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I Am Not Dead, but Do Sleep Here: The Representation of Children in Early Modern Burial Grounds in the North of Ireland
Abstract
The nature of burial practices relating to children within formal ecclesiastical burial grounds in the period from the seventeenth century to the nineteenth century has, to date, been largely ignored by archaeologists. Even a preliminary survey of such memorials, however, indicates that gravestones erected in the memory of children form a substantial component of the overall corpus of memorials within individual graveyards or cemeteries. A child from a wealthy background might be buried with an elaborately inscribed gravestone, while others were buried anonymously within their family plot, with only a brief reference to their short lives recorded on the memorial. In contrast, many un-named victims of epidemics or famine were buried in common pits, whilst unbaptised children denied burial in consecrated ground were laid to rest in the local children's burial ground or cillín, without formal burial rites by the Roman Catholic church. This study examines the commemoration of children in four case study graveyards in the north of Ireland which date to between the later seventeenth century and the end of the nineteenth century. A survey of the number of memorials and the inscriptions they carry enables a more complete picture of the lives and deaths of the children they commemorate to become apparent.
... T raditionally the study of post-medieval graveyards in west Ulster was focused on the acquisition of genealogical information derived from memorial inscriptions (Maclagain, 1959;Maguire, 1956;1961;Maguire and Maguire, 1958;McMahon and Cowan, 1978;Mearáin, 1963;1966;Mearáin and Ó Gallachair, 1974;Moore, 1954;Ó Gallachair, 1973), although research since the 1970s has demonstrated the extent to which meaningful archaeological information can be drawn out from these unique memorials (Donnelly and Murphy, 2008;Hunter, 2000;McCormick, 1976;1983;McKerr et al. 2009;Mytum, 2009a;Mytum and Evans, 2002;2003b). The majority of this previous research has focused on the grave memorials of south Fermanagh and Monaghan, whilst north Fermanagh and Tyrone have received limited focused study. ...
... In order to understand temporal developments, the memorials were grouped in 20-year increments; these were chosen over blocks of 10 years in recognition of the site's long history of use. It is important to emphasise that not everyone could afford to erect a grave memorial so any analysis of such monuments automatically incurs bias against poorer members of society and it is therefore erroneous to equate memorial erection as a direct reflection of burial activity (McKerr et al. 2009). Establishing dates for grave memorials is not always straightforward in the absence of stated foundation dates and an estimated foundation date was achieved by inference from the date of the first commemorated individual. ...
... This approach, however, is not entirely straightforward: changes in religion and blending of names may occur over time through inter-marriage processes. Nevertheless, the use of names can still provide valuable insights concerning ethnic origins (McKerr et al. 2009). Data derived from the surnames in use at Ardess suggests an almost equal number of memorials commemorating native Irish (45 per cent -200/448) and Planter individuals (49 per cent -222/448), with an additional 26 (6 per cent) memorials that that could not be assigned to either group, due to poor preservation or the absence of any names. ...
Grave memorials offer archaeologists a combined source of material and visual culture, which almost uniquely in the field of archaeology, can be directly related to named individuals. In the context of post-Plantation Ulster, grave memorials have the potential to provide invaluable insights in relation to the dynamics and subtleties of group identity within a colonial context. Roulston (1998) highlighted the significance of Ulster’s early grave memorials, emphasising the need to study all aspects of these memorials in order to fully understand the societies and associated identities that created them.
... Internationally, McKerr et al. (2009) investigated the visibility of children in early modern burial grounds and the contrast between private grief and the increasingly public nature of the memorialization of death throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. They found that children's burials became more visible in the cemetery landscape in the seventeenth century, reflecting their greater presence in public spaces generally, as the family's affection and grief for the child was increasingly seen as "a loss that was deemed worthy of public record and attention" (McKerr et al. 2009, pp. ...
... We wish to make it clear that we do not intend childness to speak to the presumed 'value' of children, even if we do potentially connect it to measures of social variability and capitalist concepts of value as understood through labor. We assume, based on previous research, that children have always been highly valued and loved, contra both Ariès (1962) and Stone (1977) now outdated arguments (see, for example, Baxter 2013Baxter , 2015Haveman 1999;McKerr et al. 2009). Regardless, a childhood in life might have been conceptualized as beginning and ending at different points in different settings for different groups as a result of wider social processes linked to the fundamental changes wrought by capitalism and the closely intertwined ideologies of class, status, and gender. ...
Notions of childhood in colonial Australia were informed by a variety of social contexts that varied across time and space and were given material expression in the memorialization of children’s burials. Using data drawn from two studies of nineteenth-century cemeteries in rural South Australia, in this paper, we suggest an alternative way to understand children archaeologically that avoids the trap of essentialism: the notion of ‘childness’. Childness is defined as the multiple conceptions of being, and being labeled, a child. The concept of being a child may be instantiated in different ways according to particular social, cultural, chronological, and religious contexts; childness is the measure of this variation. In Western historical settings, the most likely causes for such variation are the social processes of class and status via the closely associated ideologies of gentility and respectability and their attendant expectations around labor, as well as the shifts they represent in the social ideology of the family. Exploring childness, rather than children, provides an alternative way to approach the histories of contemporary Western understandings of childhood, including when particular types of childhood began and ended, and according to what criteria in different contexts, as well as how boundaries between child and adult were continually being established and re-negotiated.
... Most bioarchaeological studies of subadults have probed questions of achieved or inherited status (Crawford, 2000;Lucy, 1994;McKerr et al., 2009;Palkovitch, 1980). However, using subadult's burials as strict proxies for status and social inequality neglects to acknowledge that the relationship between status and graves may be complicated and that there are other dimensions to burial practices in addition to those named above, such as social identities and personhood (Fowler, 2004;Lillie, 1997) or emotional and mnemonic experiences (Joyce, 2001;Murphy, 2011;Soren & Soren, 1997;Talbot, 2009;Tarlow, 2000). ...
This project considers the status and health experiences of subadults in Late Bronze-Iron II northwestern Iran (1450 – 800 B.C.E.) using osteological and archaeological analysis. It investigates how wealth, status, and health interact with the rise of fortified citadels during ca. 1450 – 1000 B.C.E. and the beginning of urbanization and imperial conflict ca. 1000 – 800 B.C.E. First, I analyze subadult skeletal remains, focusing on cribra orbitalia, a stress marker that has been linked with a wide array of causes, including anemia, malaria, and parasite infection. Second, I consider the wider context of where these subadults were buried and how they may have lived, by analyzing, grave type, associated personal materials, and burial goods. A biocultural approach is applied to thread together the concepts of subadults in archaeology, mortuary practice, social status, age estimation, and skeletal stress. I analyzed 64 subadult skeletons from three contemporaneous skeletal samples from two archaeological sites: 5 from the cemetery context of Dinkha Tepe (1450 – 800 B.C.E.); 26 from the cemetery of Hasanlu (1450 – 800 B.C.E.); and 33 from the destruction level of Hasanlu (c. 800 B.C.E.). At the regional center of Hasanlu, a cemetery was located on the Low Mound outside of the fortified citadel whereas the subadults recovered from the destruction level had sought refuge on the High Mound during a military conflict. The cemetery at the smaller provincial town of Dinkha Tepe was likely located just outside of the town. Results indicate that the relationship between stress and social status as expressed in burial context, grave goods, and other material culture was complex. The cemetery context included more infants and children than adolescents, whereas the destruction level sample included more children and adolescents and fewer infants. Data showed cribra orbitalia was more frequent in the cemetery population at Hasanlu than in the destruction level or cemetery population at Dinkha Tepe. Cemetery burials do not appear to be segregated by age or elite status. Social status as assessed in this dissertation was not a mitigating factor for cribra orbitalia. Skeletal and archaeological data together present a more holistic picture than from either source independently.
... Each headstone of these child individuals tells us not only of the family's social and economic position, but also contains material expressions of the feelings of loss, mourning and solace. This is also how we should understand the inscriptions on Early Modern gravestones in Northern Ireland that show not only the sadness at the loss of the deceased, but also the need to represent recognition and affection (McKerr, Murphy, and Donnelly 2009) (Figure 2). ...
In the 10 years since it was first published the journal, Childhood in the Past, has been the most obvious indication of the vivacity, relevance and transversality of the studies of childhood. Research into children is increasingly giving way to a considerable number of studies based on different theoretical and methodological positions that use innovative analytical techniques and are generating a hugely important body of knowledge on childhood in the past. In this article, I would like to present a sort of historiography of the research into childhood through the subjects dealt with in the volumes of Childhood in the Past published so far. I will use the three basic elements of human existence and experience: bodies, places and material culture, taking into account the contexts – those spaces transformed into places and landscapes through the actions of children – and the materiality of human behaviour expressed in the objects with which they are related.
... The burial of the unbaptised infant in cillini (separate burial grounds), often abandoned, marginal places in the landscape, is not only a Christian phenomenon, but maintains a practice known from the pre-Christian era (Finlay 2000). McKerr et al. (2009) sought to test the 'indifference hypothesis' -based on the theory that with high child mortality, parents invest little emotional expenditure in the very young -by looking at inscriptions on gravestones in early modern ...
Unpublished Honours Thesis, 2010
Cillíní are distinct burial places for the unbaptised, primarily stillbirths and children. These burial grounds appear to have emerged in the late sixteenth century AD and continued to be used into the late twentieth century in Roman Catholic Ireland. Almost 1,500 are recorded across the country, the overwhelming majority located along the western seaboard in counties Galway, Kerry, Mayo and Clare. This is the first regional study of cillíní in Co. Donegal, where fifty-six have been identified. The sites are explored in terms of their cartographic representation, distribution, association with older archaeological monuments, topographical boundaries and folklore.
Lowell, Massachusetts, is considered as the birthplace of the industrial revolution in the United States. Established in 1822 by a group of Bostonian entrepreneurs, the new textile factories harnessed the Merrimack River to power their waterwheels using a system of canals. This work attracted groups of emigrant Irish workers from Boston, a process that continued into the middle of the century, particularly in the wake of the Great Irish Famine (1845–1852). We are fortunate that two volumes known as The Hanavor Burial Records exist that provide a window into the lives and deaths of the early Irish settlers in Lowell. Some 1450 entries dating to the period between 1849 and 1865 provide details of the occupation of the deceased. This study focuses on Irish pre-teen and teenage workers; their age-at-death profile, the nature of the work they undertook, and the causes of their deaths are examined.
Objectives
Isotope ratio analyses of dentine collagen were used to characterize short‐term changes in physiological status (both dietary status and biological stress) across the life course of children afforded special funerary treatment.
Materials and methods
Temporal sequences of δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C isotope profiles for incrementally forming dentine collagen were obtained from deciduous teeth of 86 children from four early‐medieval English cemeteries. Thirty‐one were interred in child‐specific burial clusters, and the remainder alongside adults in other areas of the cemetery. Isotope profiles were categorized into four distinct patterns of dietary and health status between the final prenatal months and death.
Results
Isotope profiles from individuals from the burial clusters were significantly less likely to reflect weaning curves, suggesting distinctive breastfeeding and weaning experiences. This relationship was not simply a factor of differential age at death between cohorts. There was no association of burial location neither with stage of weaning at death, nor with isotopic evidence of physiological stress at the end of life.
Discussion
This study is the first to identify a relationship between the extent of breastfeeding and the provision of child‐specific funerary rites. Limited breastfeeding may indicate the mother had died during or soon after birth, or that either mother or child was unable to feed due to illness. Children who were not breastfed will have experienced a significantly higher risk of malnutrition, undernutrition and infection. These sickly and perhaps motherless children received care to nourish them during early life, and were similarly provided with special treatment in death.
The focus of the research was an anthropological and archaeological rescue excavation of the site Majetín – Náves. This research was conducted by workers of Archaeological Centre Olomouc during September and October 2012. The aim of the research was to verify a potential of this site, which is located on the northern border of the village. The location is shaped like a mild terrain elevation, Calvary column was built on the top. Municipal chronicle of Majetín describes this area as a place of storage of the bodies of sixteen Napoleonic soldiers. The research was realized through archaeological probes. Trenches covered one quarter of this mound, six human bodies were found, two bodies of adult men and four children. Backfi ll of the burial mound contained sporadic bits of pottery of the Modern period. More sensitive dating material (such as parts of military equipment) wasn't discovered. The incisors of the lower jaw of one of the men had traces of the trauma of a military origin. Quarry and grinding of the teeth were probably caused by the systematic utilization of the teeth to open paper cartridges (charge with the dose of gunpowder and bullet), that were used during the 18 th and 19 th century. Neither the way of the committal of the men's corpses which was according to the principles of Christian burial rite nor the written historical sources indicate that these graves originated from combat action. Apparently the men died during the transport to a military hospital and were buried in Majetín. The children were buried later, their burials are in superposition and one of the graves of the child disturbed another soldier's grave. The children were likely to become victims of a cholera epidemic which extended into the region between August and October 1866, after the Battle of Tovačov. The inhuming of all the bodies corresponded to the principles of Christian burial practices, nevertheless they weren't buried in consecrate ground and the regulations of the time required burials in cemeteries. Observed situation is probably connected with the necessity to solve the crisis situation of the epicemics from part of the relatives.
Cilliní—or children’s burial grounds—were the designated resting places for unbaptized infants and other members of Irish society
who were considered unsuitable by the Roman Catholic Church for burial in consecrated ground. The sites appear to have proliferated
from the seventeenth century onwards in the wake of the Counter-Reformation. While a number of previous studies have attempted
to relate their apparently marginal characteristics to the liminality of Limbo, evidence drawn from the archaeological record
and oral history accounts suggests that it was only the Roman Catholic Church that considered cilliní, and those interred within, to be marginal. In contrast, the evidence suggests that the families of the dead regarded the
cemeteries as important places of burial and treated them in a similar manner to consecrated burial grounds.
KeywordsBurials–Unbaptized infants–Archaeology of emotion–Ireland
Recently, the value of the study of children and childhood from archaeological contexts has become more recognized. Childhood
is both a biological and a social phenomenon. However, because of specialization in research fields within anthropology, subadults
from the archaeological record are usually studied from the biological perspective (bioarchaeology) or, more predominantly,
the social perspective (social archaeology), with little research that incorporates both approaches. These polarized approaches
to childhood and age highlight the dualistic way in which “biological” and “social” aspects of the body are viewed. Some recent
literature criticizes bioarchaeological approaches, and calls for the incorporation of childhood social theory, including
social age categories, into subadult health analysis. However, few studies have explicitly addressed the practicalities or
theoretical issues that need to be considered when attempting this. This paper critically examines these issues, including
terminology used for defining subadulthood and age divisions within it, and approaches to identify “social age” in past populations.
The important contribution that bioarchaeology can make to the study of social aspects of childhood is outlined. Recent theoretical
approaches for understanding the body offer exciting opportunities to incorporate skeletal remains into research, and develop
a more biologically and socially integrated understanding of childhood and age.
The following paper seeks to reconsider traditional and often comfortable approaches towards understanding infants, the infant body and infancy in archaeological contexts. In doing so, the paper considers the nature of the body, and draws upon a wide range of resources, including the wider anthropological record, child development theory and the social sciences. The paper speci fically seeks to identify the constitution of infancy in the past. Infancy has generally not bene fited from the recent attention afforded to older children in the archaeological record. Rather, infancy has become bounded by osteological methodology and terminology, and a limited range of associated archaeological interpretations. While recognising the importance of the biological approach, the paper seeks to challenge osteological control over the infant body and argue that bodies are never only biological in nature. The authors build upon recent research into human objecti fication in Iron Age southern England, and provide a case study of difference, relating to the treatment of liminal and objecti fied infant bodies in the Classic period Maya lowlands. The paper concludes by considering the future of infant research, suggesting that archaeologists must become more critical when exploring the archaeology of infancy and when working with the remains of past infants, who, despite being dead, continue to be alive with social agency.
This book discusses the relationship between parents and children in the past, focusing on the ways in which adults responded to the untimely deaths of children, and whether and how they expressed their grief. It engages with the hypothesis of parental indifference associated with the French cultural historian Philippe Ariès by analysing the changing risk of mortality since the sixteenth century and assessing its consequences. The book uses paintings and poems to describe feelings and emotions in ways that challenge traditional disciplinary conventions. The circumstances of infant and child mortality are considered for France and England, while example portraits and poems are selected from England and America. While the work is firmly grounded in demography, it is especially concerned with current debates in social and cultural history, with the history of childhood, the way pictorial images can be read and the use to which literature may be put as historical evidence. This is a wide-ranging and multi-disciplinary study that will add to our understanding both of demographic structures, and the ways in which they have conditioned attitudes and behaviour in the past.
Burial grounds strike an immediate chord with all who visit them. They are land scapes full of pathos and cultural associations which many find attractive, though a minority feel are too morbid to deserve detailed attention. This book is designed to offer a framework for studying historic burial ground monuments, and contains a certain amount of information regarding below-ground archaeology, as some projects will involve the study of both. Moreover, from a research perspective above and below ground archaeology together can throw considerable light on the process of dying, body disposal and commemoration that formed a continuum for those involved. However, the more easily accessible graveyard memorials can be used to study many aspects of past culture beyond that directly associated with death, and they are the focus of the book. Most people who become interested in historic graveyard memorials come to the subject via the material itself. Only rarely does a research question get posed, and graveyard data seem like an appropriate arena for investigation. This has the advantage that many researchers have some ideas about the data available, but the disadvantage that they may not have clear questions to ask of it, nor how to set their discoveries in a wider intellectual context.
The study of Irish historical demography has long been an area of complexity and controversy; and the further back into the past the search for patterns and trends is pushed, the more the problems multiply. Much of the difficulty stems from the inadequacy and/or variability of the available sources. Hearth-tax returns, enumeration lists of various types, estate records and registers of baptisms, marriages and burials, all pose problems of interpretation and in addition, for any single area, they are likely to provide only fragmentary and discontinuous evidence. Largely because of these difficulties, only a limited number of detailed analyses of population patterns in specific areas as far back as the late seventeenth century and early eighteenth century have been attempted. Yet at the same time the work which has been done has made it apparent both that this is a crucial period in terms of demographic history and that only detailed case studies can provide the evidence necessary to enlarge upon our current very general understanding.
This book presents an entirely fresh view of the upbringing of English children in upper and professional class families over three centuries. Drawing on direct testimony from contemporary diaries and letters, the book revises previous understandings of parenting and what it was like to grow up in the period between 1600 and 1914. Using advice literature which set out developing ideologies of childhood, gender and parenting, the book explores the separate but complementary roles of mothers and fathers in raising their children. Male upbringing is discussed in terms of schooling, female through the moral and social context of a domestic schoolroom dominated by a governess. Boys were trained for the world, girls for society and marriage. Rare teenage diaries surviving from the Georgian and Victorian periods show teenagers speaking for themselves about education; relationships with parents, siblings and friends; and their social, class and gender identity.
TaitClodagh. Death, Burial and Commemoration in Ireland, 1550–1650. New York: Palgrave. 2002. Pp. ix, 229. $65.00. ISBN 0-333-99741-7. - Volume 36 Issue 2 - Danae Tankard
Estudio sobre el desarrollo de los seres humanos, visto como procesos culturales que ocurren a través de la participación del sujeto, junto a otros miembros de su comunidad, en la construcción y reconstrucción de prácticas culturales que han sido heredadas de generaciones anteriores. Temas clásicos del desarrollo humano como la crianza, la interdependencia y la autonomía, las transiciones a lo largo del ciclo vital, el desarrollo cognoscitivo, el aprendizaje, los roles de género o las relaciones sociales son examinados desde una perspectiva cultural, que reúne ideas de la psicología evolutiva, la antropología, la educación y la historia.
This lecture starts by considering the old problem of how to account for social change theoretically and criticises some of the models used either because they see the social process in terms used by the actors and so are unable to explain how it is that actors can change those terms, or they see the mechanisms of change as occurring in terms totally alien to the actors and so are unable to explain how these mechanisms can be transformed into meaningful action. The source of this problem is traced to Durkheim's notion that cognition is socially determined. By contrast it is argued that those concepts which are moulded to social structure are not typical of knowledge but only found in ritual discourse, while the concepts using non-ritual discourse are constrained by such factors as the requirements of human action on nature. This means that there are terms available to actors by which the social order can be criticised since not all terms are moulded by it. Finally it is suggested that such notions as social structure only refer to ritualized folk statements about society, statements expressed in ritual discourse precisely with those concepts which are given as demonstrations of the theory of the cultural relativity of cognition. The Durkheimian correlation between society and cognition is merely a correlation of only certain ethical statements and certain aspects of cognition. This type of discourse is present in different types of society in varying amounts according to the degree of instituted hierarchy that these societies manifest. Anthropological theories about the conceptualisation of time are given as an example of the general argument.
Archaeology has demonstrated that it can provide added insight into the study of early modern Ireland, although there has been a notable tendency for research to concentrate on secular aspects of society. Investigations into the period, however, would benefit from a greater awareness of contemporary religion, since this was a factor that played a major role in political, social, and economic life. An example of this is the introduction of Penal legislation by the Protestant-dominated Irish parliament in the early eighteenth century, directed at those whose religious outlook did not correspond to that of the Established Church.
A comparative analysis of samples of external memorials from burial grounds in Britain, Ireland and New England reveals a widespread pattern of change in monument style and content, and exponential growth in the number of permanent memorials from the 18th century onwards. Although manifested in regionally distinctive styles on which most academic attention has so far been directed, the expansion reflects global changes in social relationships and concepts of memory and the body. An archaeological perspective reveals the importance of external memorials in articulating these changing attitudes in a world of increasing material consumption.
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