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Abstract

Humans are closely coupled with their environments. They rely on being `embedded' to help coordinate the use of their internal cognitive resources with external tools and resources. Consequently, everyday cognition, even cognition in the absence of others, may be viewed as partially distributed. As cognitive scientists our job is to discover and explain the principles governing this distribution: principles of coordination, externalization, and interaction. As designers our job is to use these principles, especially if they can be converted to metrics, in order to invent and evaluate candidate designs. After discussing a few principles of interaction and embedding I discuss the usefulness of a range of metrics derived from economics, computational complexity, and psychology.
is is a contribution from Pragmatics & Cognition 14:2
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John Benjamins Publishing Company
Kirsh, D Distributed cognition: A methodological note In: Harnad, Stevan and Itiel
E. Dror (eds.). Distributed Cognition: Special issue of Pragmatics & Cognition
14:2, pp. 249–262, 2006.
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... That study was carried out and documented in a series of articles published by David Kirsh and Paul Maglio in the 1990s and early 2000s. Investigating human actions in the context of Tetris play, the team labelled the two kinds of human action as pragmatic (understanding to act) and epistemic (acting to understand) actions (Kirsh & Maglio, 1994;Kirsh, 1995Kirsh, , 2006Kirsh, , 2008. ...
... Unlike Tetris, with its pre-defined metrics, (digital) design is characterised by ill-defined, open-ended goals (Rittel & Webber, 1973). Accordingly, design processes cannot be segmented into predetermined temporal episodes with known and well-defined goals (Kirsh & Maglio, 1994;Kirsh, 2006). To identify the two types of action and to understand their interplay in the design process, some degree of subjective interpretation is therefore necessary. ...
Conference Paper
We present an ongoing empirical study into a distinction between two kinds of purposeful action: understanding in order to act and acting in order to understand. This distinction is referred to in several design theories and has received limited empirical attention. One such effort investigates Tetris play and labels the two kinds as pragmatic and epistemic actions. With Tetris being characterised by simple rules and a well-defined goal, the question arises whether it offers a suitable context to account for human action in the context of design, given its ill-defined goals and often-conflicting requirements. To address this question, we are conducting a lab study of individual designers concurrently thinking-aloud during digital design processes. We analyse data acquired in this setting using the linkography method. Our preliminary analysis shows that pragmatic design objectives frequently lead to epistemic fulfilments (or dead-ends) and vice versa. In total, we identify six design episode categories. Numerous design episodes we observed fall into different categories when analysed across different observational time frames.
... Cognitive ethnography is a qualitative participant observation method building on the theory of distributed cognition (Hutchins, 1995a;Hollan et al., 2000;Giere & Moffatt, 2003;Kirsh, 2006;Sutton, 2006). Originating from the work of anthropologist Edwin Hutchins, it aspires to trace the specific distribution of tasks in a given cognitive system such as a medical ward. ...
... And should the replacement pill be administered to Hal although Ryan could not be entirely certain that the pill was identical to the dropped pill? All these decisions required an implicit weighing of cost against benefit (Kirsh, 2006). 4 Although we cannot calculate if it was worth it to find a replacement pill, we do know that Ryan had to make decisions on these tradeoffs. ...
Article
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While the past decade has witnessed a proliferation of work in the intersection between phenomenology and empirical studies of cognition, the multitude of possible methodological connections between the two remains largely uncharted. In line with recent developments in enactivist ethnography, this article contributes to the methodological multitude by proposing an integration between phenomenological interviews and cognitive video ethnography. Starting from Schütz’s notion of the taken-for-granted (das Fraglos-gegeben), the article investigates a complex work environment through phenomenological interviews and Cognitive Event Analysis, drawing on distributed cognition and embodied cognitive science. The methodological integration is illustrated through the study of an adverse event in a highly specialised medical ward. Starting from a nurse’s task of administering medicine to a patient, the analysis tracks how a distributed cognitive system in the ward handles an adverse event where a pill becomes contaminated. The analysis demonstrates how complex decision-making processes depend on agents’ micro-scale embodied coordination, on their engagement with the material environment, and their anticipation of other agents’ intentions. It is concluded that ethnography can accommodate both cognitive and phenomenological research aims, while also contributing to the important mission of understanding successful responses to adverse events in healthcare. The article further contributes to patient safety studies by demonstrating how safe medicine administration itself can lead to increased risk, hereby pointing to a problem of incompatible safety logics as a source of medication errors in healthcare.
... Consequently, the absence of a suitable methodology to capture such features continues to pose a significant obstacle to the ecological approach's ability to comprehend language. 3 To address the issue, this paper argues that Cognitive Linguistics holds the potential for undergoing an ecological turn as the field of Cognitive Linguistics aligns with ecological psychology in its examination of language from the viewpoint of cognitive science, which provides a means of addressing the limitations of the ecological approach to language (Kröger et al., 2011; Mittelberg, 2002;Zlatev, 2007;Zlatev and Blomberg, 2016). 2 In the ecological position, cognition is considered in a broader sense, and its broader definition is compatible with situated cognition (Suchman, 1987) and distributed cognition (Hutchins, 1996;Kirsh, 2006). The situated and distributed view considers cognition and representation to be emergent phenomena arising from the interaction between an individual and their environment, not internal or individual. ...
Article
The ecological perspective of language has gained prominence in linguistics over the past two decades. Since its anti-representationalist and anti-cognitivist stance, the ecological approach faces a challenge in reconciling with modern linguistic theories: While the ecological approach focuses on the dynamic aspects of language, it has been criticized for needing help to account for stable linguistic meaning. To address this issue, Cognitive Linguistics is the best candidate for giving an ecological account of static meaning. Also, I introduce the concept of design to establish the ecological model of language and demonstrate how this model can describe linguistic meaning within an ecological framework. Cognitive Linguistics develops into the ecological theory of meaning through these steps, namely ecological semantics.
... The main step of the framework is cognitive. Cognition, by which we understand and function in the world, is said to be embodied (Anderson, 2003;Atkinson, 2010;Semin & Smith, 2002), social (Fiske & Haslam, 1996;Frith & Frith, 2008;Gallese, Keysers & Rizzolatti, 2004), cultural (Bender, 2020;D'Andrade, 1981;Tomasello & Rakoczy, 2003), situated (Semin & Smith, 2002;Wilson, 2002), and distributed (Kirsh, 2006;Spurrett & Cowley, 2004). The cognitive step draws on the view that metaphor is an "indispensable structure of human understanding utilizing which we figuratively comprehend our world" (Johnson, 1987, p. xx). ...
... The main step of the framework is cognitive. Cognition, by which we understand and function in the world, is said to be embodied (Anderson, 2003;Atkinson, 2010;Semin & Smith, 2002), social (Fiske & Haslam, 1996;Frith & Frith, 2008;Gallese, Keysers & Rizzolatti, 2004), cultural (Bender, 2020;D'Andrade, 1981;Tomasello & Rakoczy, 2003), situated (Semin & Smith, 2002;Wilson, 2002), and distributed (Kirsh, 2006;Spurrett & Cowley, 2004). The cognitive step draws on the view that metaphor is an "indispensable structure of human understanding utilizing which we figuratively comprehend our world" (Johnson, 1987, p. xx). ...
Article
Full-text available
The driving force of the current research runs as follows: Since metaphor is a carrier of thought, culture will be argued to act as a filter in metaphor translating, precluding unexpected, unfamiliar, and shocking knowledge both linguistically and conceptually from being smuggled into the target language and culture. The study aims to show that metaphor translating can be best dealt with from a cultural perspective, isolating cultural knowledge as a guide for decision-making in translating. The significance of the study lies in the fact that metaphor translating should not be monitored by ready-made procedures but should be dealt with on a case-by-case basis, with consequences for ready-made procedures and new paths followed in translating. The study will seek to address the following question: How does cultural filtering take affect metaphor translating? The article adopts a three-step framework: (i) measuring cultural knowledge's compatibility, or lack of it, carried by Source Language metaphor and its target language translation, (ii) triggering of cultural filtering in case of incompatibility, and (iii) comparing cultures based on Hiraga's four-scenario scheme to assess the position of the two cultures in presence. Cultural filtering will be illustrated through concrete examples in disciplines such as politics, economics, and advertising across English and Arabic and written and pictorial metaphors.
... The computational challenges in the USS Palau were solved through a cognitive process that was widely distributed across a team of navigators and their cognitive artefacts. The insights from this fieldwork resulted in a theoretical framework that sees all instances of cognition as emerging from distributed processes (Hutchins, 1995(Hutchins, , 2001; see also Rogers, 1997;Kirsh, 2006;Sutton, 2006). ...
Article
Full-text available
Major proponents of both Distributed Cognition and Predictive Processing have argued that the two theoretical frameworks are strongly compatible. An important conjecture supporting the union of the two frameworks is that cultural practices tend to reduce entropy —that is, to increase predictability— at all scales in a cultural cognitive ecosystem. This conjecture connects Distributed Cognition with Predictive Processing because it shows how cultural practices facilitate prediction. The present contribution introduces the following challenge to the union of Distributed Cognition and Predictive Processing: the problem of entropic cultural practices. The problem lies in the existence of multiple cultural practices that tend to increase entropy instead of reducing it. This paper discusses these entropic cultural practices and the nature of the problem at hand. Finally, the paper advances an expanded conception of cultural practices that could unite the two frameworks and explores the difficulties of committing to such a conception.
... The paper tries to explore the mechanisms in developing particular solutions which required a level of coordination between participants of the cognitive system. According to the distributed cognitive system framework, 'embedded' individuals interact with artifacts, technologies, and tools to coordinate their internal cognitive tasks with external tools (Kirsh, 2008). Thus, tracking the generation, manipulation, and propagation of representations is critical in understanding the mechanisms within the system. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
The paper reports key instances from our field observations involving computational design practices to understand the process of generating and assessing alternative design options. Following an ethnographic approach, we investigate the nature of interactions within the team, which we conceptualize as a distributed cognitive system. We have observed a persistent effort –mostly driven by team leaders- to make the design idea -and design process in general- more legible and transparent for individuals within the team as well as others including clients and consultants. Through situated observations of collaborative computational practices, we investigate how design ideas are represented and externalized in a distributed cognitive system with the intention of achieving a legible schema to guide the design process. We report our interpretations concerning the concept of legibility and its various dimensions which predominantly relate to the need to clarify and justify the core design drivers and approaches in form-finding.
... More generally, at its core, the bounded rationality of situated human problemsolving requires the solution of constant trade-offs between pragmatic and epistemic actions. The exact amount of these trade-offs will depend on the precise nature of the cost function, which is determined by many, in part conflicting considerations and constraints (Kirsh 2006(Kirsh , 2013. But in principle, an optimal solution can be calculated by the mind of a situated human cognizer, i.e., a creature equipped with a less-than-perfectly rational Leibnizian will (sensu Fuller). ...
Chapter
As portrayed in Andy Clark’s extended mind thesis (EMT), human minds are inherently disposed to expand their reach outwards, incorporating and feeding off an open-ended variety of tools and scaffolds to satisfy their hunger for cognitive expansion. According to Steve Fuller’s heterodox Christian vision of transhumanism, humans are deities in the making, destined to redeem their fallen state with the help of modern science and technology. In this chapter, I re-examine Clark’s EMT through the prism of Fuller’s transhumanism, with the aim of unearthing a subterranean influence of theological tropes that are sweeping along beneath the naturalistic veneer of Clark’s thesis. Starting from four theological principles, which Fuller regards as foundational to his version of transhumanism, I review the philosophical narrative which, in Fuller’s view, provides the best philosophical motivation for the contemporary transhumanist project. On the basis of my reconstruction, I show how distant intellectual offshoots of the same principles mobilized by Fuller are also at play in Clark’s EMT – dressed up in secular garb, for sure, and in a materialistically inflected form, yet with a recognizably transhumanist bent. Undertaking this “archeology” of the EMT takes us surprisingly deep into the history of Western thought – to a point where Clark’s evocative “natural-born cyborg” image of humanity, with its emphasis on the radical openness of human nature to transcend itself, comes into view as a subtly blended continuation of certain historically consequential articulations of the Christian doctrine that humans are born “in the image and likeness” of God (imago dei).
Article
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The advancement of technology in recent years seems to be prompting a re-ontol-ogising of the world. Digital technology is transforming the educational spaces we inhabit, as well as our way of processing information. Although there are already numerous studies that have addressed this technological reality, only a handful have done so from a theoretical perspective. That is why we present research that seeks to reinforce the latest theoretical contributions for understanding how modern technology may be affecting the way in which knowledge is built. Based on the latest research in social constructivism, this is a qualitative study designed to contribute to the creation of a specific theoretical framework for an onlife world. An ill-struc-tured task and a semi-structured interview were used to observe the use of the thinking skills that enable us to build knowledge and the relationship between them. The results show that the ways of building knowledge are changing, as digital technology fosters the use of higher-order thinking skills that, furthermore, operate in a chaotic, complex, and unpredictable manner. In conclusion, this study upholds the notion that the ways of building knowledge are changing, but we still need more empirical contributions to create a generally accepted theoretical construct for explaining how we build knowledge through digital technology.
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