture, organic carbon, and silt content of approximately 80, 1.8, and 33% of the dry weight, respectively, was artificially spiked using a spiking method developed in this project. Aliquots of one part of the sediment were spiked to several concentrations of Gulf distillate marine grade A (DMA) gasoil (containing 64% C10-19) and aliquots of the other part to several concentrations of Gulf high viscosity grade 46(HV 46) hydraulic oil (containing 99.2% C19-40). Thus, for each individual oil type, a concentration series was created. Vibrio fischeri (endpoint: bioluminescence inhibition), Corophium volutator (endpoint: mortality), and Echinocardium cordatum (endpoint: mortality) were exposed to these spiked sediments for 10 min, 10 d and 14 d, respectively. Based on the test results, the effective concentration on 50% of the test animals was statistically estimated. For DMA gasoil and HV46 hydraulic oil, respectively, the effective concentrations were 43.7 and 2,682 mg/kg dry weight for V. fischeri, 100 and 9,138 mg/kg dry weight for C. voluntator, 190, and 1064 dry weight for E. cordatum. This study shows that the toxicity is strongly correlated with the lower boiling-point fractions and especially to those within the C10-C19 range.
Sediment-quality guidelines (SQGs) have been published for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) using both empirical and theoretical approaches. Empirically based guidelines have been developed using the screening-level concentration, effects range, effects level, and apparent effects threshold approaches. Theoretically based guidelines have been developed using the equilibrium-partitioning approach. Empirically-based guidelines were classified into three general categories, in accordance with their original narrative intents, and used to develop three consensus-based sediment effect concentrations (SECs) for total PCBs (tPCBs), including a threshold effect concentration, a midrange effect concentration, and an extreme effect concentration. Consensus-based SECs were derived because they estimate the central tendency of the published SQGs and, thus, reconcile the guidance values that have been derived using various approaches. Initially, consensus-based SECs for tPCBs were developed separately for freshwater sediments and for marine and estuarine sediments. Because the respective SECs were statistically similar, the underlying SQGs were subsequently merged and used to formulate more generally applicable SECs. The three consensus-based SECs were then evaluated for reliability using matching sediment chemistry and toxicity data from field studies, dose-response data from spiked-sediment toxicity tests, and SQGs derived from the equilibrium-partitioning approach. The results of this evaluation demonstrated that the consensus-based SECs can accurately predict both the presence and absence of toxicity in field- collected sediments. Importantly, the incidence of toxicity increases incrementally with increasing concentrations of tPCBs. Moreover, the consensus-based SECs are comparable to the chronic toxicity thresholds that have been estimated from dose-response data and equilibrium-partitioning models. Therefore, consensus-based SECs provide a unifying synthesis of existing SQGs, reflect causal rather than correlative effects, and accurately predict sediment toxicity in PCB-contaminated sediments.
During a 4 month period in 1975, faeces production, growth, biomass, maturation and mortality were studied in juvenile lugworms, Arenicola marina, reared in the laboratory at 5 experimental temperatures under restricted and subsidized feeding conditions. Faeces production and hence food uptake is dependent on the food content of the sediment. In poor sediments a smaller and less frequent faeces production was measured. Therefore, the estimate of the size of lugworm populations by counting cast numbers is subject to a considerable bias. With favourable food conditions even in dense worm populations a rapid and almost linear length growth from 11 to about 80 mm and an increase in weight from 3.5 to about 200 mg (ash-free dry weight) was measured. The growth resulted in biomass values as high as 200 g (ADW) ·m-2 or more, values never found in the Wadden Sea. Restricted feeding conditions caused stagnancy of growth and increased mortality. Retarded growth, as observed in natural populations of O-group worms on the extensive mud flats as well as on special "nursery" flats is attributed to an insufficient food supply on these flats, though these are characterized by a high input of primary organic matter, locally produced as well as imported from the adjacent North Sea. Over a wide range (5° to 20° C), the influence of temperature on growth was found to be relatively small. At 25° C, however, growth was retarded.
Domestic chickens Gallus domesticus were fed polyethylene pellets to test whether ingested plastic impairs feeding activity. When food was temporally limited, plastic-loaded birds ate less than control birds, apparently as a result of reduced gizzard volume. When given food ad libitum, plastic-loaded birds also ate less and grew slower than did control birds. It is concluded that ingested plastic reduces meal size and thus food consumption when plastic reduces the storage volume of the stomach. This reduced food consumption may limit the ability of seabirds with large plastic loads to lay down fat deposits, and thus reduce fitness.
The incidence of plastic in seabirds was studied (number of individuals of a species containing plastic per number inspected, and number of particles per individual), in 1574 individuals representing 36 species of seabirds collected in the tropical Pacific, mostly between 110 and 150 ° W longitude, from 1984 to 1991. Incidence of plastic was lower in resident species compared to those which bred to the south or north but wintered in the region, and especially when compared to species that crossed the tropics in migration between the South and North Pacific. Seasonal and age-related patterns in incidence of plastic, number of particles, and particle type (pellets versus user-plastic) among a group of five Procellariiform species (each with >5% of the individuals containing plastic and for which samples were >20 birds) indicated that degradation for an individual particle in the gizzard required less than one year, and that little plastic was regurgitated by parents to chicks. Two patterns emerged from this data regarding body weight: (i) heavier birds (for a given species, age-class, season and year) were more likely to contain at least some plastic, from which we hypothesize that birds in better physical condition fed more often in areas where higher densities of plastic and food are found, such as fronts and convergences; and (ii) among individuals who contained plastic (grouped by species), there was a significant negative correlation between number of plastic particles and body weight. This is the first solid evidence for a negative relationship between plastic ingestion and physical condition in seabirds. The likelihood that higher quality individuals are more prone to ingestplastic has serious implications regarding health of some seabird populations.
Macrofauna benthos has been sampled frequently during 6 years at 3 intertidal stations on a tidal flat area in the westernmost part of the Wadden Sea. Biomass, expressed as ash-free dry weight, fluctuated with a regular annual pattern. Maximal amounts were observed every year at each station during the July–September periods, minimal amounts during the December–March periods. The steep increases during spring were for the greater part due to fast growth of animals already present in winter. Spat fall generally contributed only a minor part to the annual biomass increases. The declines during autumn were attributable both to decreases in numbers and to individual weight losses. The latter dominated in the big and deep-living specimen of 2 species (Mya arenaria and Arenicola marina) which comprised about half of the total biomass of the benthos.Among the predators feeding on the benthos at the tidal flats, fish, just as the shell-fish, are most numerous during summer, but monthly numbers of birds are unrelated to seasonal changes in availability of food.
lying in close contact with the skull between the otic process of the quadrate and the orbital ridge. A diagram of the arterial RMO for six species of Hawaiian seabirds is presented in Fig. 1. The RMO is composed of an arterial rete supplied by the external ophthalmic branch of the common carotid and a medial venous rete composed of branches of ophthalmic veins supplying venous blood to the cavernous sinus. The external ophthalmic artery crosses the middle ear in a canal dorsomedial to the oval window and emerges to subdivide into four rami: temporal, supraorbital, ophthalmic, and infraorbital. All rami and the inferior alveolar artery contribute vessels to the arterial component of the RMO. The common carotid arterial supply to the RMO is derived from a unique intercarotid anastomosis characteristic of avian species (Baumel and Gerchman 1968). Two of the three principal patterns de- scribed by Baumel and Gerchman were observed (Table 1). The functional differences in the patterns of intercarotid anastomosis are not clear, but they may reflect differences in the amount of blood available for circulation to the RMO. Birds do not possess a cerebral arterial circle of Willis comparable to mammals, but the intercarotid anastomosis may serve as an effective substitute with the potential for shunting blood from one side to the other. The existence of common morphologies for the RMO of these Hawaiian seabirds suggests that counter- current heat exchange is the common underlying mechanism for cooling the brain, as it is in most arian species. The advantages of tolerating an increase in body temperature while maintaining brain temper- ature below body temperature enhances a bird's tolerance of environmental heat stress. These advan- tages have been stated previously (Kilgore et al. 1976). In addition, the advantage of protecting brain tissue from thermal extremes during heat-stress associated with flight (Bernstein et al. 1979b) must be considerable for pelagic, migratory species. Based on morphology alone, the effectiveness of heat exchange
The thermal stability and degradation behavior of polyethylene (PE) particles having a diameter varies from few nanometers to micrometers were studied by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The PE particles of average diameter ∼20, ∼10, ∼1 μm and <500 nm were studied over a range of temperatures from 25 to 600 °C in N2 atmosphere and heating rates of 5, 10 and 15 °C min−1. The three single heating-rate techniques such as Friedman, Freeman–Carroll, and second Kissinger; and three multiple heating-rate techniques such as the first Kissinger, Kim–Park and Flynn–Wall were used to work out the kinetic parameters of the degradation reactions, e.g., activation energy (Ea), order of reaction (n) and frequency factor [ln(Z)]. The lifetime of macro, micro and nanosized PE particles were also estimated by a method proposed by Toop. It was found that the activation energy and lifetime of nanosized PE nanoparticles were moderately high compared to the micron sized PE particles. Moreover, the decomposition temperature, order of reaction (n), frequency factor [ln(Z)] do not only depend on heating rates and calculation techniques, but also on particle size of the PE. The results obtained from the kinetic and lifetime studies for nano and micro sized particles were compared with macro sized PE.
Pollutants in aged field sediments seem to differ from spiked sediments in their chemical and biological availability. Biphasic desorption is often used as an explanation. In the present study, desorption kinetics and partitioning of chlorobenzenes (CBs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in long term field contaminated sediment cores and top layer sediment were measured by gas-purging. Desorption from sediment was deduced to be triphasic: fast, slowly, and very slowly desorbing fractions were distinguished. In both the sediment core and the top layer sediment no detectable fast fractions were present for all the compounds studied, so these were estimated as upper limits from the desorption curves. This observation coincided with very high in situ distribution coefficients for several PCBs and PAHs: 10−1000 times higher than literature values for short contact time experiments. Rate constants were (3−8) × 10-3 h-1 for slow desorption and (0.16−0.5) × 10-3 h-1 for very slow desorption. In some cases only a very slowly desorbing fraction was detectable. Desorption from field contaminated sediments with extended contact times may not be readily estimated from laboratory experiments in which contaminants have contact times with the sediment in the order of weeks.
In the regulatory context, bioaccumulation assessment is often hampered by substantial data uncertainty as well as by the poorly understood differences often observed between results from laboratory and field bioaccumulation studies. Bioaccumulation is a complex, multifaceted process, which calls for accurate error analysis. Yet, attempts to quantify and compare propagation of error in bioaccumulation metrics across species and chemicals are rare. Here, we quantitatively assessed the combined influence of physicochemical, physiological, ecological, and environmental parameters known to affect bioaccumulation for 4 species and 2 chemicals, to assess whether uncertainty in these factors can explain the observed differences among laboratory and field studies. The organisms evaluated in simulations including mayfly larvae, deposit-feeding polychaetes, yellow perch, and little owl represented a range of ecological conditions and biotransformation capacity. The chemicals, pyrene and the polychlorinated biphenyl congener PCB-153, represented medium and highly hydrophobic chemicals with different susceptibilities to biotransformation. An existing state of the art probabilistic bioaccumulation model was improved by accounting for bioavailability and absorption efficiency limitations, due to the presence of black carbon in sediment, and was used for probabilistic modeling of variability and propagation of error. Results showed that at lower trophic levels (mayfly and polychaete), variability in bioaccumulation was mainly driven by sediment exposure, sediment composition and chemical partitioning to sediment components, which was in turn dominated by the influence of black carbon. At higher trophic levels (yellow perch and the little owl), food web structure (i.e., diet composition and abundance) and chemical concentration in the diet became more important particularly for the most persistent compound, PCB-153. These results suggest that variation in bioaccumulation assessment is reduced most by improved identification of food sources as well as by accounting for the chemical bioavailability in food components. Improvements in the accuracy of aqueous exposure appear to be less relevant when applied to moderate to highly hydrophobic compounds, because this route contributes only marginally to total uptake. The determination of chemical bioavailability and the increase in understanding and qualifying the role of sediment components (black carbon, labile organic matter, and the like) on chemical absorption efficiencies has been identified as a key next steps. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2012;8:42–63. © 2011 SETAC
Sediment-quality guidelines (SQGs) have been published for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) using both empirical and theoretical approaches. Empirically based guidelines have been developed using the screening-level concentration, effects range, effects level, and apparent effects threshold approaches. Theoretically based guidelines have been developed using the equilibrium-partitioning approach. Empirically-based guidelines were classified into three general categories, in accordance with their original narrative intents, and used to develop three consensus-based sediment effect concentrations (SECs) for total PCBs (tPCBs), including a threshold effect concentration, a midrange effect concentration, and an extreme effect concentration. Consensus-based SECs were derived because they estimate the central tendency of the published SQGs and, thus, reconcile the guidance values that have been derived using various approaches. Initially, consensus-based SECs for tPCBs were developed separately for freshwater sediments and for marine and estuarine sediments. Because the respective SECs were statistically similar, the underlying SQGs were subsequently merged and used to formulate more generally applicable SECs. The three consensus-based SECs were then evaluated for reliability using matching sediment chemistry and toxicity data from field studies, dose-response data from spiked-sediment toxicity tests, and SQGs derived from the equilibrium-partitioning approach. The results of this evaluation demonstrated that the consensus-based SECs can accurately predict both the presence and absence of toxicity in field-collected sediments. Importantly, the incidence of toxicity increases incrementally with increasing concentrations of tPCBs. Moreover, the consensus-based SECs are comparable to the chronic toxicity thresholds that have been estimated from dose-response data and equilibrium-partitioning models. Therefore, consensus-based SECs provide a unifying synthesis of existing SQGs, reflect causal rather than correlative effects, and accurately predict sediment toxicity in PCB-contaminated sediments.
In order to assess the importance of the mode of feeding for the bioaccumulation of contaminants from sediments, three marine benthic invertebrates, with different feeding habits, were exposed to contaminated sediments in outdoor mesocosms. Residue analyses were carried out for several polychlorinated biphenyls and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons after exposure periods of 60 to 140 days. It was shown that sediment ingestion is a major uptake route for the sediment-feeding lugworm, Arenicola marina, and for the facultative deposit-feeding baltic tellin, Macoma balthica. Residues in the filter-feeding mussel, Mytilus edulis, appeared to be independent of contaminant concentrations in the sediment. The difference between deposit and filter-feeding bivalves was confirmed in experiments involving the baltic tellin, with differences in the food availability in the overlying water. A simple linear regression model was used to describe contaminant concentrations in sediment-feeding invertebrates as a function of concentrations in sediment. A correction for the accumulation from water was made by subtracting the concentrations in filter feeders. It was concluded that chemical equilibrium partitioning alone is not sufficient for the assessment of the risks of contaminated sediments to sediment-feeding invertebrates, but that feeding habits should also be considered.
The purpose of this review paper is to present the technical basis for establishing sediment quality criteria using equilibrium partitioning (EqP). Equilibrium partitioning is chosen because it addresses the two principal technical issues that must be resolved: the varying bioavailability of chemicals in sediments and the choice of the appropriate biological effects concentration.
The data that are used to examine the question of varying bioavailability across sediments are from toxicity and bioaccumulation experiments utilizing the same chemical and test organism but different sediments. It has been found that if the different sediments in each experiment are compared, there is essentially no relationship between sediment chemical concentrations on a dry weight basis and biological effects. However, if the chemical concentrations in the pore water of the sediment are used (for chemicals that are not highly hydrophobic) or if the sediment chemical concentrations on an organic carbon basis are used, then the biological effects occur at similar concentrations (within a factor of two) for the different sediments. In addition, the effects concentrations are the same as, or they can be predicted from, the effects concentration determined in water‐ only exposures.
The EqP methodology rationalizes these results by assuming that the partitioning of the chemical between sediment organic carbon and pore water is at equilibrium. In each of these phases, the fugacity or activity of the chemical is the same at equilibrium. As a consequence, it is assumed that the organism receives an equivalent exposure from a water‐only exposure or from any equilibrated phase, either from pore water via respiration, from sediment carbon via ingestion; or from a mixture of the routes. Thus, the pathway of exposure is not significant. The biological effect is produced by the chemical activity of the single phase or the equilibrated system.
Sediment quality criteria for nonionic organic chemicals are based on the chemical concentration in sediment organic carbon. For highly hydrophobic chemicals this is necessary because the pore water concentration is, for those chemicals, no longer a good estimate of the chemical activity. The pore water concentration is the sum of the free chemical concentration, which is bioavailable and represents the chemical activity, and the concentration of chemical complexed to dissolved organic carbon, which, as the data presented below illustrate, is not bioavailable. Using the chemical concentration in sediment organic carbon eliminates this ambiguity.
Sediment quality criteria also require that a chemical concentration be chosen that is sufficiently protective of benthic organisms. The final chronic value (FCV) from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) water quality criteria is proposed. An analysis of the data compiled in the water quality criteria documents demonstrates that benthic species, defined as either epibenthic or infaunal species, have a similar sensitivity to water column species. This is the case if the most sensitive species are compared and if all species are compared. The results of benthic colonization experiments also support the use of the FCV.
Equilibrium partitioning cannot remove all the variation in the experimentally observed sediment‐ effects concentration and the concentration predicted from water‐only exposures. A variation of approximately a factor of two to three remains. Hence, it is recognized that a quantification of this uncertainty should accompany the sediment quality criteria.
The derivation of sediment quality criteria requires the octanol/water partition coefficient of the chemical. It should be measured with modern experimental techniques, which appear to remove the large variation in reported values. The derivation of the final chronic value should also be updated to include the most recent toxicological information.
A sediment bioassay is being developed using several marine benthic invertebrates to assess the effects of parental transfer of contaminants to the gametes. In this preliminary study, the emphasis was placed on developing methods for the in vitro fertilization of lugworm, Arenicola marina, oocytes.
Lugworms exposed to contaminated sediments in outdoor mesocosms were brought to the laboratory, just before the beginning of the spawning period. The reliability of an in vitro fertilization procedure was tested by varying several parts of the method. Main results are that eggs and embryos may be physically damaged by cleaning over a sieve. However, as no negative effects were observed when leaving eggs and sperm together for 24 h, the sperm need not be washed off until the embryos are preserved for further examination later on.
A first, incomplete screening of the effects of contaminated harbour dredged sediments indicated some effect on the reproductive success.
Published ingestion rates of total dry material (inorganic and organic) by benthic invertebrate deposit feeders and detritivores feeding at 15C could be explained almost entirely by organic content of the ingested material and body size; the relation was consistent for 19 species from 3 phyla. Since ingestion rate of total dry material varied inversely with the organic content of the food, organic matter ingestion (C) was essentially a function of body size (W):
C = 0.381 W0.742C = 0.381 \cdot W^{0.742}
where C is mg day-1 and W is mg dry weight. These animals may maintain a rate of intake of organic matter which is independent of the organic content of the food source by: (1) Actively adjusting their feeding rates according to some perception of food quality, and/or (2) Adapting their feeding rates to different environments on an evolutionary time scale.
Lugworms, Arenicola marina (L.), were found almost everywhere on the tidal flats of the Dutch Wadden Sea. Mean biomass amounted to about 5 g·m−2 ash-free dry weight, mean numerical density to 17 per m2 with only about one quarter of the animals being juveniles (about year old).Numbers of adults and total lugworm biomass showed a maximum in a zone at 1 to 4 km from the coasts, about halfway between high- and low-water mark and at intermediate silt content of the sediment. Numerical densities as well as biomass values showed a bell-shaped relationship to both silt percentages and heights in the tidal zone. Numbers of adults were high at lower tidal levels and at a wider range of silt percentages than juveniles. Individual weights of adults increased in an off-shore direction, and were highest at low intertidal levels and in sandy sediments, where food availability was below average.During their first period of burrowed life (April or May to winter) lugworms were most numerous on high grounds near the coast. They dispersed during winter at an age of 1 to year (at a mean weight of about 40 mg ADW), transported by tidal currents.During a 10 year study of Balgzand, a 50 km2 tidal flat area in the westernmost part of the Wadden Sea, lugworm numbers were found to decline at a mean annual rate of 22%. Annuel recruitment of 1 to year old juveniles to the adult stock was irregular but on average (20%) almost equal to annual mortality. After an initial decline during some years of low recruitment, total population of adults was found to be stable. Population stability will have been enhanced by a long lifespan and an inverse relationship between adult density and rate of recruitment.From data on annual elimination by mortality plus predation on regenerating tail ends, a P/B ratio of almost 0.7 could be estimated for somatic production by a stable lugworm population; to include gametic production this figure will have to be raised to about 1.0.
Multivariate analyses were used to assess the independent determinants of four organochlorines (OCs) in the fat and eggs of breeding female Great Shearwaters Puffinus gravis. The amounts of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), DDE, DDT, and dieldrin, in both adult fat tissue and in eggs were positively correlated. However, there was no correlation between the amounts of OCs in adults and their eggs. Positive correlations between the amounts of different OCs in adults and in eggs suggest that individual differences in non-breeding range, diet and age are determinants of pollutant levels within a species. The mass of ingested plastic was positively correlated only with PCBs, a group of chemicals commonly found in plastics. It is probable that seabirds assimilate PCBs and other toxic chemicals partly from ingested plastic particles.
Lugworms (Arenicola marina) are typical marine deposit feeders (Jumars, 1993). Labile organic matter, notably bacteria, meiofauna and diatoms, is digested from the large volumes of nutritionally-poor sediment which are processed by the gut. Detritus is not evidently digested. However, it is trapped in the funnel of the burrow, and probably enhances the nutritional quality of the food by providing a substrate for bacterial growth. The worm's irrigation current is also important because, if the headshaft of the burrow is blocked so that the current no longer reaches the funnel, there is a decrease in the numbers of bacteria there.
This study aimed to assess the accumulation of small plastic debris in the intertidal sediments of the world's largest ship-breaking yard at Alang-Sosiya, India. Small plastics fragments were collected by flotation and separated according to their basic polymer type under a microscope, and subsequently identified by FT-IR spectroscopy as polyurethane, nylon, polystyrene, polyester and glass wool. The morphology of these materials was also studied using a scanning electron microscope. Overall, there were on average 81 mg of small plastics fragments per kg of sediment. The described plastic fragments are believed to have resulted directly from the ship-breaking activities at the site.
We investigated the plastics ingested by short-tailed shearwaters, Puffinus tenuirostris, that were accidentally caught during experimental fishing in the North Pacific Ocean in 2003 and 2005. The mean mass of plastics found in the stomach was 0.23 g per bird (n=99). Plastic mass did not correlate with body weight. Total PCB (sum of 24 congeners) concentrations in the abdominal adipose tissue of 12 birds ranged from 45 to 529 ng/g-lipid. Although total PCBs or higher-chlorinated congeners, the mass of ingested plastic correlated positively with concentrations of lower-chlorinated congeners. The effects of toxic chemicals present in plastic debris on bird physiology should be investigated.
Plastic debris <1 mm (defined here as microplastic) is accumulating in marine habitats. Ingestion of microplastic provides a potential pathway for the transfer of pollutants, monomers, and plastic-additives to organisms with uncertain consequences for their health. Here, we show that microplastic contaminates the shorelines at 18 sites worldwide representing six continents from the poles to the equator, with more material in densely populated areas, but no clear relationship between the abundance of miocroplastics and the mean size-distribution of natural particulates. An important source of microplastic appears to be through sewage contaminated by fibers from washing clothes. Forensic evaluation of microplastic from sediments showed that the proportions of polyester and acrylic fibers used in clothing resembled those found in habitats that receive sewage-discharges and sewage-effluent itself. Experiments sampling wastewater from domestic washing machines demonstrated that a single garment can produce >1900 fibers per wash. This suggests that a large proportion of microplastic fibers found in the marine environment may be derived from sewage as a consequence of washing of clothes. As the human population grows and people use more synthetic textiles, contamination of habitats and animals by microplastic is likely to increase.
Plastic debris is known to undergo fragmentation at sea, which leads to the formation of microscopic particles of plastic; the so called 'microplastics'. Due to their buoyant and persistent properties, these microplastics have the potential to become widely dispersed in the marine environment through hydrodynamic processes and ocean currents. In this study, the occurrence and distribution of microplastics was investigated in Belgian marine sediments from different locations (coastal harbours, beaches and sublittoral areas). Particles were found in large numbers in all samples, showing the wide distribution of microplastics in Belgian coastal waters. The highest concentrations were found in the harbours where total microplastic concentrations of up to 390 particles kg(-1) dry sediment were observed, which is 15-50 times higher than reported maximum concentrations of other, similar study areas. The depth profile of sediment cores suggested that microplastic concentrations on the beaches reflect the global plastic production increase.
This review discusses the mechanisms of generation and potential impacts of microplastics in the ocean environment. Weathering degradation of plastics on the beaches results in their surface embrittlement and microcracking, yielding microparticles that are carried into water by wind or wave action. Unlike inorganic fines present in sea water, microplastics concentrate persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by partition. The relevant distribution coefficients for common POPs are several orders of magnitude in favour of the plastic medium. Consequently, the microparticles laden with high levels of POPs can be ingested by marine biota. Bioavailability and the efficiency of transfer of the ingested POPs across trophic levels are not known and the potential damage posed by these to the marine ecosystem has yet to be quantified and modelled. Given the increasing levels of plastic pollution of the oceans it is important to better understand the impact of microplastics in the ocean food web.
To understand the spatial variation in concentrations and compositions of organic micropollutants in marine plastic debris and their sources, we analyzed plastic fragments (∼10 mm) from the open ocean and from remote and urban beaches. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), alkylphenols and bisphenol A were detected in the fragments at concentrations from 1 to 10,000 ng/g. Concentrations showed large piece-to-piece variability. Hydrophobic organic compounds such as PCBs and PAHs were sorbed from seawater to the plastic fragments. PCBs are most probably derived from legacy pollution. PAHs showed a petrogenic signature, suggesting the sorption of PAHs from oil slicks. Nonylphenol, bisphenol A, and PBDEs came mainly from additives and were detected at high concentrations in some fragments both from remote and urban beaches and the open ocean.
The environmental distribution and fate of microplastic in the marine environment represents a potential cause of concern. One aspect is the influence that microplastic may have on enhancing the transport and bioavailability of persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic substances (PBT). In this study we assess these potential risks using a thermodynamic approach, aiming to prioritize the physicochemical properties of chemicals that are most likely absorbed by microplastic and therefore ingested by biota. Using a multimedia modeling approach, we define a chemical space aimed at improving our understanding of how chemicals partition in the marine environment with varying volume ratios of air/water/organic carbon/polyethylene, where polyethylene represents a main group of microplastic. Results suggest that chemicals with log K(OW) > 5 have the potential to partition >1% to polyethylene. Food-web model results suggest that reductions in body burden concentrations for nonpolar organic chemicals are likely to occur for chemicals with log K(OW) between 5.5 and 6.5. Thus the relative importance of microplastic as a vector of PBT substances to biological organisms is likely of limited importance, relative to other exposure pathways. Nevertheless, a number of data-gaps are identified, largely associated with improving our understanding of the physical fate of microplastic in the environment.
Regime shifts in shallow lakes may significantly affect partitioning of sediment-bound hydrophobic organic chemicals (HOCs) such as polychlorobiphenyls (PCB) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). In replicated experimental model ecosystems mimicking the alternative stable states 'macrophyte-dominated' and 'suspended solid - phytoplankton dominated', we tested the effects of macrophytes and benthivorous fish presence on mass distribution and bioaccumulation of hexachlorobenzene, PCBs and PAHs. HOC mass distributions and lipid-normalized concentrations in sediment (Soxhlet- and 6-h Tenax-extractable), suspended solids, macrophytes, periphyton, algae, zooplankton, invertebrates and carp revealed that mobile, i.e. less hydrophobic or less aged HOCs were more susceptible to ecological changes than their sequestered native counterparts. Macrophytes were capable of depleting considerable percentages of the bioavailable, fast desorbing HOC fractions in the sediment upper (bioactive) layer, but did not have a significant diluting effect on lipid-normalized HOC concentrations in carp. Carp structured invertebrate communities through predation and stimulated partitioning of HOCs to other system compartments by resuspending the sediment. These results show that shifts in ecosystem structure have clear effects on fate, risks and natural attenuation of sediment-bound organic contaminants.
The mass transfer rates and equilibrium partitioning behaviour of 14 diverse organochlorine pesticides (OCP) between water and polyethylene (PE) passive samplers, cut from custom made PE sheets and commercial polyethylene plastic bags, were quantified. Overall mass transfer coefficients, k(O), estimated PE membrane diffusion coefficients, D(PE), and PE-water partitioning coefficients, K(PE-water,) are reported. In addition, the partitioning of three polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from water to PE is quantified and compared with literature values. K(PE-water) values agreed mostly within a factor of two for both passive samplers and also with literature values for the reference PAHs. As PE is expected to exhibit similar sorption behaviour to long-chain alkanes, PE-water partitioning coefficients were compared to hexadecane-water partitioning coefficients estimated with the SPARC online calculator, COSMOtherm and a polyparameter linear free energy relationship based on the Abraham approach. The best correlation for all compounds tested was with COSMOtherm estimated hexadecane-water partitioning coefficients.
Activated carbon (AC) addition is a recently developed technique for the remediation of sediments and soils contaminated with hydrophobic organic chemicals. Laboratory and field experiments have demonstrated that the addition of 3-4% of AC can reduce aqueous concentrations and the bioaccumulation potential of contaminants. However, one aspect of the technique that has hardly received any attention is the possible occurrence of secondary, eco(toxico)logical effects, i.e., effects of AC addition on the health, behavior, and habitat quality of local organisms. In the present study, several ecotoxicological effects were investigated in AC-water and AC-enriched (0-25%) sediment systems. It was demonstrated that (i) powdered activated carbons can be toxic to aquatic invertebrates (Lumbriculus variegatus, Daphnia magna, and Corophium volutator) based on different mechanisms and preferably should be washed prior to application; (ii) Asellus aquaticus and Corophium volutator may physically avoid AC-enriched sediments; (iii) exposure of Lumbriculus variegatus to AC-enriched sediments lead to a time and dose-dependent reduction in the worms' lipid content, which was most probably caused by the observation that (iv) worm egestion rates decreased drastically upon AC addition, indicating that the presence of AC disturbed feeding behavior; and (v) there were no obvious effects on the microbiological community structure. All in all, these results suggest potential ecotoxicological effects of powdered AC addition and stress the need for a detailed further investigation of secondary effects of the technique, prior to any large-scale field application.
Samples of polyethylene pellets were collected at 30 beaches from 17 countries and analyzed for organochlorine compounds. PCB concentrations in the pellets were highest on US coasts, followed by western Europe and Japan, and were lower in tropical Asia, southern Africa and Australia. This spatial pattern reflected regional differences in the usage of PCBs and was positively correlated with data from Mussel Watch, another monitoring approach. DDTs showed high concentrations on the US west coast and in Vietnam. In Vietnam, DDT was predominant over its metabolites (DDE and DDD), suggesting the principal source may be current usage of the pesticide for malaria control. High concentrations of pesticide HCHs were detected in the pellets from southern Africa, suggesting current usage of the pesticides in southern Africa. This study demonstrates the utility and feasibility of the International Pellet Watch approach to monitor POPs at a global scale.
Plastic resin pellets (small granules 0.1-0.5 centimeters in diameter) are widely distributed in the ocean all over the world. They are an industrial raw material for the plastic industry and are unintentionally released to the environment both during manufacturing and transport. They are sometimes ingested by seabirds and other marine organisms, and their adverse effects on organisms are a concern. In the present study, PCBs, DDE, and nonylphenols (NP) were detected in polypropylene (PP) resin pellets collected from four Japanese coasts. Concentrations of PCBs (4-117 ng/g), DDE (0.16-3.1 ng/g), and NP (0.13-16 microg/g) varied among the sampling sites. These concentrations were comparable to those for suspended particles and bottom sediments collected from the same area as the pellets. Field adsorption experiments using PP virgin pellets demonstrated significant and steady increase in PCBs and DDE concentrations throughout the six-day experiment, indicating that the source of PCBs and DDE is ambient seawater and that adsorption to pellet surfaces is the mechanism of enrichment. The major source of NP in the marine PP resin pellets was thought to be plastic additives and/or their degradation products. Comparison of PCBs and DDE concentrations in mari
During the past few years, the presence of soot in sediments has received growing interest. Soot is thought to serve as a strong partitioning medium for specific organic contaminants (PAHs). The precise extent of sorption to this material, however, is poorly known because soot/water distribution coefficients for native PAHs have not been determined yet. Measuring these coefficients using existing partitioning methods is problematic due to the nature of soot. Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop a method for the determination of distribution coefficients for organic contaminants in soot/water (but also sediment/water) systems. The method is based on solid phase extraction (SPE) of chemicals onto the plastic polyoxymethylene (POM). Sorption experiments with POM showed monophasic sorption kinetics, linear isotherms covering several orders of magnitude, and a linear relationship between distribution coefficients for POM and the octanol/water distribution coefficient. Therefore, the sorption process can be considered to be true partitioning. Application of POM for the determination of distribution coefficients for soot and sediment (POM-SPE method) resulted in highly reproducible values. The method was validated by comparing values for sediment with results for the same sediment determined using the cosolvent method. This comparison resulted in an almost 1:1 relationship, proving the method's validity.
The purpose of this study was to provide data to be used in The Netherlands for development of ecotoxicologically based quality criteria for oil-contaminated sediments and dredged material. In addition, the relation of toxicity to specific oil boiling-point fraction ranges was explored. Natural marine sediment, with a moisture, organic carbon, and silt content of approximately 80, 1.8, and 33% of the dry weight, respectively, was artificially spiked using a spiking method developed in this project. Aliquots of one part of the sediment were spiked to several concentrations of Gulf distillate marine grade A (DMA) gasoil (containing 64% C10-19) and aliquots of the other part to several concentrations of Gulf high viscosity grade 46 (HV46) hydraulic oil (containing 99.2% C19-40). Thus, for each individual oil type, a concentration series was created. Vibrio fischeri (endpoint: bioluminescence inhibition), Corophium volutator (endpoint:mortality), and Echinocardium cordatum (endpoint:mortality) were exposed to these spiked sediments for 10 min, 10 d and 14 d, respectively. Based on the test results, the effective concentration on 50% of the test animals was statistically estimated. For DMA gasoil and HV46 hydraulic oil, respectively, the effective concentrations were 43.7 and 2,682 mg/kg dry weight for V. fischeri, 100 and 9,138 mg/kg dry weight for C. volutator, 190, and 1064 mg/kg dry weight for E. cordatum. This study shows that the toxicity is strongly correlated with the lower boiling-point fractions and especially to those within the C10-C19 range.
The sorption of selected polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners (from tri to deca chlorinated) by three food-packaging plastic films [polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polystyrene] from an aqueous solution was investigated. From the data generated, PCB uptake, partition, and diffusion coefficients were calculated for the various films. Polyethylene exhibited the highest PCB uptake, diffusion, and partition coefficients when compared to the other materials. Although PVC indicated larger sorption diffusion and partition coefficients for the lower chlorinated congeners than polystyrene, a reversal of this trend was observed for the higher congeners. For polyethylene and PVC, the PCB uptake decreased as the chlorine numbers in the congeners increased, confirming the correlation between increasing chlorination and increasing cohesive density within the PCB molecules. For polystyrene, the uptake decreased from tri to penta congeners, but showed an increase for the hexa, and then a decreased uptake until the deca chlorination. A comparison of the molecular sizes of the PCB congeners showed that the partition (Ke) and sorption diffusion (Ds) coefficients generally decreased with their increasing molar volumes. The resulting Ke values were used to determine the extent of sorption because these values indicate the affinity of PCBs for the plastic films. Results from this study can be of practical importance for cases of product quality related to the transfer of contaminants from the product to the packaging materials.
Short-term whole sediment tests using the amphipod Corophium volutator and the polychaete Arenicola marina are now routinely used in Europe to assess the acute toxicity of marine sediments. However, there is still a need to develop longer-term assays which measure effects on sublethal endpoints that are more relevant to predicting impacts at the population level. The effect of increasing exposure times and measuring additional endpoints such as growth, on the sensitivity of these assays was investigated. The test compound used was the chemotherapeutant Ivermectin (IVM), used in aquaculture to treat sea lice infestations. IVM was found to be acutely toxic to both test organisms. Extending the lugworm test to 100 days increased sensitivity of survival by a factor of three; a significant reduction in casting rate was observed at concentrations an order of magnitude lower. This assay shows potential for detecting the sublethal effects of low concentrations of sediment contaminants. Increasing the exposure time did not seem to affect the sensitivity of the amphipod, but further method development is required.
It is not clear whether sequestration or aging of organic chemicals like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) limits accumulation in higher levels of aquatic food chains. Therefore, the effect of aging on accumulation was studied in 1(-m3) model ecosystems that mimicked fish-dominated, macrophyte-dominated, and fish- and macrophyte-dominated shallow lakes. Also treatments without fish and macrophytes were included. General characteristics, biomasses, total (Soxhlet-extractable), and labile (6-h Tenax-extractable) PCB and PAH concentrations in sediment and biota were monitored over time. Accumulation data for PCB 28, PCB 149, and fluoranthene (native to the sediment taken from the field) were compared to those for spiked analogues PCB 29, PCB 155, and fluoranthene-d10. Labile fractions for spiked compounds were higher than for their native analogues and decreased over time, suggesting sequestration in the sediment. In the majority of cases, 6-h Tenax-extractable concentrations correlated better with concentrations in biota than Soxhlet-extractable concentrations. Ecosystem structure affected food web accumulation, but replicate variability was too high to detect clear treatment effects. Differences in accumulation between spiked compounds and their native analogues indicated an effect of aging for invertebrates, macrophytes, and benthivorous fish. Thus, aging may translate directly into reduced uptake at higher trophic levels.
This paper presents the results of investigations on the suitability of lugworms (Arenicola marina) to study the bioaccumulation potential of Hg, PCB and PAH compounds from dredged sediments upon laboratory exposure. The results of tissue concentrations for several sediments from Spanish ports showed that it is possible to identify increased levels of contaminants in lugworms just after 10 days of exposure although different bioaccumulation trends were shown amongst compounds and sediments. Total and organic Hg compounds were accumulated following a non-linear trend, with a sharp increase of tissue concentrations in lugworms exposed to levels of contamination associated to a significant increase in mortality. Interestingly organic Hg compounds accounted for an average of 40% of the total Hg in lugworms exposed to sediments presenting sublethal concentrations while, when exposed to sediments presenting lethal concentrations, organic Hg compounds only accounted for 4% of the total Hg accumulated in lugworms. While lugworms seem to readily accumulate Hg and PCB compounds, with some variability explained by the organic matter content in sediments or other factor for which it accounts for, the results for PAHs suggest a more complex process of bioaccumulation as no relationship was observed between the measured concentrations in sediments and in lugworms, not even after correcting the results for this factor. Besides, the differences in the calculated BSAFs for each compound and for each sediment supported the use of bioassays for evaluating the bioaccumulation potential of sediment-bound contaminants as part of the assessment framework required in pre-dredging investigations, as they still offer unique information about the bioavailability of sediment-bound contaminants.
Plastic debris litters marine and terrestrial habitats worldwide. It is ingested by numerous species of animals, causing deleterious physical effects. High concentrations of hydrophobic organic contaminants have also been measured on plastic debris collected from the environment, but the fate of these contaminants is poorly understood. Here, we examine the uptake and subsequent release of phenanthrene by three plastics. Equilibrium distribution coefficients for sorption of phenanthrene from seawater onto the plastics varied by more than an order of magnitude (polyethylene > polypropylene > polyvinyl chloride (PVC)). In all cases, sorption to plastics greatly exceeded sorption to two natural sediments. Desorption rates of phenanthrene from the plastics or sediments back into solution spanned several orders of magnitude. As expected, desorption occurred more rapidly from the sediments than from the plastics. Using the equilibrium partitioning method, the effects of adding very small quantities of plastic with sorbed phenanthrene to sediment inhabited by the lugworm (Arenicola marina) were evaluated. We estimate that the addition of as little as 1 microg of contaminated polyethylene to a gram of sediment would give a significant increase in phenanthrene accumulation by A. marina. Thus, plastics may be important agents in the transport of hydrophobic contaminants to sediment-dwelling organisms.
Biological Effects of Contaminants: Sediment Bioassay Using the Polychaete. ICES Tech. Mar
- J E Thain
- S Bifield
Thain, J. E.; Bifield, S. Biological Effects of Contaminants:
Sediment Bioassay Using the Polychaete. ICES Tech. Mar. Environ. Sci.
2002, 29, 1−17.