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The influence of toys on the behaviour and welfare of kennelled dogs
Abstract
This study explored the influence of five toys (squeaky ball, non-squeaky ball, Nylabone chew, tug rope and Boomer ball) on the behaviour of 32 adult dogs housed in a rescue shelter. The dogs were exposed to each toy separately for six days, with an intervening period of one day between toys. The dogs' location in their kennels (front or back), activity (moving, standing, sitting or resting) and vocalisation (barking, quiet or other) were recorded over 4 h at 10 min intervals on Days 1, 3 and 5 during a control condition (no toy present) and during five experimental (toy) conditions. Whether or not the dogs were observed playing with the toys during the experimental conditions was also recorded. The dogs spent relatively little (<8%) of the overall observation time playing with the toys. The toys elicited varying degrees of interest, with dogs showing a preference for the Nylabone chew over the other toys. The dogs' interest in the toys waned over time, but the speed of habituation to the Nylabone chew was slower than to any of the other toys. The dogs' activity was significantly related to toy condition: dogs spent more time moving and less time standing during the Nylabone chew, squeaky ball and non-squeaky ball conditions than during any of the other conditions. It is suggested that the welfare of kennelled dogs may be slightly enhanced by the addition of suitable toys to their kennels. It is advised, however, that toys are rotated to encourage exploration and reduce habituation. The provision of other forms of environmental enrichment is also recommended.
... Beds, chews, balls, ropes, and soft toys have varying functional value to dogs, so we must consider the species as well as the individual's history and preferences in determining how relevant an object will likely be. It is not surprising, then, that investigations into object enrichment for shelter-housed dogs have been met with mixed success (Wells and Hepper 2000;Wells 2004;Pullen et al. 2010;Kiddie et al. 2017). Wells and Hepper (2000) explored the impacts of a bed and a suspended Nylabone® (Nylabone Products, Neptune City, NJ) chew, both placed at the front of the kennel on dogs' behavior. ...
... Kiddie et al. (2017) found that dogs interacted with the coconut and cardboard less over time, which could be related to their eventual deconstructed states. However, it is also probable that, as Wells (2004) found, novelty plays a role in object enrichment. ...
... To our knowledge, only one study has explored the effects of visual sensory stimulation, namely, television monitors, as a form of canine enrichment in the shelter. Graham (Wells 2004), dogs spent only 10% of their time looking at the monitors as compared to controls, and their interest waned over time, suggesting the more species-specific, interactive enrichment previously described may be preferred by dogs and provide greater welfare benefits. ...
Dogs experience a variety of stressors within the shelter that could negatively impact their welfare. The use of enrichment interventions that provide social interaction, either with a human or canine; object enrichment; and sensory stimulation (auditory, olfactory, or visual) is necessary for dogs living in animal shelters, along with the assessment of engagement and determination of benefits. There are a wide range of sampling and measurement techniques for monitoring enrichment usage and its behavioral effects, and such efforts are only worthwhile if the data being collected are used. Data‐informed decisions about which enrichment types are provided, on both the shelter‐wide and individual dog levels, must be consistently re‐evaluated based on the current population of dogs and can allow shelters to most usefully employ their resources and best serve the dogs in their care.
... Previous research has demonstrated that the shelter environment can be detrimental to the health and well-being of dogs, especially those that must reside in the environment for extended periods of time (Wells, 2004;Dalla Villa et al., 2013;Hewison et al., 2014;Barnard et al., 2016;Berteselli et al., 2019). Dogs entering the shelter environment are exposed to unfamiliar sounds, smells, routines, and people. ...
... One study used both plasma and urinary cortisol: creatinine measurements along with an ethogram to evaluate a combination of toys, petting, and obedience training (Perry, 2011), while another study used an ethogram to evaluate the influence of several different novel toys on vocalization and movement (Wells, 2004). A study by Kiddie et al. (2017) used an ethogram to evaluate how different types of enrichment (cardboard bedding, cardboard privacy screens, and coconuts) affected a population of kennelled dogs. ...
... The novelty of toys and enrichment items positively impacted the behavior of the dogs and improved their welfare short term. Wells (2004) found that specific enrichment items such as a Nylabone™ chew elicited greater interest than a tug rope or impact resistant ball. However, both studies found that enrichment items should be rotated to encourage exploratory behaviors and prevent boredom (Wells, 2004;Kiddie et al., 2017). ...
The aim of this scoping review was to consolidate information pertaining to welfare and quality of life assessments of shelter dogs. Specific objectives were to identify and characterize types of welfare assessment instruments, discuss circumstances where welfare and quality of life assessments are used, and identify research gaps. A comprehensive search strategy was implemented in five databases. Literature published globally between the years 2000 and 2020 was identified using specific search terms. Abstracts and full papers were screened, relevant articles obtained, and welfare assessment methods characterized. Of 670 unique citations identified, 43 met the inclusion criteria of including a welfare or quality of life assessment for shelter dogs. There were 16 different assessment tools used to evaluate welfare and quality of life in shelter dogs. Ethogram-based assessment tools, five of which were validated, were used in 37 publications. Physiological based assessment methods were used to assess welfare in 26 publications. Overall, assessment tools were used to either evaluate a dog’s acclimation to the shelter environment or evaluate welfare interventions. Several validated tools were identified that could be useful to shelters depending on need. The Multi-Operator Qualitative Behavioral Assessment and the Quality of Life Assessment are tools allowing for quick welfare assessments by shelter staff, while the Shelter Quality Protocol and the Shelter Quality Protocol 2 are more comprehensive welfare assessments, which require some experience or training in shelter management. The review identified few papers that evaluated the effects of chronic stress on dogs housed in a shelter environment long-term. Therefore, welfare of these dogs should be a priority for future studies. The range of assessment methods underscores the complexity of evaluating welfare and quality of life in different types of sheltering environments.
... In our sample, this type of material was seldom provided and received low preference ratings. Most other studies focused mainly on chew toys and showed that dogs prefer soft and more manipulable toys over more robust toys (Wells, 2004;Pullen et al., 2010). Further, toys freely available on the floor were preferred over attached, hanging toys (Pullen et al., 2010). ...
... Studies in shelters found that shelter dogs use toys for a short amount of time (Wells, 2004) and dogs living in a more enriched kennel environment seem to be even less interested in use of toys (Pullen et al., 2010). During a 15-minute period of availability, chew toys were used on average for 2− 3 min in a shelter environment, in an enriched long-term kennel housing situation the average duration was around half a minute. ...
... This is in stark contrast to the duration of use of chew toys for 5− 15 min reported by the majority of our respondents. Furthermore, in comparison to conventional chew toys (Wells, 2004;Pullen et al., 2010) toys filled with food induced lower habituation in kenneled dogs and were used considerably longer (Schipper et al., 2008). This was not obvious in our sample, where around half of the dogs used chew toys but also food-filled toys for 10 min or longer. ...
Chewing is a behavioural element of feeding, but dogs also chew on or dissect non-edible items. This can cause considerable problems to owners if directed at household objects. Nevertheless, the provision of chewing material, associated risks and relationships with chewing behaviour and other owner-dog activities have not been investigated so far. The aim of this online survey was to explore how dog owners manage the chewing behaviour of their dog and whether there are relationships to other owner-dog interactions. Of our self-selected participants (1439 filled in the entire questionnaire), 94% provided their dogs with edible chewing material (e.g., rawhide, dried innards, meat), 83% provided inedible chew toys, 73% provided chew toys filled with food and 51% provided hard chewing material (e.g. wood, antlers). Edible materials were provided four to six times a week by the average dog owner. Regarding risks, 67% of respondents stated that their dog never had a problem caused by the use of chewing material, whereas veterinary treatment due to a problem with chewing material was reported by 3.6%. Chewing daily on soft household objects was observed in 2.5% of dogs (other common objects for daily chewing: resting places 2.2 %, clothes/shoes 1.4%); dogs up to one year of age did this more frequently (p < 0.001). Chewing on objects was not substantially related to reported motivation of the dog to play or the frequency of activities with the dog (all rs < 0.2), but was reported to occur in contexts that may cause negative emotional states such as leaving the dog alone (rs = 0.63, p < 0.001) or changes in routine activities (rs = 0.47, p < 0.001). The average reported frequency of provision of chewing material correlated positively (rs ≥ 0.2) with motivation of the dog to play, chewing on objects, human-dog play and calm activities such as petting. Dog owners think that chewing material is important for puppies and even more for adult dogs (p < 0.001). However, it remains to be investigated how motivated dogs are for chewing on different types of materials and whether chewing, as proposed by dog professionals, reduces stress. This seems particularly important for assessing the trade-off between risks and benefits of different chewing materials and its impact on dog welfare.
... Enrichment in shelters can come in different forms and includes animate enrichment, such as contact with humans or conspecifics, and inanimate enrichment, such as altering the physical environment around the animals by providing objects to play with or sensory enrichment like auditory and olfactory stimulation [7][8][9][10]. In the case of dogs, toys and cage furniture seem to play an important role, particularly when those are presented as new stimuli to break the monotony of the kennel [11]. Interactions with humans such as stroking or play, but also passive human presence, can decrease the stress levels caused by a novel environment in dogs [12,13]. ...
... With regard to adoptability, dogs that approach humans and remain in the front part of their enclosure are preferred by potential adopters [11,30,46], whereas dogs moving or facing away from humans stay in the shelter for longer. Overall, the effect of human presence may have been different between individual dogs, as dogs that looked at the person for longer may have experienced frustration caused by unsuccessful attempts to physically interact while other dogs may have experienced increased relaxation due to the presence of the human. ...
Reading books to shelter animals combining auditory enrichment with human presence is increasingly used although its effects on animal welfare have not yet been investigated. This study compared the behaviour of single-housed shelter dogs and cats during a prerecorded reading condition in the absence or presence of an unfamiliar human (without direct physical contact). Fourteen dogs and twenty-one cats were observed in their enclosure in the two conditions in a counterbalanced order. Behaviours such as scratching the door, gaze direction and location in relation to the audio source/human were analysed from video recording for 10 min per condition. Dogs spent more time in their bed (p < 0.047) and looking at the auditory source (p < 0.004) when a human was present. Cats showed door scratching and rubbing when a human was present (p < 0.043), whereas they tended to spend more time in the vertical dimension (p = 0.051), where the hiding boxes were located, during auditory stimulation without a human present. These results show that the presence of a human induces greater interest compared to just audio stimulation in shelter dogs and cats but may induce frustration likely due to not being able to physically interact in some animals.
... Some studies have demonstrated small, but measurable, positive behavioural influences of a range of toys (e.g. increasing activity levels) (Wells, 2004a). But the most convincing studies have found evidence in laboratory-housed dogs rather than rescue shelter dogs, potentially due to the relatively low frequency of stimulation in the former versus the latter (Wells, 2004b;Hubrecht, 1993). ...
... The present study agrees with previous work that toys are little used by dogs in kennels (Wells, 2004a;Wells and Hepper, 2000). However, toy use was substantially increased from a median of 4 s in the unscented toys condition to 53 s in the scented toys condition (with the median for the actual scented toys being 89.5 s for lavender and 75.5 s for rabbit). ...
Worldwide, millions of dogs are held in kennels for extended periods of time and may experience compromised welfare. Enrichment, often using toys, is considered important to minimize the negative impacts of kennelling. However, the value of this enrichment may be based on various sensory facets of such toys and untangling the relative contributions is a residual challenge. Therefore, improving the utility of toys as enrichment is contingent on an improved understanding of the relationship between the properties of a toy and a dog's interaction with it. The present study aimed to evaluate the addition of two different scents to toys, both presumed to have a different level of biological salience. The behaviour and level of toy engagement of 44 singly housed dogs in a rehoming centre was compared amongst no-toy (NT), unscented-toy (T) and scented-toy (T+) treatments. For T + two scents were used: rabbit (T + R) and lavender (T + L). Toys were colour and type-matched for each treatment. Many of the datasets were zero-inflated therefore a Hurdle analysis was used to explore the relationships amongst the treatments. Non-zero inflated behavioural data were analysed using a Linear Mixed Model to discern treatment effect. Dogs were significantly more likely to interact, and interacted for longer, with scented toys. This was both in comparison to periods when only unscented toys were present and when both scented and unscented toys were simultaneously presented. However, there was no difference in response to the rabbit or lavender scented toys. Provision of scent also significantly reduced stress related behaviours and increased exploration. However, alterations in behaviour were not directly related to likelihood or amount of toy use, suggesting the scents were altering behaviour through means other than increasing physical enrichment use. These findings suggest that augmentation of toys using scents may improve engagement of dogs with them, and positively affect behavioural welfare indicators in the kennelled environment. The use of novel scents may therefore promote better welfare in kennels irrespective of their presumed biological salience, but differing scents should be further trialled.
... A large number of studies have evaluated the effect of various environmental and social enrichment programmes on the behaviour of shelter dogs (see reviews by Wells 2004 andTaylor & Mills 2007). While the goal of enrichment programmes is to improve the well-being of shelter dogs while kennelled, an additional benefit may be an increase in behaviours which are correlated with higher adoptions. ...
... Food toys in the kennel can increase activity levels (Hubrecht 1993;Schipper et al 2008), but reduce locomotion (Hubrecht 1993) and barking (Schipper et al 2008). Other nonedible and non-destructible toys do not seem to alter behaviour as dogs, by and large, ignore these objects (Wells 2004;Pullen et al 2010Pullen et al , 2012 Sensory enrichment in the form of music or odours was found to have some effects on shelter dog behaviour. Graham et al (2005) found that dogs exposed to chamomile and lavender odours spent more time resting with less time moving and vocalising. ...
Each year, nearly 4 million dogs will enter one of over 13,000 animal shelters operating in the United States. We review programmes implemented at shelters aimed at increasing the likelihood of adoption. The morphology of shelter dogs plays a large role in in-kennel adopter selection, but their behaviour is also influential in out-of-kennel adopter interactions. Previous studies suggest that dogs have the ability to readily learn new behaviours at the shelter, and programmes designed to improve behaviour of the dogs can increase adoption rates. Whilst human interaction has been well-established to improve behavioural and physiological outcomes of dogs living in shelters, analysis of the effects of sensory, environmental, and social-conspecific enrichment has not resulted in clear conclusions. We also review the literature on the relinquishment of owned dogs and return rates of previously adopted dogs. Whilst owner-and dog-related risks to relinquishment are discussed, we show that there is a notable lack of research into programmes that address issues that may prevent the initial surrender of dogs to shelters, or that could prevent re-relinquishment. It is likely that factors, unrelated to the dog, play a larger role than previously believed. Suggestions for further research include multi-site studies, investigations into the efficacy of in-shelter enrichment programmes, predictive validity of behavioural assessments, understanding of adopter behaviour at the shelter, and programmes within the community focused on keeping dogs in their homes.
... Previous research has found that dogs have individual preferences for play and respond to different human play signals differently (Rooney et al., 2001). In fact, previous research has found that shelter-housed dogs had preferences for different types of toys (Wells, 2004). Preference assessments have been used with animals to determine food preference (Fernandez et al., 2004;Gaalema et al., 2011) and, more recently, preference for enrichment items (Mehrkam and Dorey, 2014). ...
... An interesting finding was that whereas play is an important behavior for potential adopters, only a minority of dogs at the shelter preferred to play with toys. These findings are in agreement with previous research that showed that fewer than a third of the dogs played with toys while kenneled at an animal shelter (Pullen et al., 2010;Wells and Hepper, 2000), and that shelter dogs did not engage in object-play for a prolonged period of time (Wells, 2004). One solution may be to avoid toys with those dogs and, instead, focus the attention of a potential adopters on alternative forms of play. ...
... stereotypies such as spinning, chasing own tail, self-biting [19]). Additionally, forms of enriching stimulation, such as music [41] or toys [42], were found to improve the dogs' welfare, particularly if the dogs were allowed to physically engage in activities which provided for a level of variation (e.g. as with a toy rotation [42]) and which were biologically relevant (e.g. involving food [11]). ...
... stereotypies such as spinning, chasing own tail, self-biting [19]). Additionally, forms of enriching stimulation, such as music [41] or toys [42], were found to improve the dogs' welfare, particularly if the dogs were allowed to physically engage in activities which provided for a level of variation (e.g. as with a toy rotation [42]) and which were biologically relevant (e.g. involving food [11]). ...
We present the findings of an early requirements elicitation study for a smart kennel supporting canine welfare. We discuss unique challenges posed by the kennel environment in terms of design outcomes and research processes.
... stereotypic behaviours, see [8]). Additionally, various forms of stimulation and enrichment, such as music [16] or toys [17], have the potential to improve the dogs' welfare, particularly if the dogs are allowed to physically engage in activities which provide for a manageable level of variation (e.g. as with a toy rotation, see [17]) and which are biologically relevant (e.g. as with an entertaining feeding system, see [3]). An important concern relating to the welfare impact of environmental complexity is environmental controllability and predictability [15]. ...
... stereotypic behaviours, see [8]). Additionally, various forms of stimulation and enrichment, such as music [16] or toys [17], have the potential to improve the dogs' welfare, particularly if the dogs are allowed to physically engage in activities which provide for a manageable level of variation (e.g. as with a toy rotation, see [17]) and which are biologically relevant (e.g. as with an entertaining feeding system, see [3]). An important concern relating to the welfare impact of environmental complexity is environmental controllability and predictability [15]. ...
We present the findings of an early requirements elicitation study for a smart kennel supporting canine welfare. We discuss unique challenges posed by the kennel environment in terms of design outcomes and research processes.
... stereotypies such as spinning, chasing own tail, self-biting [19]). Additionally, forms of enriching stimulation, such as music [41] or toys [42], were found to improve the dogs' welfare, particularly if the dogs were allowed to physically engage in activities which provided for a level of variation (e.g. as with a toy rotation [42]) and which were biologically relevant (e.g. involving food [11]). ...
... stereotypies such as spinning, chasing own tail, self-biting [19]). Additionally, forms of enriching stimulation, such as music [41] or toys [42], were found to improve the dogs' welfare, particularly if the dogs were allowed to physically engage in activities which provided for a level of variation (e.g. as with a toy rotation [42]) and which were biologically relevant (e.g. involving food [11]). ...
Whilst the ubicomp community has successfully embraced a number of societal challenges for human benefit, including healthcare and sustainability, the well-being of other animals is hitherto underrepresented. We argue that ubicomp technologies, including sensing and monitoring devices as well as tangible and embodied interfaces, could make a valuable contribution to animal welfare. This paper particularly focuses on dogs in kenneled accommodation, as we investigate the opportunities and challenges for a smart kennel aiming to foster canine welfare. We conducted an in- depth ethnographic study of a dog rehoming center over four months; based on our findings, we propose a welfare- centered framework for designing smart environments, integrating monitoring and interaction with information management. We discuss the methodological issues we encountered during the research and propose a smart ethnographic approach for similar projects.
... Animals typically included in AAI programs are domesticated, social species such as dogs, cats, or horses who are paired with trained handlers and experience frequent interactions; however, by incorporating animals that have insufficient human interaction, such as shelter animals, there could be more opportunities available for all parties to receive benefits from the interaction. Living in a shelter can impair canine welfare (Wells, 2004;Dalla Villa et al., 2013;Hewison et al., 2014;Barnard et al., 2016;Berteselli et al., 2019) and efforts have been made to improve the shelter experience. For instance, positive human-animal interaction has been found to support shelter dog behavior and welfare (Hennessy et al., 1998;Shiverdecker et al., 2013;Gunter et al., 2019;Willen et al., 2019) and improve adoption success (Wells et al., 2002). ...
Veterans pursuing post-secondary education may experience reintegration challenges and academic-related stress. To support student well-being, colleges and universities have begun to offer animal-assisted interventions (AAI); however, the influence of AAI programs on student veteran populations remains underexplored. Furthermore, the welfare impact of AAI programs on incorporating animals has begun to be assessed. As shelter dogs can benefit from human interaction, a mixed-methods design was used to assess if dogs and student veterans could benefit from participating in a brief 30-min unstructured interaction. We aimed to identify whether: the interaction influenced veteran reported mood state, the dog and the interaction activities completed influenced veteran experience, and the interaction influenced shelter dog behavior. Thirty veterans (M age = 34, SD = 9.2; 24 males, 4 females) enrolled in a southern United States mid-size public university participated along with screened shelter dogs (N = 30, M age = 2, SD = 0.9; 17 males, 13 females). Veterans were instructed to engage in the activities of their choosing (i.e., petting, playing, talking, providing treats, brushing) with a shelter dog. To assess changes in veteran mood, a pictorial self-report scale (assessing arousal (activated, deactivated), and valence (pleasant, unpleasant)) was completed pre- and post-interaction. Dog behavior was measured in shelter before the interaction and during the beginning, middle, and end of the interaction. Results reveal veterans reported pleasant post-interaction mood states, an overall positive experience and activity enjoyment. Qualitative results indicated that veterans perceived the dog behavior to be the most memorable aspect of participation, positively influencing their overall interaction experience. Dogs entered the interaction with more behavioral displays of fear (e.g., reduced posture), general activity (e.g., jumping), and soliciting contact behaviors (e.g., soliciting play), with all behavioral activity reducing halfway into the interaction, potentially suggesting increased relaxation over the course of the interaction. Observed decreases in dog fear behavior and veteran reported activity enjoyment suggests benefits for shelter dogs and student veterans.
... In fact, Flint et al. [32] supplied kenneled dogs with a variety of food-based enrichment and found long-lasting chews to be the most effective as measured by the dogs' positive affective state and time spent engaging with the toys. It may be that the act of chewing itself is rewarding as it engages different senses and promotes oral health in dogs [31,33]. ...
Retail dog toys are often provided to companion animals to provide cognitive and physical stimu- lation and improve the animals’ quality of life. These toys, sometimes known as “enrichment toys”, have been shown to play a role in increasing appetite and activity levels and decreasing undesirable behaviors (e.g., barking, self-isolating behaviors) in some domestic dog (Canis familiaris) populations. In this study, we evaluate the effect of toys on appetite, activity levels, and positive affective states as measures of well- being in companion dogs. Behaviors were compared before and after regular interactions with different types of toys over twelve days. We found that provisioning companion dogs with toys did not significantly alter their activity level, rate of food consumption, or cognitive bias. While dogs who received more complex toys showed a slightly improved cognitive bias, there were no significant differences in behaviors be- tween the subjects who received “less complex” toys (e.g., a bone, ball) and “more complex” toys (e.g., puzzle toys). We conclude with reflections on the relevance of our subject population to the result seen, and on the different forms of the cognitive bias test.
... With animals, the applications can range from informing environmental conditions [2][3][4][5][6] and food preference [7][8][9][10][11] to further understanding of animal-human social interactions [12][13][14][15] and identifying toy or enrichment devices [16,17]. In domestic dogs, preference assessments have been used for food taste testing, although methods vary for dog food palatability tests (see [11] for a thorough review), comparing preference between different types of toys [18,19], and comparing preference between different reinforcers, such as food and human social interaction [14]. ...
Simple Summary
In this study, researchers aimed to compare the effectiveness of food and leisure stimuli as reinforcers for domestic dogs. While preference assessments have been conducted for various species, including humans and animals like cockroaches and wolves, to our knowledge, no study has specifically examined the preference between food and leisure stimuli in dogs. This study found that, overall, domestic dogs showed a preference for food over leisure items. Additionally, food was found to be a more effective reinforcer for dog behavior compared to leisure items. These findings have important implications for dog owners and trainers, suggesting that using food as a reinforcer may yield better results in training dogs.
Abstract
Preference assessments are often used to identify stimuli that function as potential reinforcers for training or intervention purposes. Specifically, various preference assessment formats have been used to identify preferred stimuli for humans, cockroaches, cotton-top tamarins, tortoises, and wolves, to name a few. However, to date, no study has evaluated the differential efficacy between food and leisure stimuli within domestic dogs. The current study aimed to compare the reinforcing value and efficacy between food and leisure stimuli for domestic dogs by comparing rates of behavior when receiving access to either their top-preferred food or leisure items. Overall results suggest (1) domestic dogs prefer food over leisure items, and (2) food is more likely to function as a reinforcer than leisure items for domestic dog’s behavior. These results suggest that dog owners and trainers should consider using food reinforcers over leisure items as reinforcers when attempting to train dogs.
... The increased HR was associated with more physical activity using their paws, nose, and mouth during toy interaction. A previous study by Wells [30] found that dog toys encouraged exploration and decreased habituation by allowing dogs to spend more time in moving and less time in standing, which is similar to our results. Previous studies by Shaffer and Ginsberg [19], and Gevirtz et al. [31] using toy treatment found that decreasing HRV may be related to respiratory regulatory mechanisms that control HR, with an increase in respiratory rate and a rise in sympathetic nervous system activity suppressing parasympathetic nervous system activity. ...
Background and Aim: A conventional feeding bowl is the primary method that dog owners use to feed their dogs, but this may not encourage natural behaviors and may even exacerbate unwanted behaviors. This study aimed to compare a conventional feeding bowl to a feeding toy in relation to behavior, cortisol levels, and heart rate variability (HRV).
Materials and Methods: The behaviors of four dogs were recorded and analyzed while being fed using either a stainless bowl (B) or a feeding toy (T) and either alone (A) or accompanied by a dog owner (O) for 30 min with each treatment (BA, BO, TA, and TO treatments). The dogs that were fed alone with the stainless bowl (BC) or the feeding toy (TC) were fed for 15 min/day for 7 days with their treatment, and serum cortisol levels measured on the first and last days of treatment. The dogs fed by the stainless bowl (BH) or the feeding toy (TH) with the owner present for 15 min for each treatment had their heart rate (HR) and HRV recorded by Polar® H10 during feedings The results were compared using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), repeated measure ANOVA, and Student’s t-test.
Results: The dogs spent more time eating and interacting with the feeding toys than stainless bowls. The activity of the dogs was higher when using feeding toys, particularly with the TO treatment. Cortisol levels were significantly lower on day 7 than on day 1 of the TC treatment. The dogs’ HR was higher during TH treatment than during BH treatment. All HRV parameters were decreased significantly when feeding the dog with the toys.
Conclusion: The results of this study support the idea that feeding enrichment supports the natural feeding behaviors of dogs as they mimic hunting and playing behaviors. This reduced unwanted behavior, cortisol levels, and HRV, and increased food consumption, eating duration, and active behaviors. The presence of the dog’s owner is important because it can enhance feeding and active behaviors, and feeding enrichment can improve the dog’s welfare and the dog-human relationship.
... Dogs benefit from an environment enriched with toys or feeding enrichment (Wells, 2004;Schipper et al., 2008;Pullen et al., 2010) as well as from interactions with humans (Coppola et al., 2006;Shiverdecker et al., 2013;Willen et al., 2017;McGowan et al., 2018). ...
Interactive games may boost positive well-being by combining the benefits of rewards with cognitive and social enrichment. However, a hasty introduction can lead to low success and frustration. We examine two methods of introducing an interactive game to dogs to test whether they elicit differences in success rate, stress-related behavior, and autonomic regulation of the heart.
Twenty-eight shelter dogs were tested with an interactive game that consists of four boxes with different opening mechanisms. Dogs were introduced to the game in one of two ways: gradually vs hastily. Gradual introduction consisted of allowing the dog to first play a partial (2 out of 4 boxes) version of the game with a human demonstrating the opening mechanism of the boxes twice, followed by exposure to the complete game. Hasty introduction consisted of the same procedures but with the complete game presented before the partial version. Dog behavior was obtained via video recordings and pre- and post-game mean heart rate (HR), its overall variability (SDNN), a measure of parasympathetic activation (RMSSD) and their balance (RMSSD/SDNN) were assessed using beat-to-beat intervals obtained with a Polar heart rate monitor (RS800CX). Linear mixed effects analyses (LMM) were calculated for success and behavior component scores and for change from pre- to post-game period in HR/HRV variables. In addition, HR/HRV parameters were analyzed with Pearson correlations.
Dogs introduced to the game in a gradual manner had a significantly higher rate of success (LMM: p < 0.001) and displayed less stress related-behavior, e.g. lower scores for the arousal (p < 0.001) and displacement (p < 0.001) components. Correlation analysis revealed a negative correlation between HR and RMSSD during baseline in all dogs (pre-game, day 1: gradual: r = -0.52; hasty: r = -0.72) that transformed into a strong positive correlation in the gradual introduction group (post-game, day 2: r = 0.78), whereas it remained negative over all evaluation periods in the hasty introduction group (post-game, day 2: r = -0.83).
Overall, our findings suggest that the way a moderately difficult game is introduced plays a major role in determining how the experience is perceived. A gradual introduction including demonstration promoted a more enjoyable experience characterized by greater likelihood of reward, less stress-related behavior, and a physiological profile that may involve activation of both branches of the autonomic nervous system. We suggest that this may be a physiologic signature of successful achievement in which skills are balanced against difficulty.
... Esse resultado é, também, consequência de uma carga de estímulo que o animal recebe ao ser submetido ao enriquecimento ambiental com o dispositivo alimentar (Landsberg, 2004). Assim, os cães fazem mais atividade no momento da interação com o brinquedo, após isso, o animal passa maior parte do seu tempo realizando comportamentos menos ativos (Wells, 2005) como, por exemplo, permanecer deitados ou dormindo. ...
Cães de canis experimentais ficam alojados individualmente no período de experimentação, podendo causar assim, alguns problemas comportamentais, os quais prejudicam seu bem-estar. Com isso, uma ferramenta que pode ser utilizada para minimizar esses efeitos e melhorar o bem-estar dos animais é o enriquecimento ambiental. Assim, o objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar o comportamento de cães de canil experimental e a digestibilidade da dieta, com e sem enriquecimento ambiental. Foram utilizados oito cães adultos, os quais permaneceram 10 dias sem enriquecimento ambiental, seguidos por 10 dias com, totalizando 20 dias de experimento. O enriquecimento utilizado foi uma esfera oca, contendo furos, na qual o alimento era liberado conforme manipulação pelos cães. A dieta foi fornecida duas vezes ao dia. Foram realizados dois ensaios de digestibilidade, com a mesma dieta, sendo um no período sem enriquecimento e outro com. Cada ensaio de digestibilidade teve cinco dias de adaptação à dieta, seguido por cinco dias de coleta total de fezes. Foram observados os comportamentos dos cães durante o início e final de cada período. Houve aumento no tempo comendo (0,3% para 1,2%) e no comportamento exploratório (0,3% para 1,7%) dos cães no período que foi utilizado enriquecimento ambiental (P>0,05). Houve diminuição da coprofagia (1 vez para 0) no final do período que os animais estavam com enriquecimento (P<0,05). Os demais comportamentos não diferiram (P>0,05). Não houve diferença na digestibilidade da dieta mensurada sem e com enriquecimento (P>0,05). Com isso, o enriquecimento ambiental melhora alguns comportamentos, auxiliando no bem-estar de cães de canil experimental, sem interferir na mensuração da digestibilidade da dieta.
... In the total population of cats, 12.56% of the animals had no access to toys while in the SRP group 26.67% of them had no access to toys, making this a possible factor related to SRP. Therefore, the use of environmental enrichment, such as cat toys, can be a good option to increase the welfare of confined animals and help to prevent SRP [25,26,69,70]. ...
Identifying and preventing the occurrence of separation-related problems (SRP) in companion animals are relevant to animal welfare and the quality of human-pet interactions. The SRP are defined as a set of behaviors and physiological signs displayed by the animal when separated from its attachment person. In cats, SRP has been insufficiently studied. Thus, the objective of this study was to develop a questionnaire for cat owners which identifies behaviors that may indicate SRP, as well as relates the occurrence of SRP to the management practices applied in the sampled cats. The associations of SRP with cats’ characteristics, as well as owner, environmental, and management traits were investigated. The questionnaire was developed based on the scientific literature about separation anxiety syndrome in dogs and a few papers in cats, and it was completed by 130 owners of 223 cats. Analysis of owners’ answers was done through categorization and acquisition of relative frequencies of each response category, followed by Fisher’s exact test, chi-square tests in contingency table and Multiple Correspondence Analysis. Among the sampled animals, 13.45% (30 / 223) met at least one of the behavioral criteria we used to define SRP. Destructive behavior was the most frequently reported behavior (66.67%, 20 / 30), followed by excessive vocalization (63.33%, 19 / 30), urination in inappropriate places (60.00%, 18 / 30), depression-apathy (53.33%, 16 / 30), aggressiveness (36.67%, 11 / 30) and agitation-anxiety (36.67%, 11 / 30) and, in lower frequency, defecation in inappropriate places (23.33%, 7 / 30). The occurrence of SRP was associated with the number of females living in the residence (P = 0.01), with not having access to toys (P = 0.04), and no other animal residing in the house (P = 0.04). Separation-related problems in domestic cats are difficult to identify due to the limited amount of knowledge regarding the issue. The questionnaire developed in this study supported identification of the main behaviors likely related to SRP in cats and could be used as a starting point for future research.
... Dogs benefit from an environment enriched with toys or feeding enrichment [1][2][3] as well as from 55 interactions with humans [4][5][6][7]. So-called interactive games or toys are designed for the joint 56 application of dog and human and therefore combine the benefits of human interaction, food and 57 cognitive enrichment [e.g. 2, 5, 8]. ...
Interactive games may boost positive well-being by combining the benefits of rewards with cognitive and social enrichment. While a gradual introduction to the game can promote greater learning and skill, a hasty introduction can lead to low success and frustration. Here, we examine two methods of introducing an interactive game to dogs ( Canis lupus familiaris ) to test whether they elicit differences in success rate, stress-related behavior, and autonomic regulation of the heart.
Twenty-eight dogs living in shelters were given the opportunity to play with an interactive game that consists of four boxes with different opening mechanisms. Dogs were introduced to the interactive game in one of two ways: gradually vs hastily. Gradual introduction consisted of allowing the dog to first play a partial (2 out of 4 boxes) version of the game with a human experimenter demonstrating the opening mechanism of the boxes twice, followed by exposure to the complete game. Hasty introduction consisted of the same procedures but presented in a different order, with the complete game presented before the partial version. Dog behavior was obtained via video recordings and pre- and post-game mean HR, RMSSD, SDNN, RMSSD/SDNN ratio were assessed using R-R intervals obtained with a Polar heart rate monitor (RS800CX). Linear mixed effects analyses (LMM) were calculated for success and behavior component scores and for change from pre- to post-game period in HR & HRV variables. In addition, HR and HRV parameters were analyzed with Pearson correlations.
Dogs introduced to the game in a gradual manner had a significantly higher rate of success compared to dogs introduced in a hasty manner (LMM: p < 0.001). Dogs introduced to the game gradually also displayed less stress related-behavior, e.g. displaying lower scores for the arousal (p < 0.001) and displacement (p < 0.001) components. Correlation analysis revealed a negative correlation between HR and RMSSD during baseline in all dogs (pre-game, day 1: gradual: r = −0.52; hasty: r = −0.72) that gradually transformed into a strong positive correlation in the gradual introduction group (post-game, day 2: r = 0.78), whereas it remained negative over all evaluation periods in the hasty introduction group (post-game, day 2: r = −0.83).
Overall, our findings on success rate, dog behavior, and HR/HRV suggest that the way a moderately difficult game is introduced plays a major role in determining how the experience of game play is perceived. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that gradual introduction including demonstration promotes an enjoyable experience characterized by greater likelihood of reward, less stress-related behavior, and a physiological profile that may involve activation of both sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system. We suggest that this may be a physiologic signature of successful achievement and that a learning experience in which skills are balanced against difficulty promote pleasant emotional states.
... Many researchers have examined the benefits of providing environmental enrichment (e.g., human social contact, food-dispensing toys) for kenneled dogs (Bowman et al., 2015;Bowman et al., 2017;Bright and Hadden, 2017;Dudley et al., 2015;Herron et al., 2014;Menor-Campos et al., 2011;Protopopova et al., 2012;Protopopova and Wynne, 2015;Protopopova et al., 2018;Shiverdecker et al., 2013;Wells, 2004b [for review of earlier papers, see Wells, 2004a]). The most practical way to alleviate the stress of sheltering, however, is to reduce the amount of time that a dog is in the shelter, i.e., by enhancing adoptability (Wells and Hepper, 2000). ...
Many animal shelters implement enrichment programs as a means of improving dogs' behavior and reducing the stress of the shelter environment. These programs, however, require significant amounts of time and money. In this study, dogs in an animal shelter received the standard environmental enhancement of twice-daily walks. One group received only the standard enhancement (walking). Three other groups also received one of three enhanced enrichment programs: a daily food-dispensing toy (toy), a daily session of standardized human contact (petting), or daily obedience training (obedience). These enrichment sessions occurred for five to seven days. The effects of these enrichments on the dogs' adoption frequency and time to adoption were evaluated. Ninety-two enrolled dogs became available for adoption; of these, 98% were adopted. There were no differences in proportions of dogs adopted or in time to adoption among enrichment groups (all P > 0.05). Overall, the enrichment programs had no effect on adoption frequency or time to adoption. However, it must be noted that most dogs (80%) were adopted by the second day of being made available for adoption (day 9).
... Moreover, the environment of canine shelters tends to have multiple stressors such as social and spatial restrictions (Hennessy et al. 1997;Tuber et al. 1999). Shelter dogs hardly spend any time with humans, and if they do, it is only during cleaning and feeding activities (Wells and Hepper 1992;Wells 2004;Barrera et al. 2008). A sociability test has showed that shelter dogs, despite showing fear-appeasement behaviors like tucking their tails, flattening their ears, and crouching, tend to stay closer to unknown people than pet dogs (Barrera et al. 2010). ...
... In addition to providing cognitive stimulation, clicker training might also improve cats' adoptability. This is another important factor in their welfare, because an extended shelter stay impacts physical and mental well-being in dogs and cats [28][29][30]. One factor that appears to positively influence likelihood of adoption is perceived friendliness [31], so anything that can increase an animal's friendliness toward humans should be encouraged [32]. ...
Clicker training has the potential to mitigate stress among shelter cats by providing environmental enrichment and human interaction. This study assessed the ability of cats housed in a shelter-like setting to learn new behaviors via clicker training in a limited amount of time. One hundred shelter cats were enrolled in the study. Their baseline ability to perform four specific behaviors touching a target, sitting, spinning, and giving a high-five was assessed, before exposing them to 15, five-min clicker training sessions, followed by a post-training assessment. Significant gains in performance scores were found for all four cued behaviors after training (p = 0.001). A cat's age and sex did not have any effect on successful learning, but increased food motivation was correlated with greater gains in learning for two of the cued behaviors: high-five and targeting. Temperament also correlated with learning, as bolder cats at post assessment demonstrated greater gains in performance scores than shyer ones. Over the course of this study, 79% of cats mastered the ability to touch a target, 27% mastered sitting, 60% mastered spinning, and 31% mastered high-fiving. Aside from the ability to influence the cats' well-being, clicker training also has the potential to make cats more desirable to adopters.
... Toys are often provided as environmental enrichment in kennels, however use of such enrichment can be relatively low (Pullen et al., 2010). Adult dogs housed in a rescue shelter only used toys for 8% of the time (Wells, 2004); whereas juvenile dogs in research kennels spent 24% of their time playing with them (Hubrecht, 1993). Such conflicting results could be explained by: (i) the difference in age in the different studies; (ii) the different numbers and types of toys used, or (iii) because of difference in the kennel environment. ...
Play is an enigmatic behaviour, the function of which is still debated, despite more than a century of research. We discuss the evolutionary function of play behaviour, focusing on the domestic dog (Canis familiaris), a unique species due to its past domestication and current cohabitation with humans. The ultimate function of play in dogs is explored through four main theories: 1) developing motor skills; 2) training for the unexpected; 3) social cohesion; and 4) play as a by-product of biological processes. The proximate functions of play and the association between play and animal welfare, which is widely believed to be positive, are examined. The majority of evidence supports the developing motor skills and social cohesion functions of play in dogs, with some support for training for the unexpected. Most types of play appear to improve social cohesion between humans and dogs, increasing their familiarity and reducing agonistic interactions. Play in dogs is unlikely to have arisen only as a by-product of other biological processes, but has been shaped directly and indirectly by artificial selection. Multiple factors determine when and why adult dogs play and these differ for solitary, intraspecific and interspecific play. We suggest that play is not a reliable, generalisable, positive welfare indicator, but, rather, a heterogeneous behaviour which serves different functions. This multifaceted view of play implies that early experience, prior life-history and the context of the interaction define the association between play and welfare.
... A large majority of shelter dogs interacted with destructible toys, which were placed on the floor [103]. However, indestructible and nonedible toys were largely ignored [91,93,96] and habituation to toys was rapid and generalized to other novel toys [70]. Approximately 38% of dogs, when taken out of their kennel, played with toys [66]. ...
... Feeding enrichment has also been shown to increase activity level and reduce barking behavior (Schipper 2008). Other forms of mental and sensory stimulation (e.g., olfactory, visual, auditory, tactile and pheromone) are additional and important ways of providing enrichment (Graham 2005a, Griffith 2000De Monte 1997;Tod 2005;Wells 2004aWells , 2004b. For example, cats benefit from the provision of scratching posts; ...
... Si bien esta preferencia inicial podría reflejar neofilia o neofobia (Pullen et al. 2010) no dice nada sobre las posteriores interacciones durante el juego, actividad en la que el proceso de habituación podría modificar, a su vez, el grado de interés por los objetos . Si bien los juguetes forman parte del enriquecimiento ambiental no hay suficientes evidencias de sus beneficios, aunque se demostró preferencia según la naturaleza del objeto (Wells 2004). Siguiendo con las encuestas, los perros mostraron poco miedo a las personas , hecho que se podría relacionar con el grado de mansedumbre desarrollado por la especie canina durante la domesticación (Price 2002). ...
Con el objeto de identificar signos precursores de alteraciones del comportamiento en cachorros, se evaluaron respuestas conductuales durante la primera consulta clínica, coincidiendo con la primo vacunación. Se trabajó con caninos de ambos sexos (n = 31), entre 30 y 60 días de edad, tanto mestizos como de razas puras. Siguiendo la secuencia en la exploración clínica de rutina, al ingresar se recolectaron datos sobre exploración ambiental (Exp) sobre el suelo y luego las respuestas a maniobras sobre la camilla (Mc) y de sujeción y sumisión forzadas (Sf) efectuadas por el profesional. Durante la anam-nesis se realizaron preguntas referentes a miedo frente a estímulos novedosos, tiempo de descanso y actitudes durante el juego. El 74% de los cachorros regresó junto al humano conocido (propietario) luego de explorar el ambiente en el suelo. En la camilla, el 81% aceptó el contacto físico iniciado por el veterinario y un 84% aceptó la sumisión forzada. Ningún cachorro intentó escapar y sólo uno presentó reacciones neurovegetativas. Frente a estímulos novedosos, el 61% no presentó miedo y, cuando se presentó la respuesta, el orden de susceptibilidad fue a ruidos, objetos móviles y personas desconocidas. Frente al descanso, 71% de los propietarios no los escuchó llorar durante la noche y durante el juego, 61% de los cachorros dejó de morder ante la solicitud del propietario. En la primera consulta la mayoría de los cachorros no presentó signos precursores de altera-ciones de la conducta. La aplicación de maniobras semiológicas sencillas –observación del comportamiento exploratorio, posición de sumisión, reacción a la palpación y aus-cultación– brindó información sobre hiperactividad, miedo, ansiedad o socialización inadecuada. Esta información fue utilizada como base para hacer modificación de la conducta. Con intervenciones tempranas el veterinario puede, no sólo mejorar la relación humano/animal, sino también el bienestar de los perros urbanos.
... Most companion dogs seem to prefer to use objects in the context of interactions with people rather than play with them asocially (Pullen, 2011). However, they do manipulate objects in non-social contexts, and the wide range of 'dog toys' designed for solitary play testifies to the belief that this is beneficial to their dogs' well-being, even though such effects appear to be small, at least in kennelled dogs (Wells, 2004). The motivation for solitary object play may be quite distinct to that when the context is primarily social, so we will consider the former first. ...
... Further, the items represented different functional types of enrichment: the Nylabone® was a chew toy, and the tube cap and noise ball were noise makers. Nylabones® have been effective enrichment items for kenneled dogs (Wells 2004), and black-footed ferrets have previously demonstrated interest in noise makers. We rotated each of these three items every 2 days throughout the study so that a ferret was given each item again 5 days after it was removed. ...
Black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) are highly endangered carnivores that are being recovered through captive breeding and reintroduction into natural areas. My
research focused on two factors associated with recovery of black-footed ferrets: stress in
a captive population and predation risk in a free-ranging population. In the first chapter
of my thesis, I described the background of black-footed ferrets, including the history of
the species. In the second chapter, I focused on the captive breeding program. Black-footed ferrets living in captivity can be subject to stressors which can lead to a higher
occurrence of disease and reduced reproductive function. Environmental enrichment is
one method increasingly used to decrease stress in captive animals. In this study, I
experimentally evaluated the efficacy of this method to reduce adrenocortical activity in
captive ferrets by monitoring fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM). Enrichment
reduced FGM in juvenile males but increased FGM in adult females; juvenile males also
interacted more with enrichment items than did adult females. However, FGM did not
impact disease or reproduction. While environmental enrichment could benefit captive
juvenile male ferrets by reducing adrenocortical activity, it may not always be necessary
at facilities housing ferrets.
In the third chapter, I focused on a reintroduced population of black-footed
ferrets. Predation is considered to be the primary cause of mortality in wild ferrets,
especially by great horned owls and coyotes. I evaluated whether the exposure of free-
ranging ferrets to landscape features utilized by these predators affected their survival and
habitat selection. Exposure to perches used by great horned owls reduced ferret survival,
but exposure to landscape features that might facilitate or deter movement by coyotes had
no appreciable effect on survival. Habitat selection functions indicated that ferrets
selected resources based on factors other than predator avoidance. Considering easily
quantified landscape features (i.e., owl perches) can enhance success of reintroduction
efforts for black-footed ferrets. However, development of predictive models and
management strategies is not necessarily straightforward for all species of predators.
... Dogs are highly motivated to chew objects as this helps to keep their teeth and gums in good condition, hence most dogs find chewing toys (Wells, 2004) and bones rewarding and relaxing. There is a range of manufactured chew toys and bones on the market, which are relatively inexpensive and safe. ...
Research conducted by the Anthrozoology Institute and the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory has shown that many working dogs exhibit high levels of physiologic stress in response to kenneling (Hiby et al., 2006; Rooney et al., 2007a). Furthermore, these dogs tend to perform poorly during training, establishing links between welfare and working ability (Rooney et al., 2005, 2007b). Subsequently, we have been studying how kenneling affects welfare and working ability. Specifically, we have investigated which elements within housing and husbandry influence welfare, which of these seem to be the most important, and how environmental enrichment (e.g. feeding devices) can affect welfare and working ability. This paper draws together results from all of these studies, identifying signs that may be indicative of compromised welfare, and providing guidelines, based on scientific evidence, for how to improve kenneled working dog welfare. It reproduces an unpublished guide designed to primarily inform and advise practitioners who are responsible for caring for, and/or handling working dogs. This paper aims to ensure that practitioners are updated of the most recent advances in working dog welfare, and hence many of the studies summarized here are yet to be published in full, in peer-reviewed journals.
Provision of environmental enrichment has become a basic consideration for the animals used in research. Societal concerns, ethical aspects, legal requirement, and quality of research have made animal housing conditions evolve significantly in recent years. Barren cages have been replaced by a variable spectrum of enriched environments. This poses several challenges for both animal care staff and researchers, and therefore, for institutions. In this chapter, responses to some practical questions on provision of environmental enrichment to several of the most commonly used species (rodents, rabbits, dogs, pigs, and macaques) are offered. The general concepts in the rodent section are applicable to all species.
Shelters are stressful environments for domestic dogs which are known to negatively impact their welfare. The introduction of outside stimuli for dogs in this environment can improve their welfare and life conditions. However, our current understanding of the influence of different stimuli on shelter dogs’ welfare is limited and the data is still insufficient to draw conclusions. In this study, we collected 28 days (four weeks) of telemetry data from eight male dogs housed in an Italian shelter for a long period of time. During this period, three types of enrichment were introduced into the dogs’ pens for one week each: entertaining objects, intraspecific, and interspecific social enrichment, by means of the presence of female conspecifics and the presence of a human. To quantify their impact, we introduce novel metrics as indicators of sheltered dogs’ welfare based on telemetry data: the variation of heart rate, muscle activity, and body temperature from an average baseline day, quality of sleep, and the regularity for cyclicity of the aforementioned parameters, based on the day-night cycle. Using these metrics, we show that while all three stimuli statistically improve the dogs’ welfare, the variance between individual dogs is large. Moreover, our findings indicate that the presence of female conspecific is the best stimulus among the three explored options which improves both the quality of sleep and the parameters’ cyclicity. Our results are consistent with previous research findings while providing novel data-driven welfare indicators that promote objectivity. Thus, this research provides some useful guidelines for managing shelters and improving dogs’ welfare.
Simple Summary
Stress is an inevitable element in the course of life that must be accepted, but efforts to minimize it are necessary. In particular, since captive animals in animal testing centers can experience relatively high levels of stress, efforts should be made to alleviate their stress. The aim of this study was to find a suitable environment that can reduce the stress of captive dogs. We conducted a scientific evaluation of the stress caused by environmental changes in dogs. According to the present results, social housing and environmental enrichment reduce dogs’ stress.
Abstract
Animal stress is influenced by environmental factors, yet only a few studies have evaluated the effects of environmental stress on captive dogs. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of environmental and social enrichment on the stress levels of captive dogs housed in a lab. We assessed stress levels in eight Beagle dogs by measuring their body weight, cortisol levels, a stress hormone, the alkaline phosphatase activity in serum, the number of steps per hour, as well as clinical sign observations in a changed environment for 6 weeks. Four dogs assigned to a control group were raised alone in a relatively narrow place without toys; four dogs assigned to an experimental group were raised together in a relatively large place with toys. The body weight of the control group remained unchanged, while that of the experimental group decreased. Cortisol levels in the control group increased throughout, whereas those in the experimental group increased for up to 2 weeks and decreased thereafter. Consequently, cortisol levels in the experimental group significantly decreased compared to the control group at 6 weeks (p = 0.048). Fighting was observed among the dogs in the experimental group at 3 weeks; thus, one dog was separated from the group. The number of steps per hour was more than twice as high in the experimental than in the control group. Thereby, we determined that social housing, with appropriate companions and environmental enrichment materials, can reduce stress levels in captive dogs more efficiently than in single housing without such materials. Our study provides useful insights for captive animal organizations, such as kenneled dogs’ management, to improve animal welfare.
Dogs experience both acute and chronic stress when living in animal shelters. Current best practices recommend a variety of techniques for reducing stress such as enhanced human interactions including play or training, novel feeding strategies, increased exercise/group play, and, when possible, group housing. Auditory stimulation in the form of bio-acoustically designed music has shown a stress-relieving effect in dogs experiencing chronic stress such as those living in a kennel. However, there is little research looking at the effect of visual stimulation on stress in shelter-living dogs. Using a two-group (treatment, control) experimental design, the current study examined the effect of auditory and visual content intended to reduce stress, measured by salivary cortisol and behavior, in shelter dogs. The content was delivered through an in-kennel pet videophone unit. Forty-seven dogs were enrolled at one shelter in the United States. While there were no significant differences in pre- and post-test salivary cortisol levels by experimental group (P > 0.05), dogs in the treatment group spent significantly less time in the back of the kennel (P = 0.046) than did dogs in the control group. In addition, two behaviors differed by experimental group at the P < 0.10 level: dogs in the treatment group spent more time grooming (P = 0.066) and less time walking (P = 0. 052) than did dogs in the control group. These results point to a promising area for future research as they suggest that, under certain conditions, auditory and visual enrichment delivered through an individual in-kennel device could be a useful adjunct to an existing enrichment and behavior protocol for shelter-housed dogs.
Domestic dogs are members of the class Mammalia, order Carnivora, and family Canidae. Although within the order Carnivora, dogs have evolved to eat an omnivorous diet. Their nutritional requirements include specific amino acids, glucose precursors, fatty acids, and dietary fibre are important dietary elements. Dogs are generally social animals. Most well‐socialised dogs are strongly motivated to establish contact and interact with other dogs, for example on a walk. Human contact has beneficial effects for many dogs. Importantly, a dog's need for, and reaction to, human company is affected by its temperament and early experiences. Rabies is an important disease internationally, affecting millions of dogs yearly, and extrapolating from human experiences, may cause respiratory distress and pain prior to death. The behavioural responses of an individual dog are influenced by its breed, type, rearing, and current environment. Dogs' responses to rewards and training may also indicate their mood or overall welfare.
The recovery crate continues to be a useful part of the home care plan for smaller dogs following orthopaedic surgery. However, small, barren or uncomfortable crates are inappropriate. The crate must offer sufficient space for the patient to lie fully-stretched out, to sit or stand facing in a choice of directions, to turn easily, to eat, and to lick or chew at toys. Open-topped pens should be considered for patients that will not attempt to escape, as these tend to offer more floor area than crates. For larger dogs, a single-level recovery room is a suitable alternative to the crate or pen. This article discusses optimal set-up of crate and recovery room, including size, positioning, flooring, bedding, and methods of enrichment. Confined dogs benefit from a regular routine including controlled exercise, rest, feeding and human interaction. To avoid distress, the dog should be introduced to the crate or recovery room both gradually and preoperatively if at all possible. Owners require clear preoperative advice on the correct size, set-up and use of the recovery space.
Classical music has been shown to reduce stress in kennelled dogs; however, rapid habituation of dogs to this form of auditory enrichment has also been demonstrated. The current study investigated the physiological and behavioural response of kennelled dogs (n = 38) to medium-term (5 days) auditory enrichment with five different genres of music including Soft Rock, Motown, Pop, Reggae and Classical, to determine whether increasing the variety of auditory stimulation reduces the level of habituation to auditory enrichment. Dogs were found to spend significantly more time lying and significantly less time standing when music was played, regardless of genre. There was no observable effect of music on barking, however, dogs were significantly (z = 2.2, P < 0.05) more likely to bark following cessation of auditory enrichment. Heart Rate Variability (HRV) was significantly higher, indicative of decreased stress, when dogs were played Soft Rock and Reggae, with a lesser effect observed when Motown, Pop and Classical genres were played. Relative to the silent period prior to auditory enrichment, urinary cortisol:creatanine (UCCR) values were significantly higher during Soft Rock (t = 2.781, P < 0.01) and the second silent control period following auditory enrichment (t = 2.46, P < 0.05). Despite the mixed response to different genres, the physiological and behavioural changes observed remained constant over the 5d of enrichment suggesting that the effect of habituation may be reduced by increasing the variety of auditory enrichment provided.
Supplying pigs in intensive housing with an emotionally positive challenge can increase the animals' experienced control over the environment. Since pigs have well-developed auditory functions and a comparatively high cognitive capacity the new system calls an animal living in a group with an individual acoustic summons to a feeding place. Groups of eight pigs at an age of 7 weeks were subjected to an experimental test, which lasted until the 20th week. The experiment was repeated with 6 groups. For comparison a control group of equal age and size was kept without the experimental equipment. This consisted of four 'Call-Feeding-Stations' (CFS) integrated into the pen. The CFS played the individual jingles and delivered feed if the called animal entered. The animals were pre-trained for their individual jingle as a summons during 1 week where the jingle was coupled with feeding in a classical conditioning paradigm. When active calling started the pigs reached a correct response rate of 82% within 4 days (daily feed allowance was adjusted to 80%). The animals displayed significantly less maladaptive behaviour (belly nosing) compared to the controls and a significant better healing of experimental skin lesions. They fed undisturbed by group mates who had never associated the jingle of a called individual with feeding. The results indicate that the CFS-technique integrated in pigs' feeding routine seems to increase animal welfare. CFS improve the capacity of management as individuals can be called so that competitive fighting when waiting for entrance to an automatic feeder can be prevented. The emotionally positive challenge of acting for being reliably rewarded may also increase animal health and improve general behavioural traits and reduce the general stress level.
There is often a heightened concern for the welfare of dogs and cats since they play a special role as companion animals. While most individuals with knowledge of dogs or cats have opinions about what constitutes good welfare, there are unique considerations that must be applied for these species as laboratory animals. Oversight of measures that promote good welfare begins even before acquisition and continues throughout the life of the animal. Included are discussions of choosing the right animal, transportation to the research facility, care at the facility, importance of socialization, acclimation, and enrichment, and re-homing of laboratory dogs and cats. As knowledge and perspectives change about what constitutes good welfare, so too does the expectation for better care at all stages of the animal's life.
This chapter explores the research around canine enrichment, providing ideas for successful and effective enrichment programs in shelters and outlining methods for the evaluation of such programs. As research specifically examining the effects of enrichment in shelters is a relatively recent development, a sizeable proportion of what is known about these methods comes from research designed to improve the lives of animals in research environments. The authors of the chapter draw their expertise from working with animals in a variety of contexts, but all are currently associated with the WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition, a state-of-the-art science institute that focuses on the nutritional and behavioral needs of pets. Types of enrichment fall into two broad categories: social enrichment, enriching the time the dog spends confined through contact with other dogs or people; and environmental enrichment, enriching the space within which the dog is held (e.g., toys and feeding enrichment and furniture and sensory enrichment).
Re-homing centres present a range of potential stressors to kennelled dogs which are likely to impact negatively on their welfare. Despite the presence of visitors to the kennel often being considered a potential stressor, empirical investigation into their impact on the behaviour and welfare of kennelled dogs in re-homing centres is lacking. This study investigated the influence of changing visitor access policy from open access to prohibited viewing at kennels (with organised single meetings for viewing dogs outside of the kennel environment) on the welfare of 15 dogs housed in a dog-only re-homing facility. Data were collected across a number of domains comprising kennel noise levels, behavioural measures (activity, repetitive behaviour, response to human approach); physiological measures (urinary cortisol:creatinine ratios); sickness events and faecal scoring. The general kennel noise levels were significantly lower when visitor access to the kennel area was restricted. Furthermore, dogs were found to display behaviour indicative of improved welfare during this time period; dogs spent significantly more time sedentary, less time moving and exhibited significantly fewer episodes of repetitive behaviours. No significant change was seen in the urinary cortisol:creatinine ratio, nor in sickness behaviour, faecal scoring or response to a human approach test. Overall, the results from this study suggest that restricting visitors from viewing the dogs while in their kennels may be better for the dogs' short term welfare.
This study examined the effects of human contact and toys on fear responses to humans in small breed, shelter-housed dogs. Ninety dogs were assigned to one of three treatments: “Control” (Control), comprising routine husbandry performed by shelter staff; “Human Contact” (HC), where dogs additionally received 2 min positive contact daily with an experimenter; or “Human Contact + Toys” (HCT), where of the additional human contact included the opportunity to interact with toys. Treatments were implemented daily from day 2 (second day in the shelter) until day 6. On day 7, the fear response towards the experimenter was assessed using salivary cortisol concentrations and a human avoidance test. The behavioural parameters measured were approach and withdrawal responses to the experimenter and time spent in each section of the pen while the experimenter was situated at each of three positions outside the pen: 2 m (position 1) or 1 m away from the pen gate (position 2) or crouched against the pen gate (position 3). On day 8, dogs were assessed by the shelter veterinarian for their suitability for adoption by the public. Treatment had no effect on salivary cortisol concentrations or the proportion of dogs selected for adoption. The results indicated that dogs in the HC and HCT treatments spent more time (P = 0.024) at the front of the pen when the experimenter was at position 3 than Control dogs (HC 8.8 s, HCT 8.7 s, Control 6.6 s from a possible 10 s). For those dogs that were not at the front of the pen when the experimenter was in position 3, a higher (P < 0.05) percentage of HCT dogs (100%) but not HC dogs (86%, P > 0.05) approached the experimenter compared with Control dogs (45%). A second experiment on another 40 dogs examined if dogs, based on their behaviour in the human avoidance test, discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar humans. All dogs received the HC protocol as in Experiment 1 and were observed in the human avoidance test, however, all dogs were tested twice, once with the ‘familiar’ experimenter and once with an ‘unfamiliar’ experimenter. There were no significant (P > 0.05) familiarity or testing order effects, except that dogs approached the unfamiliar experimenter more (60%) than the familiar experimenter (29%) at position 2 (P < 0.05). The results indicate that additional positive human contact other than that associated with routine husbandry reduced the behavioural fear response of dogs to humans, but did not affect the proportion of dogs selected for adoption. The results also indicate that the shelter dogs did not discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar humans, in the handling context used in this study, suggesting a degree of stimulus generalisation may occur.
Animal care in biomedical facilities has undergone a dramatic transformation in the area of psychological well-being and enrichment
over the past two decades. Today, attending to the behavioral needs of research animals is considered an integral part of
animal care. Enrichment is defined as environmental stimuli provided to research animals in an effort to improve well-being
by increasing species-specific and decreasing abnormal behaviors. Such environmental enhancement can help alleviate some of
the stress associated with living in captivity, and can thus produce a better research model. This chapter discusses some
of the issues surrounding the provision of enrichment and details some basic enrichment strategies, with emphasis on rodents,
dogs, and nonhuman primates.
Toys are often provided for adult dogs housed in kennels, but their effectiveness as environmental enrichment is not well documented. At a minimum, toys need to elicit interest in the animal for which they are intended, before any “enrichment” can be claimed. In this study we have examined short-term preferences for toys with a range of characteristics, using two methods of presentation, in both long-stay dogs in complex kennels, and short-stay dogs in rehoming kennels. The dogs, one sample in residential kennels (LSE, N=30) and the other in rehoming kennels (RH, N=66), were tested individually with four robust toys, presented both hanging and on the floor, over two 15min trials. The trial was also repeated with a second RH sample (N=34) comparing the four robust toys with less robust toys, all presented on the floor. Latency to and duration of interaction with each toy were recorded remotely. In the first trial, 34% of RH dogs and 43% of LSE dogs interacted with the toys; of the dogs that interacted, the average duration of interaction was higher among RH dogs (120s) than among LSE dogs (28s). Toys on the floor were interacted with for significantly longer than hanging toys by both LSE and RH dogs. RH dogs were faster to interact with the floor toys than the hanging toys, but the LSE dogs did not appear to discriminate between hanging and floor toys in latencies to interact. In the second trial, 76% of the RH dogs interacted with one or more of the toys, interacting for significantly longer with the four less robust toys, but their latencies to interact were similar between the robust and less robust toys. Average duration of interaction (227s) was higher than in the first trial. Our findings support previous proposals that robust toys are little used by kennel housed dogs. However, with less robust toys, interaction was relatively prolonged, indicating that interest to the dog may be enhanced if the toy can be chewed easily and/or makes a noise. Hanging toys were not favoured, although these have been reported to stimulate high levels of interaction in juvenile laboratory beagles.
Domestic dogs can be housed in a variety of confined conditions, including kennels, shelters and laboratories. Concern over the well-being of dogs housed in human care has prompted much research in recent years into the enrichment of environments for kennelled dogs. This paper highlights the findings and recommendations arising from this work. Two types of general enrichment method are discussed, namely animate (i.e. enrichment through the provision of social contacts with conspecifics and humans) and inanimate (i.e. enrichment through the provision of toys, cage furniture, auditory and olfactory stimulation). The benefits and, where relevant, possible disadvantages, to these various types of enrichment method are highlighted throughout.
In Italy the law forbids euthanizing shelter dogs unless they are severely ill or dangerous. This has created a problem: many dogs are housed for long periods of time in shelters. It is important to the welfare of these dogs for us to find methods to increase successful adoption rates. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different management factors such as the number of dogs in a pen, Temporary Adoption Programs (TAPs), and animal-owner-related characteristics on successful adoptions of kenneled dogs. The study included 763 dogs, 92 of whom were dogs showing behavioral problems. The age of the dogs upon arrival at the shelter was the most important determinant for length of stay, with younger dogs being adopted faster (Kruskal-Wallis, H = 150.27; df = 3; n = 733; p < 0.001). Dogs up to six months of age (n = 73) were adopted more quickly than older dogs (average length of stay: 1.4 vs. 6.4 months). The year of admittance was also significant since dogs who were admitted in a year in which more dogs were brought to the shelter spent more time in the shelter before being re-homed (Kruskal-Wallis, H = 96.18; df = 2; n = 733; p < 0.001). Dogs' gender had no effect on length of stay (Mann-Whitney, U = 64563; Z = 0.81; p = ns; n1 = 389; n2 = 344). Temporary Adoption Programs had a significant positive effect in reducing the return rate when the final adopter was the same person who had “temporarily” adopted the dog (Fisher exact test, p = 0.0063). Return rate was also associated with behavioral problems. Fearful dogs were returned more often than dogs with other problems (Fisher exact test, p = 0.029). It is concluded that, although young age is the most important factor leading to quick adoption, programs which include increased human interaction, and special training for dogs with behavioral problems, could aid in the successful re-homing of shelter dogs.
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This study has its basis in recent findings by our own and other laboratories and proposes a type of rewarded operant learning that seeks the detection of discriminatory cues as a cognitive enrichment in intensive husbandry systems. This type of cognitive enrichment has the ability to activate the intrinsically-rewarding mesolimbic brain axis when an animal acquires successful strategies to cope with environmental demands. It provides animals with the opportunity to develop positive affects through control of their environment and the anticipation of consummatory reward. If true animal welfare is considered more than simply the absence of stress and harm, provoking better affective conditions may be a suitable way of increasing the well-being of intensively-housed animals. Recent research with elaborated operant learning equipment, under experimental and quasi-commercial conditions, revealed better health, reduced boredom and less maladaptive behaviour as potentially practical advantages. A number of the issues regarding the transfer of this suggested form of cognitive enrichment to large scale, commercial farming are discussed.
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Environmental enrichment is a vague concept referring to improvements to captive animal environments. Some authors have applied the term to an environmental treatment itself, without any concrete evidence that the treatment represented an improvement for the animals. Others have used the term when the main beneficiaries may have been people rather than their captive animals. The criteria used to assess enrichment have also varied according to animal use (e.g. laboratory, farm or zoo animals). In this paper, environmental enrichment is defined as an improvement in the biological functioning of captive animals resulting from modifications to their environment. Evidence of improved biological functioning could include increased lifetime reproductive success, increased inclusive fitness or a correlate of these such as improved health. However, specifying an appropriate endpoint is problematic, especially for domestic animals. Potential methods of achieving enrichment that require further investigation include presenting food in ways that stimulate foraging behaviour and dividing enclosures into different functional areas. The quality of the external environment within the animals' sensory range also deserves greater attention. A common shortcoming of attempts at environmental enrichment is the provision of toys, music or other stimuli having little functional relevance to the animals. Failure to consider the effects of developmental factors and previous experience can also produce poor results. Environmental enrichment is constrained by financial costs and time demands on caretakers, and providing live prey to enrich the environment of predators raises ethical concerns. Future research on environmental enrichment would benefit from improved knowledge of the functions of behaviour performed in captivity and more rigorous experimental design.
As part a series of investigations of environmental enrichment methods for zoo animals, two spectacled bears (Tremarctos ornatus) were observed for 40 h, documenting use of cage space and behaviors, using a detailed ethogram. Baseline data showed concentration of activity into limited areas of the enclosure and expression of a relatively restricted subset of the species' behavioral repertoire. Introduction of a climbing structure resulted in increased behavioral diversity, both in the use of the enclosure's physical space and the behaviors displayed in various parts of the enclosure.
In the popular literature, it is often assumed that a single conceptual framework can be applied to both dog–dog and dog–human interactions, including play. We have, through three studies, tested the hypothesis that dog–dog and dog–human play are motivationally distinct. In an observational study of dogs being walked by their owners (N=402), dogs which were walked together, and had opportunities to play with one another, played with their owners with the same frequency as dogs being walked alone. This finding was supported by a questionnaire survey of 2585 dog owners in which dogs in multi-dog households played slightly more often with their owners than dogs in single-dog households. The performance of dog–dog play does not, therefore, seem to suppress the dogs' motivation to play with their owners as would be predicted if they were motivationally interchangeable. In an experimental comparison of dog–dog and dog–human toy-centred play, the dogs were more likely to give up on a competition, to show and present the toy to their play partner, if that partner was human. When two toys were available, dogs playing with other dogs spent less time showing interest in both toys and possessed one of the toys for longer, than dogs playing with people. Overall, the dogs were more interactive and less likely to possess the object when playing with a person. We conclude that dog–dog and dog–human play are structurally different, supporting the idea that they are motivationally distinct. We therefore suggest there is no reason to assume that the consequences of dog–dog play can be extrapolated to play with humans.
Many institutions which house dogs cage their animals separately in an attempt to reduce the transmission of disease and/or injury. Under such conditions, dogs are usually able to receive auditory and olfactory stimulation from other animals. However, many kennels are designed in such a way to prevent visual contact with conspecifics. To date, the influence of visual conspecific contact on the behaviour of sheltered dogs has not been specifically addressed. This research examined the effects of visual contact with other dogs on the behaviour of dogs housed in a rescue shelter. Four hundred and seven dogs were studied: 212 dogs were housed in cages that allowed for visual contact with dogs in opposite pens; 195 dogs were deprived of visual contact with other dogs by being housed in cages opposite empty pens. The dogs' position in the cage (front, middle, back), activity (moving, standing, sitting, resting, sleeping), and vocalisation (barking, quiet, other) were recorded over a 4 h period. Dogs which were allowed visual conspecific contact spent significantly more of their time at the front of the pen (in a position to see other dogs) than animals denied such contact (87.7% vs. 24.6%, respectively). Visual canine contact had no effect on dog activity or vocalisation, and it is suggested that tactile contact is necessary before these behaviours are altered. Overall, results indicate that where dogs have the opportunity to observe others dogs, they take it. Where dogs are housed singly, the provision of visual intraspecific contact may help to reduce the under-stimulation commonly associated with single housing. Housing dogs in conditions which encourage the animals to the front of the cage, e.g., constructing pens which face opposite each other, may also help to improve a dog's chances of finding a new home by positively promoting visitors' perceptions of dog desirability.
This study compares the effects of social and physical enrichment on the behaviour and physiological responses of group and pair-housed beagles. Some 432 h of observation were collected from 48 beagles assigned equally to four groups: (1) a control group, (2) a group given increased opportunities for social contact with conspecifics, (3) a group given 30 s day−1 of intensive handling, and (4) a group provided with three different toys/chews permanently suspended in the pen: Rawhide, Gumabone chew and a piece of plastic tubing. After 2 months both the controls and the enriched groups spent less time resting and more time on hind legs looking out of the pen. Both human-socialised and dog-socialised groups maintained pre-treatment scores of ‘sniffing kennel mate’, and ‘time spent in contact with kennel mate’, while the control and environment-enriched groups scores for these behaviours fell, but overall intraspecific socialisation in these groups showed no change. During human-socialisation, dogs' time spent chewing items of cage furniture was reduced by 90%. Following 2 months of environmental enrichment, dogs spent a substantial proportion of their time (24%) using the toys, showing that frequent changes of items are not necessary to avoid habituation, if the appropriate toys/ chews are used. Time spent inactive by environment-enriched dogs fell by 20% of pre-treatment values to 51% of total time. However, socialising with kennel mates also fell by 70% of pre-treatment values to 4% of the total time. Environment-enriched dogs solicited less play, played less and spent less time in contact with their kennel mate. These changes may show a ‘preference’ by the dogs for toys over social activity or they may be due to competition for toys. Environment-enriched dogs also spent less time chewing items of pen furniture (a fall on pre-treatment scores of 85%) and walked less (a fall of 35%). Following the addition of a platform to the pens these dogs spent over 50% of their time on it observing surroundings as well as guarding toy items. The study shows that appropriate enrichment can: increase the complexity of dog behaviour, substantially change the expression of behaviour and help to prevent undesirable behaviours. Small increases in the opportunities for social interactions with handlers may produce changes in behaviour with conspecifics. In large facilities physical enrichment is likely to be the most cost-effective option, but staff should be encouraged to have regular positive socialisation sessions with their dogs.
The effects of different spatial areas and different social conditions on behaviours of beagles maintained in a laboratory were evaluated. Eighteen female purpose-bred beagles were divided into six groups of three, and housed individually for 3 months each in six different housing conditions: (A) a 6.1 m × 9.1 m outdoor pen; (B) a 1.8 m × 6.1 m outdoor run; (C) a 1.2 m × 3.66 m indoor run; (D) a 0.9 m × 1.2 m × 0.84 m cage; (E) a 0.9 m × 1.2 m × 0.84 m cage with 30 min of forced treadmill exercise, 5 days week-1; (F) a 0.71 m × 0.86 m × 0.69 m cage. Behaviours of six dogs housed in pairs in Conditions A and C were also compared. Behaviours studied were movement, vocalisation, lying down, sleep, object manipulation, barrier manipulation, barrier jumping, fence running, agonistic and affiliative activities, and proximity. Behavioural effects were compared among housing conditions, order of rotation through each housing condition, and behavioural changes over time during each 3 month rotation. Dogs spent more time moving in pens and runs than in cages. Dogs housed in the greatest degree of social isolation spent the most time moving, exhibited the greatest number of bizarre movements, and vocalised the most. Dogs housed in the smallest cages spent more time grooming and in manipulation of enclosure barriers than those housed in any other conditions. Forced treadmill exercise did not significantly alter behaviours. When housed in pairs, dogs spent more time sleeping and showed a tendency to spend less time vocalising than when housed singly. The results indicate that spatial area and activity are not likely to be the most important factors to be considered when evaluating psychosocial well-being of dogs. In assessing the psychosocial well-being of dogs, social isolation may be as harmful or more harmful than spatial restriction.
This study explored the influence of five types of auditory stimulation (human conversation, classical music, heavy metal music, pop music, and a control) on the behaviour of 50 dogs housed in a rescue shelter. The dogs were exposed to each type of auditory stimulation for 4 h, with an intervening period of one day between conditions. The dogs' position in their kennels (front, back), their activity (moving, standing, sitting, resting, sleeping), and their vocalisation (barking, quiet, other) were recorded over 4 h at 10 min intervals during each condition of auditory stimulation. The dogs' activity and vocalisation were significantly related to auditory stimulation. Dogs spent more time resting and less time standing when classical music was played than when any of the other stimuli were played. Exposure to heavy metal music encouraged dogs to spend significantly more of their time barking than did other types of auditory stimulation. Classical music resulted in dogs spending significantly more of their time quiet than did other types of auditory stimulation. It is suggested that the welfare of sheltered dogs may be enhanced through exposure to appropriate forms of auditory stimulation. Classical music appears particularly beneficial, resulting in activities suggestive of relaxation and behaviours that are considered desirable by potential buyers. This form of music may also appeal to visitors, resulting in enhanced perceptions of the rescue shelter's environment and an increased desire to adopt a dog from such a source.
Mammals are unique among vertebrates in experiencing a need to carry out behaviours which are not necessary for their immediate survival. This poses questions as to the nature of these behavioural needs, how they evolved and their implications for the welfare of mammals in captivity. Evidence is provided to show that mammals carry out daily programmes of activity which meet four kinds of requirement, namely, for security, appropriate environmental complexity, novelty and opportunities for achievement. Within their programmes mammals perform two kinds of activity: work, which relates to day to day survival, and leisure, in the form of curiosity or play, which provides experience which may prove to be of value in the long term.
The existence of behavioural needs is consistent with our knowledge of mammalian evolution. Even the earliest known mammals, living over 120 million years ago, differed from reptiles in having brain to body size ratios four to five times greater. The increase in brain size resulted largely from the massive expansion of a region of the cerebral cortex, known as the neopallium, which acts as a co-ordinating centre for sensory data, and creates a model of the world which determines subsequent action. During the 60 million year tertiary era, relative brain size increased in most orders of eutherian mammals, so that only the more intelligent survived.
Because mammals rely for their survival on collecting and analyzing data and acting intelligently, they need facilities to search for information to establish and monitor their concept of the real world; their psychological well-being depends on an environment which offers such facilities. There are two kinds of behavioural needs; psychological needs, which appear to be unique to mammals, and ethological needs which are experienced by all vertebrates. It is concluded that environmental quality for captive mammals should not just be assessed negatively, by the absence of abnormal behaviours, but more positively by the extent to which it meets their psychological needs.
Every year sees an increase in the number of dogs admitted to rescue shelters. However well these dogs are cared for in the shelter it cannot be ignored that being in such a situation is stressful and the time spent in the shelter may change the dogs' behaviour which may in turn influence their chances of being bought from the shelter. This research examined the behaviour of stray and unwanted dogs on their first, third and fifth days in an Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (USPCA) shelter. A questionnaire was also distributed to members of the public to determine how popular the USPCA was as a place from where to purchase a dog, and what factors about a dog's physical characteristics, behaviour and environment influenced potential buyers. Results revealed no significant difference between the behaviour of stray and unwanted dogs although the public viewed stray dogs as much less desirable than unwanted dogs. Time in the shelter had no adverse effects on the dogs' behaviour. Indeed those changes which did occur during captivity, dogs being more relaxed in the presence of people and eating food more quickly, may be considered as positive changes. The USPCA was viewed as a popular place from which to buy a dog. Off actors influencing the public's choice, the dog's environment and behaviour appeared more important than its physical characteristics. The presence of a toy in the dog's cage greatly increased the public's preference for the dog, although the toy was ignored by the dog. The welfare implications of sheltering dogs are discussed
To emphasize the effects of group- and single housing of kennelled dogs, the behavior of 211 dogs in two German animal shelters was tested and observed. After being placed, 197 of the dogs' new owners were interviewed. Although 51% of the German animal shelters already keep dogs in groups, there is strong prejudice against group housing because of the fear of fights. This study demonstrates that this apprehension is unfounded. Ninety-one percent of the social confrontations between dogs housed together were settled by the use of behavioral rituals. Keeping dogs in groups, furthermore, leads to a significant reduction in noise emission (p<.001). Group housing fulfills the dog's need for social interaction and the need to move. Dogs that were housed in groups displayed a closer human-animal relationship (80%) than those that had been kept individually (43%). A high percentage of individually housed dogs suffered from behavioral problems (31%) and 10% developed stereotypes. The percentage of behaviorally disturbed dogs observed in group housing was 11%, and stereotyped forms of behavior did not occur. Dogs who had been kept in groups were, on average, placed within 10 days, and were returned to the animal shelter less often (9%) compared to those housed individually (25%). Dogs that were housed separately needed an average of 17 days to be placed. Even after being placed, there is a correlation between the animal shelter's type of housing and the dog's behavior. Within four weeks after picking up their pet, 88% of the owners of dogs that had been housed individually complained of problems compared to the owners of the dogs that had been kept in groups, 53% of whom were completely satisfied with the adoption. Despite the fact that these results might be influenced by the small number of shelters examined, the study leads to the conclusion that keeping dogs in groups is a suitable alternative for dog housing in animal shelters and, for the animals' welfare, is preferable to individual housing.
Animal rescue shelters provide temporary housing for thousands of stray and abandoned dogs every year. Many of these animals fail to find new homes and are forced to spend long periods of time in kennels. This study examined the influence of the length of time spent in a rescue shelter (<1 month, 2-12 months, 1-5 years, >5 years) on the behaviour of 97 dogs. The dogs' position in their kennels (front, back), their activity (moving, standing, sitting, resting, sleeping), and their vocalisation (barking, quiet, other) were recorded over a 4 h period at 10 min intervals. The dogs' behaviour was significantly related to the length of time the animals had spent in the rescue shelter. Dogs housed in the shelter for over five years spent more of their time at the back of their kennels, more time resting, and less time barking than dogs housed in the shelter for shorter periods of time. The age of the dog could not account for the significant results found, suggesting that environmental factors were responsible for the change in the dogs' behaviour. The findings suggest that lengthy periods of time spent in a captive environment may encourage dogs to behave in a manner that is generally considered unattractive by potential buyers. This may decrease the chances of such dogs being adopted, resulting in longer periods of time spent in the kennel environment and the possible development of further undesirable behaviours.
Hediger reports field observations and experimental studies of the behavior of a wide variety of animals, from paramecium to elephants. Pertinent literature is reviewed. Among the chapters are: "The animal's daily life," "The animal and its enemies," "Flight and hypnosis" and discussions of social and maternal behavior, contrasting traits of wild and domestic animals, "animal psychology in the circus," training of animals and the expressions of animals. 198-item bibliography. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Thesis (Ph. D.)--Queen's University of Belfast, 1996.
Enrichment of the captive environment is becoming more common, but little is known about the consequences of early enrichment on later development. Sixty pups from the breeding colony at Pfizer UK were assigned either to a control group or to one of two groups which received enrichment between the ages of 5 to 14 weeks: 1) a group receiving extra human socialization or 2) a group provided with chewable items suspended in the pen and a length of plastic pipe within the pen. The dogs' behavior was observed after two changes in husbandry: at 15 weeks of age after being placed in same-sex groups of five and after removal from these groups to pair-housing in a laboratory block. Rawhide was the most popular of the tested items. The litters with toys spent an average 64% of their time interacting with them, indicating that, given the choice, pups will make extensive use of such items. Enrichment did not have any measurable effect on the development of stereotypes, but 6 to 11 months after enrichment, dogs given increased human socialization were slightly more approachable than dogs from the other groups. Male dogs from this group spent 37% more time than did controls at the front of the pen, sitting and monitoring the room, a behavior that could be interpreted as an attempt to seek human contact. Early enrichment is easy to achieve and can improve the quality of life for pups.
The majority of sheltered dogs are overlooked for purchase because they are considered undesirable by potential buyers. Many factors may determine a dog's appeal, although of interest here are the dog's behaviour and cage environment which can influence its desirability. People prefer dogs which are at the front rather than the back of the cage, quiet as opposed to barking, and alert rather than non-alert. Potential buyers also prefer dogs which are held in complex as opposed to barren environments. This study examined the behaviour of sheltered dogs in response to environmental change, to determine whether it influenced dog behaviour in ways that could be perceived as desirable to potential dog buyers, and/or had any effect upon the incidence of dogs purchased from the shelter. One hundred and twenty dogs sheltered by the Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals were studied over a 4-h period. The dogs' position in the cage, vocalisation, and activity were investigated in response to increased human social stimulation, moving the dog's bed to the front of the cage, or suspending a toy from the front of the dog's cage. Social stimulation resulted in dogs spending more time at the front of the enclosure, more time standing, and slightly more time barking. Moving the bed to the front of the cage encouraged dogs to this position, but did not influence activity or vocalisation. Suspending a toy at the front of the pen exerted no effect on dog behaviour, although its presence in the pen may help to promote more positive perceptions of dog desirability. The incidence of dogs purchased from the rescue shelter increased whenever the dogs' cages were fitted with a bed at the front of the pen, whenever the dogs were subjected to increased regular human contact, and whenever a toy was placed at the front of the enclosure. Findings highlight the important role that cage environment can play in shaping the behaviour of sheltered dogs and influencing whether or not an animal will become purchased.
In this study, we report differential behavioural and cognitive effects, as assessed in the open-field and the Morris water maze, following psychological stress in enriched vs. impoverished housed rats. Three stress conditions were evaluated: nonstress, mild stress and powerful stress. Mild stress consisted of exposure to an avoidance box but without shock, while in the powerful stress condition animals were exposed to an electric shock. The results revealed distinct effects in the differentially housed animals. Prior exposure to a mild stress enhanced escape performance in the water maze in enriched but not impoverished animals. However, preexposure to powerful stress negatively affected animals from both housing conditions in the water maze task, but with the enriched animals less affected than impoverished animals. In the open-field test, stress preexposure reduced locomotion counts in both the differentially housed animals. In addition, the results showed that the enrichment effect on emotional reactivity in the open-field is long-lasting and persists even after extensive training and housing in standard laboratory conditions. The results are discussed in relation to the nature of the behavioural and learning differences between the differentially housed animals.
Behavioral and physiological studies on the effect of music on animals
- Ladd
Behavioral and physiological studies on the effect of music on animals
- J K Ladd
- J L Albright
- Beck
- Ladd
- Bt