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Growth and Yield in Shipmast Locust on Long Island and Its Relative Resistance to Locust Borer Injury
Abstract
A comprehensive study of the shipmast and the common locust shows that the former is more resistant to the locust borer and longer lived than the latter. The growth rate of the shipmast locust in the Central States compares very favorably with that of the common locust. In brief, the shipmast locust appears to be a tree of considerable merit and it probably will be much more widely planted when its merits become better known and when planting stock becomes generally available.
... Of the hundreds of insects associ- ated with locust in the United States, only a few have been found to signifi- cantly impact growth and survival (Alford, 1991;Athey and Connor, 1989;Drooz, 1985;Furniss and Carolin, 1977;Hall, 1937;Hoffard, 1992;Hoffard and Anderson, 1982;Hopkins, 1907;Johnson and Lyon, 1991;Wagner et al., 1992; T. DeGomez and M.R. Wagner, unpublished). Total biomass produc- tion was unaffected by low levels of herbivory and did not stimulate biom- ass and nutrient accretion (Seasteat et al., 1983). ...
... Resistance to locust borer has been of great interest to entomologists and plant breeders. Several workers thought that specific clones were more resistant because of superior vigor (Hall, 1937). However, there is no evidence that any black locust clone has shown resistance. ...
Robinia L. (locust) species are among the most widely planted tree species in the world because they are ornamentally attractive, drought tolerant, fast growing, fix nitrogen, have very hard durable wood, and are adaptable to many sites and climates. Recent taxonomic analysis indicates there are four species, black locust (R. pseudoacacia L.); bristly locust (R. hispida L.); clammy locust (R. viscosa Vent.); and new mexican locust (R. neomexicana A. Gray). All four species originate in the southern United States and northern Mexico. Many horticultural cultivars are available. Locusts are tolerant of a wide range of soil types so long as there is good drainage, adequate moisture, and it is not very clayey. The environmental tolerance of locust makes it an excellent candidate for horticultural uses and for future breeding and selection to enhance its many desirable traits. It is easy to propagate via seed, root cuttings, soft- or hardwood cuttings, budding/grafting, or tissue culture. Locust has indeterminate growth. Spacing of plants in plantations is critical for the production of multiple products including high value timber. Locust is known for its ability to withstand drought conditions however at the cost of leaf shedding. Black locust contributes high levels of nitrogen to the soil from nitrogen fixing bacterial symbiosis. The major drawback to large-scale production of black locust in its native range is the damage that occurs from the locust borer (Megacyllene robinae Forster). When planted outside the range of the locust borer it can be grown successfully as landscape specimen trees and as trees large enough for lumber production when varieties with straight trunks are grown. Damage from locust leaf miner (Odontata dorsalis Thunberg) can greatly detract from the trees ornamental qualities. Its most common use is as a site reclamation species. The tree is also used in honey production. The wood is highly decay resistant and is greatly valued for poles and posts. The wood is extremely hard and easy to work making it highly desirable for many construction uses.
... The biggest limitation to black locust in its native range is that it is susceptible to insect pest damage, especially the locust borer (Megacyllene robiniae Forester), which can cause serious damage in large monoculture stands of this tree (Hoffard, 1992). However, some genetic material seems to have resistance to borer (Hall, 1937). Since black locust is a legume, there has been considerable interest in the amount of nitrogen fixed by this species. ...
Species-diverse production systems, such as agroforestry, provide opportunities to increase the value of total production
through marketing of multiple products from a given unit of land. Designing successful systems requires an understanding of
how species compete for resources and grow in proximity to other species with distinctly different growth habits and resource
demands (Sanchez, 1995; Ong and Leakey, 1999). Systems successful in a particular soil-climate environment may not be productive
or sustainable in others (Ong et al. 1991). Soil fertility, texture, and depth along with temperature, timing and amount of
precipitation, solar radiation levels, and topography provide a wide array of site conditions that generates a virtually continuous
array of growing conditions.
... The biggest limitation to black locust in its native range is that it is susceptible to insect pest damage, especially the locust borer (Megacyllene robiniae Forester), which can cause serious damage in large monoculture stands of this tree (Hoffard, 1992). However, some genetic material seems to have resistance to borer (Hall, 1937). Since black locust is a legume, there has been considerable interest in the amount of nitrogen fixed by this species. ...
The northern region of Sudan consists of desert and semidesert prone to low rainfall, poor agricultural productivity and desertification,
resulting in a continual decline in the area of cultivated land. The prevailing harsh conditions in the region (high solar
radiation and temperature and low relative humidity), particularly during the summer season, prevent cropping during this
period. This situation necessitates the development of intensive plantations of woody trees, which could provide a variety
of economic and environmental benefits for farmers and communities. However, the high cost of irrigation water and a lack
of short-term returns to the farmer until the trees become economically valuable are obstacles to the development of afforestation
programs in the area. On the other hand, agroforestry, which integrates crops and/or livestock with trees and shrubs, has
a great potential in the area as it could provide farmers with multiple benefits, including diversified income sources, increased
biological production and better water quality.
... The biggest limitation to black locust in its native range is that it is susceptible to insect pest damage, especially the locust borer (Megacyllene robiniae Forester), which can cause serious damage in large monoculture stands of this tree (Hoffard, 1992). However, some genetic material seems to have resistance to borer (Hall, 1937). Since black locust is a legume, there has been considerable interest in the amount of nitrogen fixed by this species. ...
The universal application of ecological principles to agroforestry system design and management is nearly impossible as a
result of the many varied types of systems in existence — from riparian management systems that link terrestrial and aquatic
systems to more traditional systems that integrate perennial plants with annual crops, with or without animals. The broad
geographical range over which agroforestry systems may be successfully implemented and the scale at which interactions occur
— from landscape to individual plant — also complicates the development of an universal understanding of nutrient and energy
flows and the relationship of these to system productivity. Indeed, this sentiment is underscored by the research results
presented in various chapters in this book: examples are given of systems that vary in the degree of uncertainty of system
predictability and repeatability. Nonetheless, a quick review of the chapters will leave us with a broad understanding of
perhaps where future research and management efforts should be concentrated.
... The biggest limitation to black locust in its native range is that it is susceptible to insect pest damage, especially the locust borer (Megacyllene robiniae Forester), which can cause serious damage in large monoculture stands of this tree (Hoffard, 1992). However, some genetic material seems to have resistance to borer (Hall, 1937). Since black locust is a legume, there has been considerable interest in the amount of nitrogen fixed by this species. ...
Homegardens are archetypal land-use systems in the tropics. They involve diverse kinds of trees and field crops that coexist
in apparent harmony and in close juxtaposition with one another (Kumar and Nair, 2004). In the peninsular India, coconut palms
(Cocos nucifera) form the “nucleus” of these gardens, around which the other components are orchestrated (Jose and Shanmugaratnam, 1993).
Several multipurpose trees and shrubs also occur in homegardens. These include trees scattered around the homesteads and trees
planted at specific points to provide or avoid shade, necessary or harmful to different plants, besides trees providing support
to vines such as Piper nigrum (Mathew et al. 1996). In addition, many farmers integrate fast growing timber species in well-fertilized plantations (e.g.
coconut) in expectation of extra cash returns. Indeed, the steadily rising timber prices in the local and regional markets
of peninsular India have given an impetus to such intercropping practices.
... The biggest limitation to black locust in its native range is that it is susceptible to insect pest damage, especially the locust borer (Megacyllene robiniae Forester), which can cause serious damage in large monoculture stands of this tree (Hoffard, 1992). However, some genetic material seems to have resistance to borer (Hall, 1937). Since black locust is a legume, there has been considerable interest in the amount of nitrogen fixed by this species. ...
Economic analyses have shown that combining hardwood trees and agricultural crops into alley-cropping systems has the potential
to increase the profitability of plantation forestry in the humid temperate midwestern USA (Williams and Gordon, 1992; Benjamin
et al. 2000). Traditionally in this region, trees and agronomic crops are grown separately in monocultural systems. Management
prescriptions for the combined systems (reviewed by Gordon and Newman, 1997) are still being evaluated because most established
agroforestry systems in the region are only 10–30 years old (40–80 years of tree growth required between tree harvests for
timber and veneer production).
... The biggest limitation to black locust in its native range is that it is susceptible to insect pest damage, especially the locust borer (Megacyllene robiniae Forester), which can cause serious damage in large monoculture stands of this tree (Hoffard, 1992). However, some genetic material seems to have resistance to borer (Hall, 1937). Since black locust is a legume, there has been considerable interest in the amount of nitrogen fixed by this species. ...
The use of biomass in the form of litter, prunings, or roots as sources of nutrients for crops in alley-cropping systems has
proven helpful in enhancing nitrogen availability for crops (Nair et al., 1997). Important considerations in managing alley-cropping
systems are the amount and rate of N released that can benefit the crop in the alleys between the hedges. Understanding the
short-term mineralization patterns of organic materials is a useful tool not only to assess but also to improve the suitability
of hedgerow species (Isaac et al., 2000). Numerous studies in controlled and field conditions have successfully addressed
the short-term decomposition and mineralization patterns of different species in relation to the initial chemical quality
of the residues in order to make practical management suggestions. However, initial chemical quality of substrates alone is
sometimes not sufficient to explain shortterm mineralization patterns. This is not surprising given the multiplicity of factors
influencing decomposition and mineralization, including biochemical characteristics and soil biota composition and dynamics
(Heal et al., 1997).
... The biggest limitation to black locust in its native range is that it is susceptible to insect pest damage, especially the locust borer (Megacyllene robiniae Forester), which can cause serious damage in large monoculture stands of this tree (Hoffard, 1992). However, some genetic material seems to have resistance to borer (Hall, 1937). Since black locust is a legume, there has been considerable interest in the amount of nitrogen fixed by this species. ...
Forestry is the art (skill), practice, science, and business of managing forest ecosystems to sustain an ecologically possible
and socially desirable balance of forest resources and other ecosystem services and values. Agroforestry could be defined
similarly, but in reference to agro-ecosystems and tree-crop-animal resources. When practiced by indigenous cultures, agroforestry
has been based on their experience-based wisdom about what works and what does not (Hsiung 1996). However, if a different
set of agroforestry values (e.g. a new crop or tree species) and/or a new agroforestry system for which there is little or
no experience are to be sustained, this experience-based approach must be supplemented with an understanding of the ecological
processes that underlie both the traditional systems and the new set of values. Because social unrest, wars, diseases, natural
disasters, and the continuing urbanization of the world's population result in the loss of traditional rural knowledge, the
design of future agroforestry systems will have to be based as much or more on an understanding of the processes responsible
for production and sustainability of multiple values and environmental services as it has on traditions and experience in
the past. When properly implemented, the approach of experience + process-level understanding can capture the benefits of
traditional systems but also have the flexibility to respond to the changing needs and desires of individuals and societies,
and to changing social and environmental conditions.
... The biggest limitation to black locust in its native range is that it is susceptible to insect pest damage, especially the locust borer (Megacyllene robiniae Forester), which can cause serious damage in large monoculture stands of this tree (Hoffard, 1992). However, some genetic material seems to have resistance to borer (Hall, 1937). Since black locust is a legume, there has been considerable interest in the amount of nitrogen fixed by this species. ...
The manner in which light is intercepted by crop canopies and converted to structural dry matter can significantly affect
primary production at a given site. A number of authors have investigated plant performance under different environmental
conditions, including different levels of light, in alley cropping and similar agroforestry systems (Azam-ali et al. 1990;
Monteith et al. 1991; Rosenthal and Gerik, 1991; Heitholt et al. 1992; Chirko et al. 1996; Gillespie et al. 2000; Jose et
al. 2000). These studies have revealed strong linear relationships between photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, 400–700
nm) and dry matter production.
... The biggest limitation to black locust in its native range is that it is susceptible to insect pest damage, especially the locust borer (Megacyllene robiniae Forester), which can cause serious damage in large monoculture stands of this tree (Hoffard, 1992). However, some genetic material seems to have resistance to borer (Hall, 1937). Since black locust is a legume, there has been considerable interest in the amount of nitrogen fixed by this species. ...
Trees in the parkland systems of West Africa are important for farmers because they provide food and income. However, they
also interact with the grain crops, positively as well as negatively. Trees and associated crops differ in their ability to
capture and use the most limiting essential growth resources effectively (Monteith, 1981). Thus, competition and complementarity
in resource use between the components of parkland systems need to be better understood. These processes occur both above-
and belowground as plants balance the aboveground water loss and carbon gain with the belowground access to soil supply of
water via the roots. In mixed communities plants rarely compete for light without simultaneously competing for water and nutrients
(Ong, 1996; Mobbs et al. 1998; Kho, 2000a,b) and our understanding of how mixed species systems grow and utilize resources
will remain restricted unless experiments are designed which explicitly recognize this (Wallace, 1996). The present research
was, therefore, designed to study the effect of crown pruning on the productivity of agroforestry parkland systems in terms
of resource capture and utilization. The focus was on two species of trees Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn (karité) and Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Benth. (néré), both producing high-value fruit.
... The biggest limitation to black locust in its native range is that it is susceptible to insect pest damage, especially the locust borer (Megacyllene robiniae Forester), which can cause serious damage in large monoculture stands of this tree (Hoffard, 1992). However, some genetic material seems to have resistance to borer (Hall, 1937). Since black locust is a legume, there has been considerable interest in the amount of nitrogen fixed by this species. ...
Arabic coffee (Coffea arabica L.) originates in the high lands of Southern Ethiopia, close to the equator, at latitudes 6 to 9° N, longitudes of 34 to
40° E and altitudes of 1400 and 1800 m. This region has a dry season that lasts for 3–4 months, and the annual precipitation
ranges from 1200 to 2000 mm throughout the year. Temperature varies from 18°C to 22°C. In this area, coffee plants always
grow under conditions of shade in the tropical forest (Krug, 1959; Kumar, 1979).
In southern Africa and Sahelian West Africa, livestock and cropping systems are inextricably linked together. Livestock manure
is perhaps the most important soil amendment for crop production. Crop residues provide feed resources during the 7-month
dry period. Livestock also provide a source of nutrients, draft power, transport, and is a source of capital for crop production
inputs. The potential to increase crop and livestock production in mixed crop—livestock farming systems in these regions is
limited by low and erratic rainfall, poor soil fertility, and very limited use of external nutrient sources in the form of
inorganic fertilizers and feed supplements. Organic materials consisting of crop residues and vegetation from fallow land
and rangeland are the most important sources of nutrients for agricultural production in these farming systems. In managed
tropical agroforestry systems large amounts of fresh biomass are harvested and fed to animals or applied to soil. The cycling
of plant biomass through livestock faeces and urine, which will be referred to as manure, enhances both livestock and crop
production (Powell et al. 1999). For these low input systems to remain viable, plant biomass must be either fed to livestock
and manure applied to soils or plant biomass applied directly to soil as amendments.
Especially in the less favorable areas (altitude < 800 m and mean air temperature > 25 °C) that predominate in Central America,
there is a renewed interest in managing Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L.) under shade after three decades of promoting intensively managed coffee systems planted in full sun with highly productive
dwarf cultivars. The presence of shade trees, especially leguminous species, improves soil fertility (organic matter content
and nutrient cycling) and enhances coffee plantation sustainability (Beer et al., 1998; Soto-Pinto et al., 2000). In suboptimal
coffee producing areas with low altitude, shade trees greatly reduce excessive solar irradiance and buffer large diurnal variations
in air temperature and humidity that are detrimental to coffee physiology (Gutiérrez et al., 1994; Siles and Vaast, 2002).
In mountainous areas, associated trees decrease soil erosion and nutrient leaching, especially nitrogen (Babbar and Zak, 1995).
Therefore, shade trees play an important role in the Central American region due to the valuable impact of coffee agroforestry
(AF) systems on the environment and natural resources such as preservation of biodiversity, soil conservation, water quality,
buffering effect around protected areas, reduced pressure on forests, and carbon sequestration (Somarriba et al., 2004). In
this region with a long-lasting reputation for commercializing quality coffee, shade can also contribute to the production
of high-quality coffee as demonstrated in Guatemala (Guyot et al., 1996), Costa Rica (Muschler, 2001), and Honduras (Decazy
et al., 2003). Nonetheless, trees associated to coffee are mainly legume species (Erythrina spp. and Inga spp.) with no timber values that are pruned periodically to avoid large decreases in coffee production due to competition
for light, nutrients and water during the dry period (Beer et al., 1998). Indeed, timber trees are less common in coffee AF
systems of Central America despite the fact that timber could greatly help farmers to diversify their income.
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