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Analysis procedures for non-parametric data from performance analysis
International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport
Abstract
It is vital that the reliability of a data gathering system is demonstrated clearly and in a way that is compatible with the intended analyses of the data. The data must be tested in the same way and to the same depth in which it will be processed in the subsequent analyses. In general, the work of Bland and Altman (1986) has transformed the attitude of sport scientists to testing reliability; can similar techniques be applied to the non-parametric data that most notational analysis studies generate? There are also a number of questions that inherently re-occur in these forms of data-gathering – this study aims to demonstrate practical answers to some of these questions.
The most common form of data analysis in notation studies is to record frequencies of actions and their respective positions on the performance area, these are then presented as sums or totals in each respective area. What are the effects of cumulative errors nullifying each other, so that the overall totals appear less incorrect than they actually are?
The application of parametric statistical techniques is often misused in notational analysis - how does this affect the confidence of the conclusions to say something about the data, with respect to more appropriate non-parametric tests? Analysing 72 research papers recently published under the banner of notational analysis, it was found that 70% did not report any reliability study and a large proportion of the remaining used questionable processes given the recent ideas in reliability testing in sports science (Atkinson, G. and Nevill, A. (1998) Statistical methods for assessing measurement error (reliability) in variables relevant to sports medicine. Sports Med., 26, 217–238). In some cases the reliability studies were executed on summary data, and the system was then assumed to be reliable for all of the other types of more detailed data analyses that were produced.
By using practical examples from recent research and consultancy projects, undergraduate and postgraduate studies, this research investigated these issues associated with reliability studies and subsequent analyses in performance analysis, in order to give practical guidelines to enable establishing simple and reliable comparisons of non-parametric sets of data.
... Altman first introduced the non-parametric technique for data classification in 1991 [44]. Initially, the K-NN method was designed to address both classification and regression issues [45]. Similarity measure, also known as closeness, proximity, or distance, was the guiding principle behind the development of K-NN. ...
... Friedl et al. [45] created the Random Forest classifier in 1997 by combining multiple decision trees. This technique of ensemble learning employs the bootstrap bagging or aggregation technique to trees [46]. ...
... The ensemble voting scheme has made it so that error due to the independent classifier is overcome [48,49]. The ensemble technique offers improved accuracy by using intelligent computational models, as illustrated in the Friedl et al. [45] created the Random Forest classifier in 1997 by combining multiple decision trees. This technique of ensemble learning employs the bootstrap bagging or aggregation technique to trees [46]. ...
The diagnosis of brain tumors at an early stage is an exigent task for radiologists. Untreated patients rarely survive more than six months. It is a potential cause of mortality that can occur very quickly. Because of this, the early and effective diagnosis of brain tumors requires the use of an automated method. This study aims at the early detection of brain tumors using brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data and efficient learning paradigms. In visual feature extraction, convolutional neural networks (CNN) have achieved significant breakthroughs. The study involves features extraction by deep convolutional layers for the efficient classification of brain tumor victims from the normal group. The deep convolutional neural network was implemented to extract features that represent the image more comprehensively for model training. Using deep convolutional features helps to increase the precision of tumor and non-tumor patient classifications. In this paper, we experimented with five machine learnings (ML) to heighten the understanding and enhance the scope and significance of brain tumor classification. Further, we proposed an ensemble of three high-performing individual ML models, namely Extreme Gradient Boosting, Ada-Boost, and Random Forest (XG-Ada-RF), to derive binary class classification output for detecting brain tumors in images. The proposed voting classifier, along with convoluted features, produced results that showed the highest accuracy of 95.9% for tumor and 94.9% for normal. Compared to individual methods, the proposed ensemble approach demonstrated improved accuracy and outperformed the individual methods.
... Particularly in relation to the validity of defining action variables, performance indicators, operational definitions, and the reliability test procedures themselves (James et al., 2005;Hughes et al., 2012;Thomson et al., 2013;Hughes, 2015). Hughes (2015) argued the presentation of reliability and validation procedures has increased immensely since Hughes et al. (2002) previously highlighted the need for the reliability of performance analysis templates to be clearly established within all studies. Prior to the 2007 special edition of the International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport that focused on reliability issues in performance analysis, of the 77 empirical studies published, only 56% of the journal's articles reported reliability procedures and only 42% included details detailing the validation procedures. ...
... almost perfect agreement" (Landis and Koch, 1977, p. 165). Whilst, the level of reliability for each category when using the percentage error value was deemed acceptable when less than five per cent error was identified (Hughes et al., 2002). ...
This study aimed to develop a valid and reliable performance analysis template for quantifying team action variables in elite men’s wheelchair basketball. First action variables and operational definitions were identified by the authors and verified by an expert panel of wheelchair basketball coaching staff in order to establish expert validity. A total of 109 action variable were then placed into 17 agreed Categorical Predictor Variable categories. The action variables were then used to develop a computerized performance analysis template for post-event analysis. Each possession (n = 200) from an international men’s wheelchair basketball game was analyzed by the first author on two occasions for assessment of intra-observer reliability and by a coach and a performance analyst for inter-observer reliability. Percentage error and Weighted Kappa coefficients were calculated to compare the levels of error and agreement for each action variable. Intra-observer reliability demonstrated perfect or almost perfect agreement (<K0.980) and low percentage error values (<1.50%) for the 109 action variables within the 17 categories. Inter-observer reliability demonstrated perfect or almost perfect agreement (<K0.974) and low percentage error values (<3.00%) for the 109 action variables within the 17 categories. The template should be used in future for obtaining valid and reliable data in elite men’s wheelchair basketball.
... Finalmente, en los estudios observacionales es importante mantener la calidad del dato para ello es necesario asegurar la validez de la observación, tanto intra-obsevador como interobservador (Atkinson y Nevill, 1998;Hughes, Cooper, y Nevill, 2002). En la presente investigación se superan los valores mínimos de validez de observación en el índice de correlación de Pearson, ICC e índice Kappa de Cohen (Hinkle, Wiersma y Jurs, 2003;Fleiss, 1986;Landis y Koch, 1977) De acuerdo con los resultados obtenidos podemos concluir que el instrumento diseñado es válido y fiable y puede ser utilizado para el análisis de las rachas de lanzamiento en el baloncesto profesional, ya que cumple con los niveles necesarios de validez y fiabilidad. ...
... Finalmente, en los estudios observacionales es importante mantener la calidad del dato para ello es necesario asegurar la validez de la observación, tanto intra-obsevador como interobservador (Atkinson y Nevill, 1998;Hughes, Cooper, y Nevill, 2002). En la presente investigación se superan los valores mínimos de validez de observación en el índice de correlación de Pearson, ICC e índice Kappa de Cohen (Hinkle, Wiersma y Jurs, 2003;Fleiss, 1986;Landis y Koch, 1977) De acuerdo con los resultados obtenidos podemos concluir que el instrumento diseñado es válido y fiable y puede ser utilizado para el análisis de las rachas de lanzamiento en el baloncesto profesional, ya que cumple con los niveles necesarios de validez y fiabilidad. ...
The purpose of this research is to design and validate an ad-hoc observational instrument to analyze shooting streaks in professional basketball. The instrument and its validation was developed in five steps. In the first step a preliminary list of candidates variables was made. In the second step a pilot observation was done to refine or include new variables. In the third and fourth steps the content validity was established and calculated by means of the Aiken's V method respectively. In the fifth step inter and intra observer reliability were tested by using the Pearson's correlation coefficient, the intraclass correlation coefficient and the Cohen's Kappa coefficient. The instrument designed has been proved to be valid and reliable for the analysis of shooting streaks in men's professional basketball. En la actualidad el tópico del performance analysis tiene gran relevancia, y aplicabilidad para la mejora del rendimiento deportivo durante el entrenamiento y la competición (Hughes y Frank, 2004; McGarry, O'Donoghue y Sampaio, 2013). Dentro de este tipo de estudios está cobrando mayor relevancia el análisis de las rachas en diferentes modalidades deportivas tanto colectivas como el béisbol (Albert y Williamson En las investigaciones realizadas sobre las rachas surgen fundamentalmente dos conceptos relevantes, por un lado el " momentum " que según Iso-Ahola y Mobily (1980) es entendido " como un poder psicológico elevado que cambia la percepción de una persona sobre si misma o de los demás sobre esa persona " (p.392); Y en segundo lugar surge el llamado fenómeno " hot hand " que según Koehler y Conley (2003) consiste en la creencia sobre " el aumento temporal del rendimiento de un atleta por encima de su rango habitual tras un encadenamiento de éxitos " (p.253). En baloncesto en particular, más del 70% de los jugadores NBA (Gilovich, Vallone, Tversky, 1985), el 92% de los entrenadores (Raab, Gula, Gigerenzer) y 90% de los aficionados (Markman y Gunter, 2007), creen que el rendimiento deportivo se ve afectado por el momentum. Este concepto es reforzado por Attali (2013) concluyendo que los jugadores NBA tienden a lanzar con mayor frecuencia tras anotar un lanzamiento. Aunque se debe tener en cuenta que este estado mental puede verse interrumpido por agentes externos (Iso-Ahola y Dotson, 2014). En las investigaciones sobre el hot hand en el ámbito del baloncesto la realizada por Gilovich, et al. (1985) marcó un punto de inflexión en este tipo de análisis, la principal conclusión fue que el éxito en un lanzamiento no está condicionado con el resultado de anteriores lanzamientos, concluyendo por tanto que el fenómeno hot hand no existe en baloncesto. Rápidamente otras investigaciones, por contraposición, indicaron la existencia del fenómeno hot hand tanto en el baloncesto profesional como en el universitario (Forthofer, 1991; Larkey, Smith y Kadane, 1989; Mace, Lalli, Shea, Nevin, 1992.) En estudios más recientes se encontraron evidencias sobre la existencia de las rachas de lanzamiento tras analizar los lanzamientos libres realizados durante las temporadas 2005-2006 a 2009-10 (Yaari y Einsenmann, 2011). Arkes (2010) tras analizar los tiros libres de la temporada 2005-06 llegó a conclusiones similares, como anotar el primer tiro libre está asociado a un incremento de entre 2 y 3 puntos porcentuales en el siguiente tiro libre. De manera específica, Csapo y Raab (2014) utilizaron análisis observacionales para el estudio de este tipo de fenómenos, teniendo en cuenta aspectos como el tipo de lanzamiento, zona de lanzamiento o la acción previa. Debido a la especificidad del análisis en baloncesto de rachas, momentum y/o del fenómeno hot hand, el uso de la metodología observacional se convierte en una herramienta idónea para el análisis y estudio del deporte (Anguera y Hernández-Mendo, 2015). La información obtenida mediante esta metodología permite mejorar los procesos de entrenamiento, el diseño de
... In football, the main goal is to defeat the opponent, to do this, is necessary to collect data for all opponents, firstly to see the strengths and weaknesses of the team, and to determine the level of physical condition and improve this level in order to achieve this goal [15]. Since the collection of statistical data is a highly decisive task, some similar studies fail to demonstrate the reliability of the data collection system used [16]. Considering that other researchers have used different equipment for data collection, it is important to emphasize that the results from this research may be difficult to compare with other research. ...
Background and Study Aim. The significance of analyzing statistical indicators is paramount, as they provide valuable insights into the distinguishing performance factors of teams. The purpose of this study: 1) to identify statistically significant differences between relevant performance factors among winning, drawing, and losing teams in the 2022 Football World Cup in Qatar; 2) explore indicators that are most strongly associated with the game results in this tournament. Material and Methods. A total of 64 matches and 32 participating teams were analyzed. The variables included in the research were: total shots, shots on target, shots off target, effectiveness, passes, passes completed, crosses, crosses against, offsides committed, offsides received, fouls received, ball possession, fouls committed, corners, corners against, yellow cards and red cards. The results are extracted from the official FIFA website. The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and the ordinal logistic regression with elastic net were used for data calculation. Results. The results indicate that winning teams have statistically significantly higher mean values of variables related to goals scored: total shots (p < 0.05), shots on target (p < 0.01), and effectiveness (p < 0.01). According to the information-based model selection criteria AIC (Akaike information criterion) and BIC (Bayesian information criterion) effectiveness and shots on target are the most important variables regarding game results. They, along with corners, are best associated with successful teams. In contrast, crosses, ball possession, corners against, and yellow cards are associated with less successful teams. Results suggest that teams with high ball possession and large number of crosses, but fewer shots on target, have weaker results than teams with more shots on target and less ball possession. Conclusions. The study underscores the significance of certain performance indicators, such as total shots, shots on target, and effectiveness, in predicting a team's success. These findings provide valuable insights for coaches and teams to focus on specific aspects of their game to enhance their chances of winning. Additionally, understanding the impact of variables like ball possession, crosses, corners, and yellow cards emphasizes the importance of a well-rounded strategy for achieving success in international football tournaments.
... In assessing the reliability of the results, the difference was deemed to be statistically significant, where p \ .05. The Effect Size (ES) was characterized by practical significance rather than a simple interpretation of statistical significance (Hughes et al., 2002). Magnitudes of effect sizes were assessed and classified using the criteria of 0.10 = small effect, 0.30 = medium effect, and 0.50 = large effect with corresponding 95% confidence intervals (Robinson & O'Donoghue, 2007). ...
The offensive tactics of basketball teams consist of a series of actions performed with the collaboration of two or more players on the court. The study aimed to determine the differences in the possessions and the points of the play-type statistics of the eight playoff teams and the other ten non-playoff teams of the 2020 to 2021 men’s Euroleague season. The study sample consists of a total of 13,056 play types obtained through systematic observation methodology, which examined 272 matches involving 17 teams. Descriptive statistics and the Mann–Whitney U test was employed to obtain the findings. It was found that the catch’n & shoot, pick and roll ball handler are the most frequently used possessions and points that produced play-type statistics for all teams. Results showed that isolation (U = 3,7740.5; z = −3.93; p < .05) pick and roll handler’s (U = 39,932; z = −2.91; p < .05), post-up (U = 39,878.5; z = −2.94; p < .05) and Screen-off possessions (U = 41,689; z = −2,107; p < .05) of the playoff teams were statistically higher than non-playoff teams. Positively significant differences were also observed in isolation (U = 38,172; z = −3,744; p < .05), pick and roll handler’s (U = 40,278.5; z = −2,748; p < .05), post-up (U = 38,353.5; z = −3,659; p < .05), and Screen-off (U = 38,819.5; z = −3,434; p < .05) points of the playoff teams and non-playoff teams. These results show that playoff teams are prominent with the screen-off possessions and points as a team play, but post-ups, pick’n roll handlers selection, and catch’n shoot possessions and points are displayed by highly talented players. The findings may assist coaches and managers in roster building. Coaches might consider including these play-types in offensive sets and can create a more productive system. This understanding can be integrated into youth organizations’ training programs to raise high-level players.
... Other than that, research designs like the one in this study should be combined or contrasted by more experimental study designs, where the set of different game situations can be artificially reduced (Memmert et al., , 2023Low et al., 2021a,b). Data driven full match analysis should provide the direction and ideas for experimental designs and vice versa to maximize the potential of scientific discovery in the field (Hughes, Cooper, & Nevill, 2002;Rein & Memmert, 2016). Other study designs have reported a significant infl✷✙✤✥✙ ...
In the past 20 years, performance analysis in soccer has accumulated a wide variety of key performance indicators (KPI’s) aimed at reflecting a team’s strength and success. Thanks to rapidly advancing technologies and data analytics more sophisticated metrics, requiring high resolution data acquisition and big data methods, are developed. This includes many position-data-based KPI’s, which incorporate precise spatial and temporal information about every player and the ball on the field.
The present study contributes to this research by performing a large-scale comparison of several metrics mainly based on player positions and passing events. Their association with team’s success (derived from goals scored) and team’s strength (estimated from pre-game betting odds) is analysed.
The systematic analysis revealed relevant results for further KPI research: First, the magnitude of overall correlation coefficients was higher for relative metrics than for absolute metrics. Second, the correlation of metrics with the strength of a team is stronger than the correlation with the game success of a team. Third, correlation analysis with team strength indicated more positive associations, while correlation analysis with success is most likely confounded by the intermediate score line of a game and revealed more negative associations.
... These measures were chosen to represent different areas of the game in agreement with previous Rugby Sevens studies [6,18]. Intra-rater reliability for the analysis was evaluated by re-analysing 10 random matches four weeks apart and calculating the percentage error, as described by Hughes et al. [19]. Errors observed for all match activities were within a 5% error limit, which was deemed acceptable. ...
Evaluating the relationships between physical-test and match performance in team sports could be useful for training prescription and athlete evaluation. Here we investigated these relationships in women’s Rugby Sevens. Thirty provincial-representative players performed Bronco-fitness, countermovement-jump, acceleration, speed, and strength tests within two weeks before a two-day tournament. Match-running and match-action performance measures were provided by GPS units and video analysis. Generalised and general linear mixed models were employed to estimate the effect of a two standard-deviation difference in physical-test measures on match measures. Effect magnitudes were assessed via standardisation (using the between-player SD) and, for effects on tries scored, also via match winning (based on simulating matches). Evidence for substantial and trivial true magnitudes was provided by one-sided interval-hypothesis tests and Bayesian analysis. There was good evidence of positive effects of many physical-test measures on match high-intensity running, with large effects for jump height and acceleration. There was some evidence of small-moderate positive effects of speed and Bronco, and of small-moderate negative effects of maximal strength and jump height, on match total running and high intensity changes in speed. The evidence was generally inadequate for associations between physical-test measures and match actions, but there was good evidence of small-large positive effects of back squat and jump height on tries scored. Enhancing players’ jump height and back-squat performance might therefore increase the likelihood of match success in women’s Rugby Sevens.
... Match analysis (MA) has received a lot of attention from team sports researchers (Cox, 1974;Eom & Schutz, 1992) aiming to identify tactical-technical behaviour patterns (Hughes et al., 2002). By providing such information, MA is expected to contribute to the optimisation and preparation of the training processes, to subsidise training adaptations that favours individual and collective performance, and to highlight patterns and regularities of the game phases that may be of interest to researchers and sports coaches (Davids, 2015;Duch et al., 2010;Garganta, 2009;Mesquita et al., 2013). ...
The present study used the Social Network Analysis aiming to
explain the direct and indirect relationships between the reception
location and subsequent game procedures, evaluating the similarities
and differences in offensive construction.The sample consisted
of the analysis of 22 games from the 2018 Men’s Volleyball
World Championship. Only teams placed from 1st to 8th positions
had their games selected.The network analysis indicated that the
reception zones Z5, Z6, Z7, Z8, Z9 and Z1 showed greater relationships
between the game procedures, suggesting more diversity in
the type of game played.Our results indicate that elite male volleyball
game occurs mostly in-system situations, withoptimal conditions
for the construction of the attack.On the other hand, the need
to train the team off-system was evidenced, since high eigenvector
values were identified in these attack construction conditions, evidencing
off-system situations.Overall, the ecology of the game
demands the athletes to adapt to the restrictions imposed by the
possibilities of action.
... The percentage error has been calculated (see Table 2) to evaluate the intra-rater reliability of nominal variables in the performance indicators that computes by a single rater or observer (Hughes, Cooper & Nevill, 2002;Hughes & Franks, 2004). The percentage error formula as follows: ...
The current study aimed to identify performance indicators that may discriminate the match performances between winning and losing teams in the Netball Sabah Games 2019. A total of 16 matches during this tournament were recorded and analyzed manually by an observer. Ten performance indicators have been studied which were successful pass, turnover, offside, interception, deflection, defensive rebound, free pass, goal percentage, goal attempt, and goal. The results showed that there were significant differences in the interception, deflection, goal attempt, and goal between winning and losing teams (p < .05). In addition, the performance indicators that discriminate between winning and losing teams were the goal attempt and goal. These current findings may provide valuable information for coaches and players to create a useful strategy, especially when they are against a stronger opponent during the competition.
... Our study sample size could have been improved as well to obtain a better normal distribution of data. However, non-parametric statistical analyses are equally powerful to parametric tests when used appropriately (27). ...
Background. Archery is a sport that demands a high level of fitness due to its long hours of training and competitive nature. Thus, archers need to have high fatigue tolerance and body figure to perform successfully. Objectives. This study aims to compare and correlate the anthropometric and physical fitness variables on archery shooting performance. Methods. Participants were youth archers of the Terengganu state team and Malaysia Pahang Sports School from Malaysia (n=12; male: 9 and female: 3; Mean age: 16.0±1.6 years). They were divided into two groups (high-performance, HPA, and low-performance, LPA) based on their preliminary archery score obtained in the early stage of the study. The archery shooting performance was assessed by total shooting score (36 arrows shot from 70 meters distance). Anthropometric (height, body mass, body mass index, body fat percentage, skeletal muscle mass,and arm span), muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, balance, and aerobic fitness were assessed. Results. Mann- Whitney test showed that height, arm span, handgrip strength, and predicted VO2max showed significant differences between the groups (p<0.05). Spearman correlation showed that height, arm span, right-hand grip, and predicted VO2max significantly correlated with scores (r=0.80, 0.82, 0.61, 0.68). Conclusion. The result showed that archers with higher height and longer arm span have more advantages in archery. In terms of fitness level, muscular strength and aerobic capacity are essential for the archer to excel in this sport. This finding helps coaches and team managers when conducting talent identification programs and training programs for athletes.
... Our study sample size could have been improved as well to obtain a better normal distribution of data. However, non-parametric statistical analyses are equally powerful to parametric tests when used appropriately [26]. ...
... The limitations of this study are primarily concerned with the nature of notational analysis and the collected performance indicators, since such sets of data are usually gathered by a third party which may have made occasional slips or errors in the process, thus jeopardizing the validity and reliability of the research findings (Škegro, 2013). For instance, one study analyzed different research from the field of notational analysis, a total of 72 research projects, and found that almost 70% of authors conducted no examination about the reliability of performance and efficiency indicators (Hughes, Cooper, & Nevill, 2002). Our study analyzed the data from the continental championship which is undoubtedly a top-tier basketball event in all aspects -from the competition management and organization, to the quality of the participating national teams. ...
... The primary researcher coded this match and training drill twice over a two-week period under the same conditions. As the frequency of each task-constraint was within an acceptable error range (≤ 10%), inter-rater reliability testing then commenced, using a simple percentage calculation method (Hughes et al. 2002). The same match and training session was coded by the inter-rater observer under the same conditions as used by the primary analyst. ...
Objectives: To examine the frequency of task-constraints between game-scenario training drills and competition games for all disposals, by considering, temporal, distance, pressure and related situational factors.
Methods: The skill patterns of elite-level Australian football players (n = 33) were compared relative to playing environment (training/games), disposal type (handballs/kicks), and further categorised by ‘state of play’ factors.
Results: Game measures relating to high-intensity pressure applied to the ball-carrier and receiving players were significantly under-represented during training, particularly for kicks (all p < 0.001). Physical pressure acts such as tackling were more frequent in games (p < 0.001). Further, kicks executed in 0-1 s also occurred more frequently in games compared to training (p < 0.001). For handballs, most (8/9) constraint frequencies were higher at training than in games (p < 0.03–0.001).
Conclusion: It is likely that for training to more closely resemble games, ball-disposals (especially kicking) must be produced under highly contested conditions and executed within minimal time. These findings may enhance current training practices in the Australian football league, as well as assist in the development and prescription of innovative training drills to better prepare players for the specific game demands they experience.
... The limitations of this study are primarily concerned with the nature of the study as with regards to the validity and reliability of research findings. For instance, Hughes et al. analyzed different studies (n = 72) from the field of notational analysis and found that almost 70% of authors conducted no examination about the reliability of performance and efficiency indicators (53). Likewise, we should bear in mind that the study data are often provided by data collectors who may not have ample experience in the field, resulting in serious consequences on the reliability of the entire study (54). ...
... The observers for the present study were four volleyball coaches, each with experience at the national level. These observers were trained to score game actions and input data into the Excel spreadsheet according to our definitions over 3 months, during which time four reliability tests, each conducted with different samples, were conducted to adjust the variables and categories and to ensure the trustworthiness of the instrument (Hughes, Cooper, & Nevill, 2002). All but one of the variables showed values higher than 0.75 across the four tests (Fleiss, Levin, & Paik, 2013). ...
Performance analysis in volleyball has seldom analysed the interrelationships of game actions under the systemic view of distinct game complexes, and how different patterns of game flow emerge. In this study, we used Social Network Analysis with eigenvector centrality to weight direct and indirect relationships between game actions and to assess the similarities and differences between six game complexes in high-level men’s volleyball. The study sample comprised 10 matches of the final phase of the 2015 World League (1600 game actions). Results indicated that dividing the game into six complexes and analysing game actions as nodes offers a more detailed understanding of the game and highlights the distinct constraints that typify each game complex. Specifically, the use of eigenvector centrality afforded a more accurate weighting of the variables for each complex. Because off-system situations were predominant in several game complexes, i.e.: Setting Condition C in Complex I (0.36), Complex II (0.55), Complex III (0.80) and Complex V (0.58); Attack Zone 4 and 2 in Complex I (0.30 and 0.28), Complex II (0.48 and 0.51), Complex IV (0.55 and 0.48) and Complex V (0.37 and 0.36); and Attack Tempo 3 in Complex I (0.33), Complex II (0.55) and Complex III (0.66). Our results suggest that coaches should prioritise these situations in training.
... One of the essential aspects in any type of scientific methodology is the recording of data through an appropriate instrument that guarantees its reliability and validity (Chacón-Moscoso et al., 2018). According to Hughes et al. (2002) 70% of the papers presented in conferences in which the observational methodology is used in sports, have deficiencies in data collection and statistical treatment. This is why, in the sports field, different studies can be found which objective has been to validate a specific observational instrument from of a sport modality, such as those carried out in handball (Morillo et al., 2017), rugby (Jones et al., 2008;Villarejo et al., 2014), beach volleyball (Palao et al., 2015), basketball (Moreno and Gómez-Ruano, 2017), soccer (Larkin et al., 2016;Maneiro et al., 2018) etc. ...
The competitive performance in tennis practice is determined by the effectiveness of technical tactical action. The main objective of the present study was to design and validate an observational instrument with the aim of analysing the technical-tactical in singles tennis. The instrument uses the stroke as a unit of measure, so that each time a player hits a ball, a total of 23 variables are analyzed. The variables collect information about: (a) matching context; (b) result; and (c) technical-tactical information of the stroke (five variables: sequences of the stroke of the point, kind of technical and tactical stroke, bounce area, hitting, and effectiveness area). The design and validation of the instrument consisted on five different stages: (a) review of the scientific literature and variables definition by experts, (b) pilot observation study, (c) qualitative and quantitative assessment of the instrument by experts, (d) review and confirmation of the instrument by experts (content validity), and (e) observation training and reliability evaluation. From 23 expert judges, divided into three panels, and four observers the instrument went from being composed of 38 variables (eight contextual, seven related to the result and 23 related to the game) to 23 (eight contextual variables, 10 of result and five of game), with minimum Aikens's V values of 0.94 and reliability of 0.81. The results show that the designed instrument allows obtaining valid and objective information about the technical-tactical actions of the players and their performance in singles tennis
... Two reliability tests were performed in this period (the first after two months of testing the instrument, another three months after) to ensure consistency and to allow for any necessary adjustments to the variables and categories of the final instrument. Over the three months of training, weekly meetings were held for instrument explanations and clarifications, discussion of emerging problems, and a joint analysis of different matches (not used in the current investigation) [41]. ...
Social Network Analysis establishes a network system and provides information about the relationships (edges) between system components (nodes). Although nodes usually correspond to actors within the network (e.g., the players), it is possible to stipulate game actions as nodes, thus creating a network of the flow of game actions. In this study, Eigenvector Centrality (a form of weighted centrality that considers n-order connections) was used to identify differences in the centrality of distinct game actions within each of the six game complexes of volleyball. Thirteen matches (46 sets, 2,049 rallies) of the final round of the 2015 FIVB's World Grand Prix (Women) were analyzed. Results showed that analyzing actions as actors (i.e., nodes) offers a clear and comprehensive understanding of game flow and poses an interesting alternative to mainstream research where players are considered nodes. Functional differences between the six game complexes were highlighted, denoting the validity of such division. Out-of-system playing (i.e., having to set the attack under non-ideal conditions, e.g., in KI, KII, KIII and KIV), emerged as a regularity of the game and should be translated into the training process.
... 서론 스포츠 경기내용 분석은 스포츠 상황에서 발생하 는 주요 정보를 기록하여 객관적으로 분석하는 것이 다 (Carling, Williams, & Reilly, 2005 (Kim, Kang, Park, & Kim, 2008). 또한 이와 같은 방법으로 수집된 정보는 통계기법을 적용하여 다양한 변인들의 조합에 의해 발생할 수 있는 가능성을 예측하는데 활용하기도 한 다 (Hughes, Evans, & Nevill, 2002;Ortega, Villarejo, & Palao, 2009). 또한 다양한 변인을 분석하여 자신의 팀 또는 선수의 문제점을 발견하여 개선하거나 상대 팀의 전술(tactic)을 파악하는데 활용하고 있다 (Fernandez, Mendez-Villanueva, & Pluim, 2006 (Kim et al, 2008;Kim, Lee, & Lee, 2012;Koo, Panday, Xu, Lee, & Kim, 2016;Ortega et al., 2009 ...
The purpose of this study is to provide information regarding the strategies by identifying the main variables that determines the winning team based on the records of all games of the 2017 IIHF World Championship Top league. 64 matches were analyzed for the study. 6 variables were analyzed which included ratio of saves, shots on goal, penalties in minutes, time for power play, power play goals, and face off wins. Logistic regression analysis (LRA), multiple regression analysis (MRA), and principal component analysis (PCA) were implemented to examine the relationship between win and loss. In case of LRA, shots on goal (p<.001), face-off wins (p<.001) had significantly positive relation to winning of game whereas, penalties in minutes (p<.01) and time on power play (p<.01) had significantly negative. Using MRA, win percentage was calculated which had significant positive correlation to ratio of saves (p<.01) and face-off wins (p<.001) whereas, a significant negative with penalties in minutes (p<.001). For PCA, the winning team consisted of penalty, attack, and defense factors whereas, losing teams consisted only the attack and defense factors.
... Furthermore, all above studies tried to identify which elements made a team successful; however methodological issues in the study of these aspects arise. Indeed, some studies failed to demonstrate how reliable the system used to gather the data was (14). Hughes and Franks (15) suggested that it's critical for all computerized notation systems, to be tested for intra-observer reliability. ...
... According to Ortega, Villarejo and Palao (2009), the analysis of game statistics, regarding individual and collective skills, is a tool that can be used to describe and monitor the behaviour of opponents. Although the limitations may arise from the different variables used in these studies (Hughes, Cooper, & Nevill, 2002), this type of data is always useful for a greater knowledge of the game. ...
This study analysed the Brazilian SuperLeague Men’s Volleyball 2011/2012 season and
2012/2013 season, in an attempt to identify the game-related factors allowing the determination of winning
and losing teams. All games (n=294) of the Brazilian SuperLeague Men’s Volleyball 2011/2012 season and
2012/2013 season were analysed. In the 2011/2012 season, the Total Set Actions (TSETA) and Total Points
Made (TPM) were factors that determined the game result as a defeat. The factor that determined the victory
was the Total Attack Actions (TAA). In the 2012/2013 season, the factors Total Serve Actions (TSA) and Total
Set Actions (TSETA) generated victory, and the factors that led to defeat were the TPM and TAA. The scoring
skill (TPM) determined the final game result but surprisingly is associated with the defeat and the TSA with
victory. The scoring skill (TAA) determining the result of the game was probably associated with victory in
the 2011/2012 season and defeat in the 2012/2013 season. The non-scoring skill TSETA determined the result
of the game, and this may be associated with defeat in the 2011/2012 season and the victory in the 2012/2013
season.
... Esta validez y fiabilidad deben garantizar adecuadamente que los datos recogidos son un reflejo real del rendimiento del contexto analizado. Para ello, se hace imprescindible seleccionar herramientas estadísticas necesarias que puedan ser usadas para el análisis, con el fin de llevar a cabo el estudio de fiabilidad coherente (Hughes, Cooper & Nevil, 2002). Además, la fiabilidad debe reflejar el camino por el cual los datos notacionales son analizados, de forma que las medidas puedan ser hechas en relación a la variables y así presentar los resultados codificados de forma precisa (James, Taylor & Stanley, 2007). ...
El propósito de este artículo es describir el proceso de formación y evaluación de la fiabilidad inter-observador de los cinco codificadores participantes en un estudio sobre el análisis del rendimiento competitivo en goalball de alta competición. Los codificadores participaron en un proceso de formación consistente en seis sesiones presenciales en grupo y cuatro ejercicios prácticos individuales y no presenciales, distribuidos en tres fases; Teórica, Práctica y de Entrenamiento. Tras las dos primeras se procedió al cálculo de la fiabilidad durante el desarrollo de la fase de entrenamiento a través de la prueba Multirather Kappa Free, obteniendo finalmente un nivel de fiabilidad interobservador casi perfecto (>0,86) en todas las variables definidas para el estudio, lo que permitió la codificación de las acciones de los partidos registrados de Goalball que conformaron la muestra del mismo.
... Prior to 2002, 70% of notational analysis papers in sport, including soccer, failed to report any information regarding the reliability of notational analysis systems used to collect data (Hughes et al. 2002). Brewer and Jones (2002) produced a five-stage process for establishing contextually valid and reliable observation tools in sport. ...
Purpose: The purpose of the study was to assess the validity, objectivity, and reliability of a Soccer-Specific Behaviour Measurement Tool (S-SBMT) in relation to the soccer philosophy of a Category One Premier League soccer academy. Methods: A 30 minute, 8 vs. 8 small-sided game (SSG), played by the U12 squad of the participating academy was used for analyses. Validity was ensured through formulating the S-SBMT definitions with experienced soccer coaches from the same soccer academy. Percentage agreement with a reference value of ±1, 95% Confidence Intervals, median sign and Yule’s Q were used to assess objectivity and reliability. Results: High levels of objectivity were found for the number of passes (98.8% agreement), runs with the ball (97.5% agreement), and goal attempts (100%). Reduced objectivity was apparent for forward zonal transitions (75.3%), along with tackles (70.4%), interceptions, (63%), and loose balls (48.1%). Reliability was tested after 1- and 4-weeks, with levels of percentage agreement found to be above the 85% acceptable threshold for most behaviours (passing = 95.1%, runs with the ball = 92.6%, goal attempts = 100%, tackles = 100%). Conclusions: The study demonstrated acceptable objectivity and reliability for S-SBMT behaviours and these findings demonstrate the potential utility of the S-SBMT in monitoring technical actions in a Category One Premier League soccer academy, and a methodological process for other academies to follow in ensuring the quality of performance data.
... The creation of these observational instruments has to follow a strict protocol to ensure that the information obtained by them is reliable, objective, accurate, and valid (Elosua, 2003). However, this does not happen in all cases for some of the sports that use observation as the data collection instrument (Hughes, Cooper, & Nevill, 2002). ...
Technical and tactical actions determine performance in beach volleyball. This research develops and tests an instrument to monitor and evaluate the manner of execution and efficacy of the actions in beach volleyball. The purpose of this paper was to design and validate an observational instrument to analyze technical and tactical actions in beach volleyball. The instrument collects information regarding: a) information about the match (context), b) information about game situations, c) information about technical situations (serve, reception, set, attack, block, and court defense) in relation to player execution, role, manner of execution, execution zone, and efficacy, and d) information about the result of the play (win-lose and way point is obtained). Instrument design and validation was done in seven stages: a) review of literature and consultation of experts; b) pilot observation and data analysis; c) expert review of instrument (qualitative and quantitative evaluation); d) observer training test; e) expert review of instrument (content validity); f) measurement of the ability of the instrument to discriminate the result of the set; and g) measurement of the ability of the instrument to differentiate between competition age groups. The results show that the instrument allows for obtaining objective and valid information about the players and team from offensive and defensive technical and tactical actions, as well as indirectly from physical actions. The instrument can be used, in its entirety or partially, for researching and coaching purposes.
... Play was judged to start immediately the ball was pucked out, a side-line or free was taken, However if a free was taken and no purposive action followed due to a score or a wide, then this period of time was included in the previous recovery period. To ensure acceptable reliability an intra-observer test was calculated (Hughes et al, 2002), reflecting an error percentages of less than 5%. The author (over 100 hours experience on the software system) viewed randomly selected 20-minute segments over a four-week period under the same conditions. ...
Despite the participant and spectator appeal, research into the practice of hurling has lagged considerably behind that of other field games. The physiological demand of hurling has been hypothesised to resemble Gaelic football. The aim of the present study was to determine the work rate and physiological stress imposed during elite level competitive match-play. The results indicate that during match-play elite hurling players were subjected to a high physical load during the game. The aerobic load during the game is high, with episodes of high anaerobic activity. Some, corollary between current data and that reported for Gaelic football is apparent. Based on these findings, specific training regimens should be implemented that replicate the demands of math-play to help improve the fitness perpetration of elite players.
... A pesar de las limitaciones que pueden surgir de las diferentes variables usadas en estos estudios (Hughes, Evans y Nevill, 2002), este tipo de datos son útiles para conseguir un mayor conocimiento del juego, siempre y cuando se superen las limitaciones o problemas metodológicos. Muchos de ellos no ofrecen garantías de fiabilidad en el sistema de recogida de datos utilizado (Hughes, Cooper y Nevill, 2002). Efectivamente, Hughes y Franks (1997) sugieren que en todos los sistemas de análisis computerizados se debería realizar un análisis de fiabilidad intraobservadores (para garantizar la fiabilidad de los datos). ...
... 1 Error estimation typically involves a both inter-operator and intra-operator reliability testing. [66][67][68] Reconstruction error for 3D analysis of less than 5 mm for each axis is deemed acceptable. 61,69 According to swim coaches, a key disadvantage to performing quantitative video analysis methods is the time taken to manually digitize the footage. ...
This paper explores the application of video-based methods for the analysis of competitive swimming performance. A systematic search of the existing literature was conducted using the following keywords: swim*, performance, analysis, quantitative, qualitative, camera , video on studies published in the last five years, in the electronic databases ISI Web of Knowledge, PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus and SPORT discus. Of the 384 number of records initially identified, 30 articles were fully reviewed and their outcome measures were analysed and categorised according to (i) the processes involved, (ii) the application of video for technical analysis of swimming performance and (iii) emerging advances in video technology. Results showed that video is one of the most common methods used to gather data for analysing performance in swimming. The process of using video in aquatic settings is complex, with little consensus amongst coaches regarding a best-practice approach, potentially hindering usage and effectiveness. Different methodologies were assessed and recommendations for coaches, sport scientists and clinicians are provided. Video is an extremely versatile tool. In addition to providing a visual record, it can be used for qualitative and quantitative analysis and is used in both training and competition settings. Cameras can be positioned to gather images both above and below the water. Ongoing advances in automation of video processing techniques and the integration of video with other analysis tools suggest that video analysis will continue to remain central to the preparation of elite swimmers.
... The creation of these observational instruments has to follow a strict protocol to ensure that the information obtained by them is reliable, objective, accurate, and valid (Elosua, 2003). However, this does not happen in all cases for some of the sports that use observation as the data collection instrument (Hughes, Cooper, & Nevill, 2002). ...
Technical and tactical actions determine performance in beach volleyball. This research develops and tests an instrument to monitor and evaluate the manner of execution and efficacy of the actions in beach volleyball. The purpose of this paper was to design and validate an observational instrument to analyze technical and tactical actions in beach volleyball. The instrument collects information regarding: a) information about the match (context), b) information about game situations, c) information about technical situations (serve, reception, set, attack, block, and court defense) in relation to player execution, role, manner of execution, execution zone, and efficacy, and d) information about the result of the play (win-lose and way point is obtained). Instrument design and validation was done in seven stages: a) review of literature and consultation of experts; b) pilot observation and data analysis; c) expert review of instrument (qualitative and quantitative evaluation); d) observer training test; e) expert review of instrument (content validity); f) measurement of the ability of the instrument to discriminate the result of the set; and g) measurement of the ability of the instrument to differentiate between competition age groups. The results show that the instrument allows for obtaining objective and valid information about the players and team from offensive and defensive technical and tactical actions, as well as indirectly from physical actions. The instrument can be used, in its entirety or partially, for researching and coaching purposes.
... Reliability was analyzed using Mean Error (±SD), Mean Absolute Error (MAE), 95th Percentile for MAE, Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Standard Error from Mean (SEM) for each phase against the durations of the phase from the video [58,59]. Systematic and random bias are also reported for each axis and presented in Bland-Altman plots. ...
Objective data on swimming performance is needed to meet the demands of the swimming coach and athlete. The purpose of this study is to use a multiple inertial measurement units to calculate Lap Time, Velocity, Stroke Count, Stroke Duration, Stroke Rate and Phases of the Stroke (Entry, Pull, Push, Recovery) in front crawl swimming. Using multiple units on the body, an algorithm was developed to calculate the phases of the stroke based on the relative position of the body roll. Twelve swimmers, equipped with these devices on the body, performed fatiguing trials. The calculated factors were compared to the same data derived to video data showing strong positive results for all factors. Four swimmers required individual adaptation to the stroke phase calculation method. The developed algorithm was developed using a search window relative to the body roll (peak/trough). This customization requirement demonstrates that single based devices will not be able to determine these phases of the stroke with sufficient accuracy.
Amaç: Bu çalışmanın amacı, 2017-2018 futbol sezonunda Süper Lig'de (SL) yer alan takımların; "Modern Futbol İstatistikleri" başlığı altındaki "Gol Beklentisi (xG)", "Aksiyon Değeri (AD)" ve "Top Hakimiyeti Kalitesi (THK)" parametreleri doğrultusunda, Premier Lige (PL) ve Bundesligada (BL) yer alan takımlarla benzerlik ve farklılıklarının değerlendirilmesidir. Gereç ve Yöntem: 2017-2018 sezonunda Süper Lig’de yer alan 18 takım, Premier Lig’de yer alan 20 takım ve Bundesliga’da yer alan 18 takım araştırmaya alındı. Süper Lig’de oynanan 306 maç, Premier Lig’de oynanan 380 maç ve Bundesliga’da oynanan 306 maç olmak üzere toplamda 992 maç incelendi. Bulgular: SL, PL ve BL genelinde xG ortalaması bakımından PL’de 50,9 ile en yüksek; SL’de 46,4 ile en düşük olmasına rağmen anlamlı bir farklılık olmadığını göstermiştir (p
The study aimed to identify the essential aspects regarding the technical-tactical organization on the offensive phase between the Spanish football team Real Madrid and the Romanian football team FCSB, to interpret and compare the differences that are noticed between these two football teams, in order to establish a model that will lead to the optimization of the trainings of the Romanian football teams. The exploratory study involved in the comparative technical-tactical analysis of a top team of Europe and a club team from Romania, started from the premise that the technical-tactical component, represented by behaviors, organization, tactical conception of the game, aspects regarding the collective relations, the forms, the actions that are established between the players, taken as a whole, are defining, essential, determinant in the qualitative evolution, in obtaining the performances, aspects that make the difference between the value level of the football teams. The research methods used are: bibliographic study method, observation method, comparative analysis method, case study method, statistical-mathematical method, video recording method. In order to verify the hypotheses we used the nonparametric Mann-Whitney test (U), setting a significance threshold (p) of 0.05. The values obtained by adding the ranks were introduced in the calculation formulas to determine the values of U1 and U2, and subsequently they were compared with the values in the Mann-Whitney table. The obtained results revealed a significant difference regarding the behavioral organization mode on the offensive phase, aspects revealed both in descriptive and quantitative form. The interpretation of the results in terms of the notes received by the two teams in all the components of the defensive organization phase were rendered with the help of graphs that showed a clear superiority of the Spanish Real Madrid football team over the Romanian FCSB team.
Background: Identify techniques and tactics and their analysis in training sessions, in addition to providing accurate information to improve the weaknesses of the team, help the coach in the training process and identify physical, behavioural, and technical requirements of players. Objective: This study, through the principles of observational approach, aims to development and validation of an instrument to analyse observable behaviours during a kabaddi match. Method: For this purpose, four matches of Iranian men's kabaddi team and five Iranian women's kabaddi team in the Incheon Asian Games in South Korea in 2014 were selected for this study. At first for higher transparency of the aspects of kabaddi play, describing offensive and defensive behaviours were revise and clarified; The final version was provided to 10 experienced coaches and teachers of kabaddi to determine the content validity and Intra-rater and inter-rater methods used for determining the reliability by two people, including a coach and a referee. To coordinate between the observers in the process of assessing reliability of kabaddi defensive and offensive behaviours, the beginning and end of each raid were coded into a behaviour unit. In each behaviour unit, the raiding player's offensive behaviour and the opponent's defensive behaviour were simultaneously coded. Results: In this instrument, results of means of content validity index for offensive and defensive behaviours at 0.05 significance level were 0.8 and 0.89, respectively. The results for means of intra-observer reliability for both categories of offensive and defensive behaviours k = 0.99 and k = 0.97 were obtained, respectively. The mean of inter-observer reliability for categories of offensive and defensive behaviours were k = 0.89 and k = 0.88, respectively, indicating high agreement between the two raters. Conclusion: Observational design of the current research had a high power to collect, manage, and analyse data by a precise definition of the skills and kabaddi variables. Then, this instrument can be used as a suitable observational instrument by coaches to identify and analyse kabaddi's defensive and offensive performances.
Aim: With this research, it is aimed to reveal the statistical performance values that enable teams to score points in football matches and to create models by performing analyzes on on-field and off-field values for this purpose.
Materials and Methods: The mass of the research consists of teams that have competed in Turkey's top men's football league, Süper Lig, for 13 seasons in between, including the 2007-2008 and 2019-2020 seasons. For the sample group consisting of the performance values of 38 football teams that competed in the specified seasons, the data were obtained from the already compiled competition reports and made suitable for the research. Retrospective scanning model and relational scanning model were used in the study. In the second stage, the data were organized in Microsoft Excel 2003 program and analyzed using SPSS 20 for Windows package program.
Linear and Logistic Regression Analysis test was applied.
Results: According to the findings; the teams' shot on targets, their goal positions, the market values of the first 11, the transfer costs of the players in the first 11, the number of faulty passes, the average age of the first 11, pass percentages, steals from the opponent, cross, corner kicks, shots, fouls, accurate pass values and statistical results of these values, the same variables which are also valid for the opponent teams were revealed as statistically significant for the teams to score points from the competitions (p<0.05).
Conclusion: According to the results obtained from the research data, the probability of football teams to score points was modeled and formulated and the formulas were included in the research. In addition, importance of the variables were determined.
Recent studies have identified shot efficiency as a key performance indicator (KPI) in Gaelic football; however, there has been little research into the impact of shot location on shot efficiency. The current study aims to establish a methodology to calculate shot distance and angle reliably and consistently in Gaelic football. Through application of this methodology to the 2019 inter-county championship the impact of distance and angle on shot success was assessed. There was evidence of reliability in the proposed methodology for calculating shot distance and angle. As a result, this study determined average shot distance at 30.9 m (±11.4 m) and average shot angle at 31.3° (±18.6°). While shot success peaked at 20 m, shots from closer to goal had a higher points per shot value given many from closer range were successful goal attempts, thus having greater scoreboard impact. This study can conclude that the scoring zone in Gaelic football lies within a 32 m arc of the goal, and within a 60° angle from the midline of the pitch. Moreover, this study presents the first validated methodology to calculate shot distance and angle in Gaelic football using commercially available software.
Background: Identify techniques and tactics and their analysis in training sessions, in addition to providing accurate information to improve the weaknesses of the team, help the coach in the training process and identify physical, behavioural, and technical requirements of players.
Objective: This study, through the principles of observational approach, aims to development and validation of an instrument to analyse observable behaviours during a kabaddi match.
Method: For this purpose, four matches of Iranian men's kabaddi team and five Iranian women's kabaddi team in the Incheon Asian Games in South Korea in 2014 were selected for this study. At first for higher transparency of the aspects of kabaddi play, describing offensive and defensive behaviours were revise and clarified; The final version was provided to 10 experienced coaches and teachers of kabaddi to determine the content validity and Intra-rater and inter-rater methods used for determining the reliability by two people, including a coach and a referee. To coordinate between the observers in the process of assessing reliability of kabaddi defensive and offensive behaviours, the beginning and end of each raid were coded into a behaviour unit. In each behaviour unit, the raiding player's offensive behaviour and the opponent's defensive behaviour were simultaneously coded.
Results: In this instrument, results of means of content validity index for offensive and defensive behaviours at 0.05 significance level were 0.8 and 0.89, respectively. The results for means of intra-observer reliability for both categories of offensive and defensive behaviours k = 0.99 and k = 0.97 were obtained, respectively. The mean of inter-observer reliability for categories of offensive and defensive behaviours were k = 0.89 and k = 0.88, respectively, indicating high agreement between the two raters.
Conclusion: Observational design of the current research had a high power to collect, manage, and analyse data by a precise definition of the skills and kabaddi variables. Then, this instrument can be used as a suitable observational instrument by coaches to identify and analyse kabaddi’s defensive and offensive performances.
The aim of this study was to design and validate an observational instrument used to analyse the in-game behaviour of the football goalkeeper (GK) in defence and attack. The validation and reliability testing processes were carried out by twelve experts through five steps. Contents validity was calculated using Aiken’s V and the kappa index was used to analyse reliability. The observational tool was divided into three different content blocks: GK’s offensive actions, GK’s defensive actions, and opponent’s actions taken before a GK’s defensive action. Only three out of the total of 24 items achieved low values that, after modifications, recorded optimal values (values higher than .90) in accordance with the Aiken’s V. Following step one, new proposals were evaluated after a pilot test. The reliability test scored optimal values (values higher than .85). An observational sheet was developed to manage the quantitative and qualitative assessments of experts, and the proposed tool was accepted as valid and reliable.
Few studies have so far examined the relation between Self (physical and social), the variables linked to identity construction and physical activity. The psychological well-being resulting from exercise or sport is now generally accepted both in scientific literature and common belief. The improvement of mood, energy and body image, greater stability and confidence in the physical Self perception, greater perceived interpersonal and physical competence in sport or exercise, are some of the physical, cognitive, emotional and social correlates in physical activity. During adolescence, the transitional period from childhood to adulthood, when individuals try to adapt to all the physical, cognitive and social changes, exercise and sport-especially 'structural' ones-can have a very important role in the developmental acquisition of this particular age. All these changes can make the adolescent experience very strong emotional events which can lead to a significant reduction of self-esteem. An area of self-esteem that can be mainly affected during adolescence is the physical self-esteem, which includes both body attractiveness and physical competence perception. The results of a study by Bowker (2006), showed the mediating role of physical self-esteem in the relationship between sports participation and global self-esteem. The study wants to investigate the effects of specific training, based on the physical activity practice, on Self concept, physical and social self-esteem, self-efficacy and interpersonal psychological adjustment. Pre-adolescents from 11 to 14 years of age were involved in physical activities and educational itineraries. The instruments used in a single administration in post test. Results show that physical fitness may provide more positive social feedback and recognition from peer groups, and this will subsequently lead to improvement in an individual's self-image and self esteem. Many studies have shown that physical activity provides a harmonious development of personality and psychological dimensions of the physical self description (plays a key role in childhood and adolescence. During adolescence, bodily changes, combined with individual and environmental factors, lead to a revision of the physical self, which has a deep impact on global self, identity and emotion. Fox (1997) considers the bodily self as a "public" self, means the body is the medium that allows us to show to others. In the Fox's model, physical self-concept has a critical mediating role in psychological adjustment processes.
Evaluation in women's basketball is keeping up with developments in evaluation in men’s basketball, and although the number of studies in women's basketball has seen a positive trend in the past decade, it is still at a low level. This paper observed 38 games and sixteen variables of standard efficiency during the FIBA EuroBasket Women 2019. Two regression models were obtained, a set of relative percentage and relative rating variables, which are used in the NBA league, where the dependent variable was the number of points scored. The obtained results show that in the first model, the difference between winning and losing teams was made by three variables: true shooting percentage, turnover percentage of inefficiency and efficiency percentage of defensive rebounds, which explain 97.3%, while for the second model, the distinguishing variables was offensive efficiency, explaining for 96.1% of the observed phenomenon. There is a continuity of the obtained results with the previous championship, played in 2017. Of all the technical elements of basketball, it is still the shots made, assists and defensive rebounds that have the most significant impact on the final score in European women’s basketball. It can be noted that, unlike with the previous championship, inside play is no longer dominant, but there is a balance between inside and outside play, which has already been established as a developing trend in men’s basketball. The emergence of the offensive efficiency variable indicates that it is becoming significant in top-tier competitions as well but is still a challenge for coaches to grasp the causes of this multicomplex issue based on this indicator.
The aim of this study was to design and validate an observational instrument to analyse the behaviour of the goalkeeper in defence and attack. The validation and reliability processes were carried out by twelve experts, who were required to fulfil at least two of five selected requirements. Content validity was calculated using Aiken's V. The Kappa Index was used to analyse reliability. The observational tool was divided into 3 different blocks: offensive actions, defensive actions and actions taken before the defensive action of the goalkeeper. Only three of the total items achieved low values, with modifications, recording optimal values in accordance with Aiken's V. Following the first step of the process taken by the experts, the new proposals were evaluated after a pilot test. The reliability test scored optimal values. An observational sheet was developed to manage the quantitative and qualitative assessments of the experts, and this tool was accepted as valid and reliable.
A retrospective analysis of talent selection and progression within England's Rugby Football Union Elite Player Performance Pathway. Thesis submitted by Elisavet Velentza in accordance with the requirements of the University of Chester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement.
Based on 88 matches of 2014/2015 First Croatian football league we established the importance of red cards considering the final outcome of the match and the competition. Using Mann-Whitney test and Pearson correlation coefficient we concluded that red cards as situational efficacy indicators do not pose a statistically significant difference between the winning and the defeated team (p=0, 44), whereas there is a moderate negative relation to final placement in league system of competition (r=-0, 54). These results show that warning the player, especially in the case of a red card which disqualifies them, does not influence the match outcome itself, but there needs to be a control system throughout league system of competition.
An exploratory method of quantifying the impact of individual players in rugby union was developed and applied to both half-back positions in 2015 Rugby World Cup matches with a view to firstly test the validity of these systems by profiling players, and secondly, if successful, to assess the impact of substitutions. A match impact scoring system was devised using questionnaire responses of an expert group of professional rugby analysts and experienced international coaches. The scoring system weighted each game action in a positive or negative manner according to the impact on team performance. It was found that the proposed method produced valid and reliable data concerning player performance. It was applied to half-backs substituted with more than 20 mins playing time left, the two 20 min period, before and after substitution, were compared. A "non-substituted" control group were also analysed, in both the first and final 20 minutes of competition. It was found that for the scrum-half position, the starting players produced a higher median 'efficacy' score than replacement players 27.46, (std. dev. +10.06) and 20.42, (+12.45). The best performing scrum-half group were the 60-80-minute non-replaced players 29 (+9.0). For the out-half position, it was found that the highest median 'efficacy' was achieved by the replacement player group 18.80, (+ 11.00), with the non-replaced 60-80-minute group performing worst 14.40, (+ 7.09). Future research should develop the methods applied in this study to define player profiles for each position on the rugby field. It is suggested that these profiles should use score difference between the teams to take into account the strength of the teams involved. The concept of a weighted individual player efficacy system has been demonstrated in the sport of rugby union, but could be applied in any team sport where greater individual player performance data is required.
Over 2000 Gaelic Football clubs compete annually for the honour of playing in the All-Ireland club finals in Croke Park in front of up to 30,000 people. There are no published performance data for club level Gaelic football, despite evidence of considerable performance analysis activity. This study aims to establish benchmark profiles for Senior, Intermediate and Junior grade club Gaelic football and investigate which variables are most closely associated with winning.
Data from all tiers of the Ulster club football championship of 2015 and 2016 (n = 48) were analysed using a range of validated operational definitions measuring 17 variables. Differences between winning and losing performance were tested using a Mann-Whitney U test.
Across all grades, six variables proved significant (p < 0.05), three were directly related to scoring (points, number of scores and total score), the others related to the effective use of possession (possession: scores ratio; turnover rate and productivity (scores per possession)). Several others are specific to certain grades, and are directly linked to successful performance at that level.
Our findings can be used by club coaches and analysts as comparable profiles for measuring team performance and targeting improvements associated with successful performance.
Serve bounces in the 2013 US Open Men’s Tennis final were recorded by marking on both a scale map of the court, and on still images from broadcast footage, calibrated using a Two Dimensional Direct Linear Transform (2D-DLT). Inter-operator agreement was compared for the two methods. Agreement improved for 2D-DLT when compared to the scale map approach. Both methods showed greater disagreement in the direction of image perspective than across the width of the image. Examination of the mean measured positions for the two methods revealed a systematic bias towards court markings (in the direction of perspective) when using a scale map approach, suggesting that the limits of human ability to adjust for perspective should be added to accepted sources of perceptual error in Performance Analysis when using this method.
This study investigated the effectiveness of different attacking profiles for elite hurling to establish if certain patterns can be used to improve performance. Every possession in play (n = 4260) in the 2015 Senior Inter-County Hurling competition (n = 28 games) was characterised using 6 variables; how possession was gained, start location, pass count, pass pattern, end location and outcome using NacSport Scout Plus. A binomial logistic regression comparing total shot count ( = 21.961, p < .001), total shot efficiency ( = 4.244, p = .050), shot count from play ( = 17.647, p < .001) and shot efficiency from play ( = 8.389, p = .009) between winning and losing teams, revealed these variables are significantly associated with winning. The additional key finding for coaches is: (1) the need to design one and two pass possession games to meet the current demands of the game, (2) teams that take the most shots win, therefore encourage players to shoot, (3) implying a high defensive press was shown to be an effective attacking strategy and (4) tier 2 teams can significantly improve their chances of winning by having an efficient free taker.
The aim of this study was to determine the technical-tactical differences between winning and losing teams in high-level women's rugby. Thirty matches between 12 national teams of the Women's Rugby World Cup 2010 were analyzed. The studied variables were behaviors related to the scrum and lineouts, the game development, the rucks and mauls, the points, and the penalties. A descriptive and inferential analysis of the data was done (student t-test and discriminant analysis). Winning teams carried out more tries and try conversions, and they lose fewer rucks and lineouts than losing teams. These results can serve as reference values for training and for performance analysis of the competition. © 2016: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Murcia Murcia (España).
Zašto nam je potrebna notacijska analiza? ; Što je to analiza izvedbe? ; Osnovne vještine u analizi izvedbe ; Istraživanja situacijske efikasnosti u nogometu ; Logika sportske analize ; Kako razviti notacijski sustav ; primjeri notacijskih sustava ; Pouzdanost i uspoređivanje skupova podataka ; Primijenjene analize u nogometu i praktični ishodi ; Analiza podataka prikupljenih notacijskom analizom
Most professional sports teams or individuals use some form of video analysis through a computer and software packages. However there is little research into the efficiency of match analysis systems, furthermore, the areas of human- computer interaction and artificial intelligence in match analysis systems have also been neglected. This paper therefore investigates the efficiency and ergonomics of selected squash match analysis systems. The three systems analysed were Focus X2 manual system using a mouse, Focus X2 Voice Interactive system and the SWEAT (Murray and Hughes, 2001) system using keyboard data entry. The systems were analysed, Nmatches=4 each, in real time match analysis and lapsed time. The study investigated data inputs per minute and analysis time, in lapsed time analysis. Whereas in real time analysis the paper examined the analysis times, errors made, error corrections, error correction times and total analysis time. A percentage difference calculation was used to perform an intra-operator reliability investigation in real time analysis and lapsed time analysis, overall highest errors being 3.9%, which were deemed satisfactory. It was found that the Focus X2 manual system was the most efficient in both lapsed time and real time analysis, further research should include an analysis of the movements and energy expended in human computer interaction.
Video-based time-motion analysis has commonly been used to study the physical demands of team sports. However, the time- and labour-intensive nature of this analysis makes it quite prohibitive for use in the high performance sporting environment. In contrast, global positioning systems (GPS) use freely available satellite technology to construct the geographical location and movements of an individual. Further integration with various Micro Electrical Mechanical Systems (MEMS) and heart rate telemetry enables sport scientists to quantify the internal and external loading imposed upon team sport players during training and competition. Consequently, the application of GPS technology in the context of team sport has overcome many of the previous limitations with video-based time-motion analysis and substantially extended the role of the sport scientist in the high performance sport environment. However, the validity and reliability of GPS systems when assessing movement demands of team sports are influenced by several factors, including the movement speed, the distance covered, the movement path of the individual and GPS reception due to the surrounding environment. In addition, the sampling frequency of the GPS, its position on the individual and the GPS model used seem to influence the consistency and accuracy of the data produced. Accordingly, this review will consider the measurement issues when using GPS micro-technology in team sports. This chapter aims to evaluate the application of GPS technology as a tool for monitoring the preparation, performance and recovery of team sports athletes, providing critical comment on its utility in the high-performance sporting environment.
Reliability and validity of a computer based notational analysis system for competitive table tennis
- K Wilson
- C A Barnes
A time-motion analysis of squash players using a mixed-image video tracking system
- M D Hughes
- I M Franks
Science and Racket Sports II
- A Lees
- I Maynard
- M Hughes
- T Reilly
Science and Football
- T Reilly
- A Lees
- K Davids
- W Murphy