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Geckos in traditional medicine: Forensic implications
Abstract
At least 14 species of geckos are utilized as ingredients in the pharmacopia of traditional medicine systems around the world. Chinese Traditional Medicine uses two types of geckos, large tokay geckos (Gekko gecko) and small geckos (Gekko spp., Hemidactylus spp.) to treat a diversity of ailments including asthma, tuberculosis, diabetes and cancer, and current research in China focuses on the identification of active ingredients in geckos and the verification of their efficacy. The actual number of species involved in the Chinese Traditional Medicine trade may be higher than currently realized due to the fraudulent sale of counterfeit geckos and accidental misidentification. The potential pool of species includes at least 37 species from throughout the broad area in which geckos and other wildlife are collected for use in China. Although powders and tablets pose difficulties for identification, the whole dried form in which geckos are often sold permits the identification of most species. A key is provided to the 12 species of geckos most likely to be encountered in the trade of Asian traditional medicine.
... The use of wild plant and animal species for medicinal purposes is widespread and has been in practice for thousands of years (Bauer 2009;Chen et al. 2009). Approximately 80% of the world's population still relies on the use of these natural resources for traditional medicine (Alves and Rosa 2005). ...
... Of all animal species used in traditional medicine, reptiles are one of the most frequently and ubiquitously encountered on a global scale (da Nóbrega Alves et al. 2008;Zhou and Jiang 2004;Enríquez Vázquez et al. 2006;Mahawar and Jaroli 2008;Bauer 2009;Alves and Rosa 2010;Whiting et al. 2013;Nijman and Bergin 2017). Alves et al. (2013) reported the use of at least 284 reptile species representing 46 families in traditional medicine around the world. ...
... Whereas certain parts are used from some species (e.g., fat or skin), multiple parts are used from others, thus an individual species may have up to two dozen indications ). The choice of species is often based on cultural relevance and perception (Bauer 2009). Reptiles have historically been regarded as mysterious, and have long been associated with special abilities (Bauer 2009). ...
Reptiles are among the most intensively harvested and traded species groups globally. The global trade of reptiles includes the trade of live reptiles as pets, as well as the trade of reptiles or their parts for use in traditional medicine, for reptile skins, or for human consumption. Reptiles have been widely used to treat a large variety of ailments, and medicinal use has been documented for at least 284 species. Reptiles are also an important food source, with the heaviest exploitation for this purpose in tropical and subtropical regions. In addition to the consumption of reptile meat for nutritional value, it is often intertwined with cultural beliefs, or consumed for medicinal purposes. The international trade of reptile skins is the largest trade in volume for all uses of reptile species and included 75 species from 2000 to 2017. However, the trade in live reptiles impacts significantly more species, with international trade documented for at least 642 taxa. Available data on the reptile trade may be unreliable due to frequently occurring discrepancies and a general lack of data on the volume and included species. Additionally, the reptile trade increases the risk of disease transmission globally, as well as the introduction of invasive species. All these factors have resulted in population declines across the globe. However, approximately 80% of the world’s population also relies on the use of natural resources for traditional medicine, food, or additional income. In order to effectively reduce the negative impacts of trade on reptiles, it is vital to address the underlying drivers of the trade.
... It has been introduced to many regions of the world and is considered an invasive species in the United States and Brazil (Meshaka et al., 1997;Rocha, 2015). The Tokay Gecko has long been heavily exploited for Chinese traditional medicine, and this has led to localized population declines (Bauer, 2009) in parts of Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Thailand (Caillabet, 2013). The taxonomic status of G. gecko remains controversial and it is reported to comprise two morphotypes (blackspotted and red-spotted geckos). ...
... In conservation assessments completed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), G. gecko is listed as "least concern" because of its wide distribution, presumed large population and occurrence in natural and artificial environments; however, its population size and trends have not been evaluated (Lwin et al., 2019). International trafficking in geckos, especially G. gecko for both the pet trade and medicinal uses, occurs on a grand scale (Bauer, 2009). Lwin et al. (2019) suggested that international trade monitoring is necessary, including CITES monitoring to collect data on trade volumes. ...
The Tokay Gecko, Gekko gecko (Linnaeus, 1758) is widely distributed in Asia and there have been concerns
regarding locally decreasing populations due to overexploitation for traditional Chinese medicine. Previous studies of
the genetic relationships of G. gecko populations included few populations from Thailand. Here we investigated the
phylogeographic patterns of G. gecko from different regions in Thailand using mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences.
Phylogenetic analyses revealed two lineages: one (Lineage A) comprising populations from Laos, Vietnam, and
Thailand; and a second (Lineage B) comprising three genetically distinct groups within Thailand alone. Some Thai
populations were found to have both lineages represented within them. Highly significant genetic differentiation (FST)
showed geographic population structuring in Lineage B, indicating limited gene flow among groups in Thailand.
Although G. gecko has a wide distribution and is well adapted to human habitation, the observed genetic structure could
potentially be explained by geographic barriers such as mountain ranges. In Lineage A, our study provided primary
phylogeographic evidence for lineage mixture that might be a result of human-mediated transport. Future research
should include more extensive sampling across the geographic distribution of G. gecko and a landscape genetics
approach could be applied for conservation planning.
... The dramatic decrease of lizards in China in recent years due to habitat destruction has resulted in more adulterants in traditional medicine, and scientists are employing the molecular method of DNA barcoding for discriminating Gecko gecko from its adulterants and to identify the Chinese crude drug gecko (Gu et al. 2011). Lizard usage as traditional medicine in rural areas Several lizard species are commonly used in traditional medicine in rural areas of many countries around the world, and at least 14 species of geckos are utilized as ingredients in the pharmacopeia of traditional medicine systems (Bauer 2009). Data shows that Taiwan alone has imported 15 million geckos for medical purposes since 2004 (http:// phys.org/news/2013-04-asian-gecko-threatened-medicine.html#jCp). ...
... Gekko gecko, Hemidactylus spp.) for over 2000 years to treat a diversity of ailments including asthma, tuberculosis, diabetes and cancer. Current research in China is still focused on the identification of active ingredients in geckos (Bauer 2009). Although many patents have already been published, more scientific proof is needed to verify the efficacy of the drugs; particularly before sacrificing lizards with no proven curative properties. ...
This is the first comprehensive book that has ever been published worldwide on the lizards of Qatar. The authors have collected novel and updated data about the presence and distribution of the lizard species in Qatar, making scientific biodiversity data available and useful for Qatar, the Gulf region and the international community. The book shows the first distribution maps for the Qatar lizards, and they also constitute the first maps that have ever been conducted for the distribution of any animal species in the Qatar country. The content of the book with ten chapters is described with easy words making it useful for nature lovers and the general public. It is also valuable for stakeholders, and is a reference for graduate students interested in ecology, management and scientific research. The book also aims to create public awareness and encourage the general public to contribute towards protecting the Qatar´s environment for future generations.
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... The dramatic decrease of lizards in China in recent years due to habitat destruction has resulted in more adulterants in traditional medicine, and scientists are employing the molecular method of DNA barcoding for discriminating Gecko gecko from its adulterants and to identify the Chinese crude drug gecko (Gu et al. 2011). Lizard usage as traditional medicine in rural areas Several lizard species are commonly used in traditional medicine in rural areas of many countries around the world, and at least 14 species of geckos are utilized as ingredients in the pharmacopeia of traditional medicine systems (Bauer 2009). Data shows that Taiwan alone has imported 15 million geckos for medical purposes since 2004 (http:// phys.org/news/2013-04-asian-gecko-threatened-medicine.html#jCp). ...
... Gekko gecko, Hemidactylus spp.) for over 2000 years to treat a diversity of ailments including asthma, tuberculosis, diabetes and cancer. Current research in China is still focused on the identification of active ingredients in geckos (Bauer 2009). Although many patents have already been published, more scientific proof is needed to verify the efficacy of the drugs; particularly before sacrificing lizards with no proven curative properties. ...
... The dramatic decrease of lizards in China in recent years due to habitat destruction has resulted in more adulterants in traditional medicine, and scientists are employing the molecular method of DNA barcoding for discriminating Gecko gecko from its adulterants and to identify the Chinese crude drug gecko (Gu et al. 2011). Lizard usage as traditional medicine in rural areas Several lizard species are commonly used in traditional medicine in rural areas of many countries around the world, and at least 14 species of geckos are utilized as ingredients in the pharmacopeia of traditional medicine systems (Bauer 2009). Data shows that Taiwan alone has imported 15 million geckos for medical purposes since 2004 (http:// phys.org/news/2013-04-asian-gecko-threatened-medicine.html#jCp). ...
... Gekko gecko, Hemidactylus spp.) for over 2000 years to treat a diversity of ailments including asthma, tuberculosis, diabetes and cancer. Current research in China is still focused on the identification of active ingredients in geckos (Bauer 2009). Although many patents have already been published, more scientific proof is needed to verify the efficacy of the drugs; particularly before sacrificing lizards with no proven curative properties. ...
... Animals and humans are known to share enteric bacterial species, which means that these species can potentially cause disease in each other [25]. In China, several species of geckos have been used as medicinal ingredients in traditional Chinese medicine [26]. Among reptiles, many reports have documented that various species of common house geckos have a role as reservoirs or carriers in the spread of well-known enteric bacterial zoonotic pathogens [5][6][7][8]. ...
Geckos are often considered to be reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens. This study was conducted to describe the prevalence and characteristics of pathogens isolated from fecal samples of crested geckos in South Korea. A total of 76 fecal samples were collected from 76 domesticated crested geckos in independent captivity. To determine bacterial profiles, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS), the disk diffusion method, PCR and direct sequencing, and the Kauffmann–White scheme for serotyping Salmonella species were performed. A total of 107 Gram-negative isolates were identified as belonging to 50 Citrobacter species, 33 Salmonella enterica subsp., 8 Serratia marcescens, 8 Klebsiella species, 3 Morganella morganii, 2 Enterobacter cloacae, 2 Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and 1 Acinetobacter species. Most of the isolates were susceptible to antibiotics tested in this study. The chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (cat) gene was detected in one M. morganii isolate, and the class C beta-lactamase (AZECL-14) gene was detected in one E. cloacae. The most prevalent somatic (O) antigens of the groups were C (n = 23) and D (n = 7), and 8 different serotypes were identified among the 33 Salmonella enterica subsp. isolates. Five of eight Salmonella serotypes have not been previously reported among clinical isolates in South Korea. Our results reveal that enteric bacteria have not been shared between crested geckos and humans, at least in South Korea.
... Gekko gecko is considered as an aggressive generalist predator and is known to prey on many invertebrates (Aowphol et al. 2006) and small vertebrates such as swiftlets and rats (Bucol and Alcala 2013;Quah and Chong 2023). These geckos have been heavily exploited for traditional medicine (particularly Chinese medicine) resulting in declines of local populations (Bauer 2009;Caillabet 2013). We encountered this species in agroforested area at lower elevations on Mt. ...
... Gekko gecko is considered as an aggressive generalist predator and is known to prey on many invertebrates (Aowphol et al. 2006) and small vertebrates such as swiftlets and rats (Bucol and Alcala 2013;Quah and Chong 2023). These geckos have been heavily exploited for traditional medicine (particularly Chinese medicine) resulting in declines of local populations (Bauer 2009;Caillabet 2013). We encountered this species in agroforested area at lower elevations on Mt. ...
... In the body oil from C. orientalis, 14 bioactive constituents were identified. Geckos are employed in folk medicine across Asia to treat a range of ailments [15,17]. For their primary health care needs, around 80% of global population depends on folk therapeutics [4]. ...
Geckos and their products have been used in Asian traditional medicine. Medicinal properties of desert-dwelling Gecko species, Crossobamon orientalis remain unexplored. In this study, natural bioactive macromolecules present in oil extracted from C. orientalis (COO) and their biological activities were evaluated. Chemical constitution of COO was explored by using gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Antioxidant, antiviral, and antibacterial activities of COO extracts were assessed using various assays, including DPPH free-radical-protocol, HET-CAM method, in ovo-antiviral technique, and disc-diffusion method. GC-MS study reported 40 different compounds in COO. n-hexane and methanol extracts of COO demonstrated highest DPPH radical inhibition, with values of 70 and 63.3%, respectively. Extracts of COO in solvents, namely 1-butanol, methanol, diethyl ether, and n-hexane significantly inhibited the proliferation of four pathogenic viruses. Maximum zone of inhibition was observed for Escherichia coli (13.65 ± 0.57 mm). These findings suggest that COO possesses potent antioxidant and antimicrobial properties against viral and bacterial strains, thanks to its biologically active components having no side effects. Further studies are essential to isolate and identify individual bioactive compounds present in COO and to investigate their potential as therapeutic agents.
... The tokay gecko is currently assessed by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (hereafter the Red List) as being of least concern in part because of the species being widespread within its large geographic range (Lwin et al. 2019). However, tokay geckos are heavily harvested throughout much of its range, largely for use in traditional medicines (Subramanean and Reddy 2012;Bauer 2009;Caillabet 2013), but also to a lesser extent for consumption (Yiming and Dianmo 1998) and for pets (Smith et al. 2012;Caillabet 2013;Nijman and Shepherd 2015). It is suspected that much of the trade in tokay geckos is based on illegally and/or unsustainably sourced animals (Nijman and Shepherd 2015;Ardiantoro et al. 2021). ...
Tokay geckos are one of the most heavily traded species internationally, largely to supply demand for use in traditional Chinese medicine. Tokay geckos are largely sourced from the wild. While there is a legal trade, illegal collection from the wild as well as laundering through fraudulent captive-breeding operations is common. Very little is known of the status of this species in the wild, though it is understood to be in decline in some parts of its range. Hong Kong is an important destination for tokay geckos in trade, and here, we assessed the availability, reported origin, and monetary value of tokay geckos in Hong Kong’s retail market. We surveyed 150 shops and found 220 tokay gecko pairs in 37% of all shops. We estimate that on average 15,000 tokay geckos are offered for sale in Hong Kong on any given day. The mean price of a tokay gecko pair is USD12, and the total retail value of the tokay geckos observed approaches USD180,000. Tokay geckos for sale in Hong Kong are said to be sourced from mainland China, Vietnam, and Thailand, and not from Indonesia despite Indonesia being the world’s largest exporter of tokay geckos. However, recent seizures in Hong Kong were from Indonesia. Despite shop staff stating tokay geckos were from Vietnam, there are no such reports in the CITES Trade Database. Tokay geckos are clearly being obtained from a combination of legal and illegal sources, and therefore increased vigilance and further investigation is called for to prevent illegal trade.
... Tokay geckos have a role in maintaining the balance of the ecosystem because geckos are natural predators for insects which in some area can be a pest for agricultures (Kurniati et al. 2023). At the same time, tokay gecko also exported to several countries in Asia in dry conditions for medical purposes (Bauer, 2009;Njiman et al. 2012;Caillabet 2013;Kurniati 2019Kurniati , 2023. Apart from being a medicinal commodity, geckos are also demanded as pets and generally mated with other types to get a unique animal. ...
The tokay gecko (Gekko gecko) is known to be one of the species that plays an important role in the ecosystem, especially in controlling pest populations (locusts, mosquitoes, crickets and moths). Tokay geckos also have a high need for medical care purposes and pets. verexploitation and territorial conversion affect tokay gecko populations. this research to conduct a survey and extrapolation of the gecko population in Bali province. The survey was done through a visual survey of dating with three different methods; face-to-face video interview and meeting (IDVE), direct eye contact (DVE) and habitat survey (HS). The survey was conducted in nine districts in Bali from December 2021 to January 2022 with a total of 20 survey points. The total sample area for this study is 56.84 hectare (ha) with 842 individuals of tokay geckos were recorded during the survey. Out of a total of 578,006 hectares area of the province of Bali, about 54% of the total area is a potential area for tokay gecko habitat. The estimated number of tokay geckos in Bali province from this study is 4 million individuals. Result habitat preferences of tokay geckos in Bali province in this study are valuable baseline data for policy producer in determining tokay gecko catch quota.
... Finally, the use in traditional medicine may also be an important threat for reptiles (van Dijk et al., 2000;Zhou and Jiang, 2004;Alves et al., 2008Alves et al., , 2013Bauer, 2009;Gong et al., 2009;Todd et al., 2010;Robinson et al., 2015;Janssen, 2021). Reptiles are used in the treatment of deseases, including asthma, diabetes, hyperglycemia, and many kinds of dermal problems (Alves et al., 2013;Janssen, 2021). ...
There are over 11,700 reptiles throughout the world, 18% of them categorized as threatened in the IUCN red list, especially turtles and crocodilians. Most threatened reptiles have small ranges associated with decline in extent or quality of habitat. A variety of life history traits may contribute to the decline of reptiles, such as small populations, small ranges, low fecundity, and long lives. Reptiles are threatened mainly due to habitat loss/disturbance, overcollection, and invasive species. Well-delineated conservation planning associated with the implementation of carefully designed conservation actions would bring back many endangered reptiles from the brink of extinction.
... G. gecko is traditional Chinese medicine to relieve diabetes, asthma, skin diseases, and cancer (Li et al. 2004;Kongbuntad et al. 2016), and to treat respiratory disorders in Korea and Japan (Nam et al. 2022). The species is used to treat symptoms of asthma, tuberculosis, diabetes, and cancer (Bauer 2009). G. gecko has antioxidant, anticancer, antiangiogenic properties (Wang et al. 2014;Tang et al. 2015;Bhowmik et al. 2015;Cai et al. 2021), and contains melatonin (Habtemariam et al. 2017). ...
Supiandi MI, Syafruddin D, Gandasari A, Mahanal S, Zubaidah S. 2023. Animals ethnozoology as traditional medicine in the Dayak Tamambaloh Tribe, Labian Ira'ang Village, Kapuas Hulu District, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 24: 26-33. The Dayak Tamambaloh community in Labian Ira'ang Village, Kapuas Hulu District, Indonesia, is a community that has traditional knowledge of the use of fauna. However, at this time this knowledge has been reduced or relegated by the times and the use of animals and has never had a written document. This study aimed to obtain the types of animals used by the Dayak Tamambaloh people for treatment. The method used was a survey. Data was collected through literature studies, semi-structured interviews, and field observations. Data on using animals as traditional medicine was obtained from main informants, key informants, and recommendation informants. Data analysis was descriptive and qualitative, including data collection, data reduction, data presentation, and conclusions. The results obtained 13 types of animals in 13 families that are used as traditional medicine by the Tamambaloh Dayak people. The types of animals used in traditional medicine were wanyi (Apis cerana), asu (Canis lupus familiaris), kandalak (Channa striata), panang (Clarias sp.), bunsok (Gekko gecko), dingkawat (Hipposideros larvatus), lati loman (Lumbricus terrestris), tangkiling (Manis javanica), takiung (Sulcospira testudinaria), manuk (Gallus gallus domesticus), ular sawa (Malayopython reticulatus), lundung (Monopterus albus), and beruang (Ursus thibetanus). Animal families used as traditional medicine were Apidae (1 spesies), Canidae (1 spesies), Channidae (1 spesies), Clariidae (1 spesies), Gekkonidae (1 spesies), Hipposideridae (1 spesies), Lumbricidae (1 spesies), Manidae (1 spesies), Pachychilidae (1 spesies), Phasianidae (1 spesies), Pythonidae (1 spesies), Synbranchidae (1 spesies), and Ursidae (1 spesies). The Dayak Tamambaloh people use meat, bile, scales, shells, egg whites, wax, and all parts of animals for traditional medicine.
... In China, Tokay geckos are distributed mainly in Guangdong province, Guangxi Zhuang autonomous region, Yunnan province, Fujian province, and Taiwan (Huang et al., 1995;Tang et al., 1997). Geckos are used in traditional Chinese medicine (Li et al., 1996;Bauer, 2009). While medical demand for geckos is increasing, the captive breeding population cannot meet the market demand (Li et al., 1996). ...
Captive animals and wild animals may exhibit different characteristics due to the heterogeneity of their living environments. The gut microbiota play an important role in the digestion and absorption, energy metabolism, immune regulation, and physiological health of the host. However, information about the gut microbiota of captive and wild Gekko gecko is currently limited. To determine the difference in gut microbiota community composition, diversity, and structure between captive and wild geckos, we used the Illumina miseq platform to conduct high-throughput sequencing and bioinformatics analysis of the v3–v4 hypervariable region of 16S rRNA in 54 gecko samples. Our results showed that Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Actinobacteria were the dominant gut microbiota phyla of the gecko. The dominant genera comprised mainly Pseudomonas, Burkholderia-caballeronia-paraburkholderia, Ralstonia, Romboutsia, and Bacteroides. Captive geckos had significantly higher alpha diversity and potential pathogenic bacteria than wild populations. Moreover, significant differences in beta diversity of gut microbiota were observed between two populations. Functional prediction analysis showed that the relative abundance of functional pathways of wild geckos was more higher in metabolism, genetic information processing and organismal system function than those in captive geckos. Total length significantly affected gut microbial community (R2 = 0.4527, p = 0.001) and explained 10.45% of the total variation for gut microbial community variance between two groups. These results may be related to differences in diet and living environment between two populations, suggesting that the management of captive populations should mimic wild environments to the greatest extent possible to reduce the impact on their gut microbiota.
... A significant problem here is the fact that some common species, also sold as pets and medicines, occur as species complexes that have not yet been fully elucidated. The tokay gecko (Gekko gecko) is used as a traditional medicine, particularly in China and Malaysia (Caillabet 2013), for a variety of diseases including AIDS, cancer, asthma, tuberculosis, diabetes, skin disease, and impotence (Bauer 2009). It is estimated that between 2-5 million dried specimens are exported annually from Thailand (Laoong and Sribundit 2006) and 1.2 million specimens from Java (Nijman et al. 2012). ...
Parasites and their hosts form an integrated system with the parasites life cycle being based on maintaining transmission. Any changes within this system are most likely to influence the transmission potential. Species specific parasites in endangered animals will die out with these hosts. Parasites whose host population benefits from environmental changes, such as generalist and synanthropic species, will have transmission advantages due to the increased frequency with which they encounter suitable hosts. Increasing urbanization suggests that synanthropic hosts for parasites affecting humans will increase in prevalence unless suitable changes in pest control and hygiene are implemented, especially in tropical countries. In contrast, parasites of wild animals will become less frequent as their environment is disturbed or destroyed.
... Tokay geckos (Fig. 1) are a noisy fixture in Southeast Asian rainforests, issuing their onomatopoetic calls from dusk to dawn (and sometimes even during the day) from diverse perches throughout a wide range of microhabitats, ranging from pristine to disturbed areas (e.g., Manthey and Grossmann, 1997;Chan et al., 2006;Grismer, 2011). Unfortunately, these geckos (especially their tongues!) have become threatened in their native habitats by international trade, and their conservation is becoming an international priority (Bauer, 2009;Subramanean and Reddy, 2012). Given how well this species advertises itself in its habitats and how high of an interest it commands in the field of herpetoculture (e.g., McKeown and Zaworski, 1997;Toth, 2020) and traditional medicine, it may be surprising that very few studies, as opposed to faunal surveys, deal directly with the ecology and behaviour of the species. ...
... Besides their very similar appearances, their ambiguous common names have also exacerbated the difficulty in distinguishing G. gecko from counterfeits. For example, G. swinhonis is commonly known as little Gecko, and L. himalayana is known as the Tibet Gecko [13]. The indistinguishable adulterants infiltrate the markets and severely damage public safety. ...
Background:
The dry body of the Tokay Gecko (Gekko gecko) is the source of a valuable traditional Chinese medicine, it is therefore listed as a Class II protected animal species in China. Due to increasing market demand and a declining supply of the species, a considerable number of adulterants have emerged in the market. Thus, it is necessary to establish an accurate and rapid method of identification for distinguishing G. gecko from its adulterants and for separating it from highly processed products.
Methods:
A total of 274 COI sequences were analyzed by using MEGA 5.0 software. Several specific primers were designed to amplify mini-barcode regions and identify G. gecko from its counterfeits and products.
Results:
274 COI sequences of G. gecko and 15 adulterants species were analyzed. G. gecko could be distinguished from its adulterants through BLAST analysis, intra- and inter-specific distance analyses, and an NJ tree based on COI sequences. Two pairs of specific primers designed for this study, COISF2/COISR2 and COISF3/COISR3, amplified 200- and 133-bp fragments of the COI region, respectively, both of which were suitable for the identification of G. gecko and its adulterants. Furthermore, COISF3/COISR3 detected G. gecko in 15 batches of products.
Conclusion:
Therefore, the specific DNA mini-barcoding method developed here may be a powerful tool for the identification of G. gecko and counterfeits, and may also be used to distinguish G. gecko from its highly processed by-products.
... Besides their very similar appearances, their ambiguous common names have also exacerbated the di culty in distinguishing G. gecko from counterfeits. For example, G. swinhonis is commonly known as little Gecko, and L. himalayana is known as the Tibet Gecko [13]. The indistinguishable adulterants in ltrate the markets and severely damage public safety. ...
Background: The dry body of the Tokay Gecko (Gekko gecko) is the source of a valuable traditional Chinese medicine, it is therefore listed as a Class II protected animal species in China. Due to increasing market demand and a declining supply of the species, a considerable number of adulterants have emerged in the market. Thus, it is necessary to establish an accurate and rapid method of identification for distinguishing G. gecko from its adulterants and for separating it from highly processed products.
Methods: A total of 274 COI sequences were analyzed by using MEGA 5.0 software. Several specific primers were designed to amplify mini-barcode regions and identify G. gecko from its counterfeits and products.
Results: 274 COI sequences of 16 G. gecko species and adulterants were analyzed. G. gecko could be distinguished from its adulterants through BLAST analysis, intra- and inter-specific distance analyses, and an NJ tree based on COI sequences. Two pairs of specific primers designed for this study, COISF2/COISR2 and COISF3/COISR3, amplified 200- and 133-bp fragments of the COI region, respectively, both of which were suitable for the identification of G. gecko and its adulterants. Furthermore, COISF3/COISR3 detected G. gecko in 15 batches of products.
Conclusion: Therefore, the specific DNA mini-barcoding method developed here may be a powerful tool for the identification of G. gecko and counterfeits, and may also be used to distinguish G. gecko from its highly processed by-products.
... In the past decade, many traditional oriental medicines have been applied as antitumor agents based on their low toxicity and therapeutic effects [32]. Among them, lizard is known that protects the lung and helps it function [33]. Recent studies have shown that LTE have anticancer effects [34]. ...
The genes of Gekkonidae, a lizard, are known to be very similar to human genes. According to previous research, lizard extracts inhibit angiogenesis and show anticancer activity against various cancers. In this regard, this study assessed whether lizard tail extracts (LTE) cause anticancer activity against lung cancer in mouse and human lung cancer cell lines. The results showed that LTE exhibited anticancer activity against lung cancer in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, cell viability and proliferation decreased in two lung cancer cell lines, while annexin V and single-stranded DNA both increased, showing apoptotic activity caused by LTE. We also found that LTE induced apoptosis in a caspase-3/7 cascade-dependent manner and inhibited the phosphorylation of Akt by participating in the PI3k/Akt pathway. In vivo, LTE decreased tumor volume in LLC bearing mice. Our results demonstrate the potential of LTE as a natural-derived anticancer drug to overcome the chemotherapy side effects during cancer treatment and contribute to the discovery of candidate substances.
... Ngo et al. (in press) provided evidence for the collection of at least three of five native species, namely G. catbaensis, G. huuliensis and G. luii in Vietnam for the domestic trade. During our recent market surveys in 2018, we further recorded that all five native tiger geckos are being collected for sale and also kept as pets in Vietnam, while some tiger geckos including G. araneus, G. luii , G. catbaensis (Bauer 2009) and G. lichtenfelderii (Liu 1993) were reported to be used in traditional medicine in China. Our interviews identified commercial revenues in relation to the domestic and international pet trade as the most common incentive for domestic collection in Vietnam. ...
Tiger geckos of the genus Goniurosaurus are considered as a susceptible reptile group, due to their restricted distribution ranges, specialisation to specific microhabitats and generally low population densities. While still new species have been discovered recently, Goniurosaurus species are threatened by extinction through habitat loss and collection for the pet trade. Of the 19 described species, for only eight species, the conservation status has been assessed within the IUCN Red List between 2016 and 2018 and all have been classified in the threat categories VU (Vulnerable), EN (Endangered) and CR (Critically Endangered). Goniurosaurus spp. are popular in the international pet market at least since the 1990s and several species experienced local extirpations as a consequence of massive over-collection in the past. However, tiger geckos have not been paid much attention for conservation, amongst others, due to the lack of comprehensive knowledge on their conservation status and biology. This study provides an overview of international trade in Goniurosaurus based on available data from 1999 to 2018 in the U.S. as well as data from online surveys and interviews in Europe and Vietnam, with the main focus on species native to Vietnam. All five tiger gecko species known from Vietnam were found in the local trade as wild captures for the national and international market and / or in the U.S. and Europe for relatively higher prices. We found that entire trade chains are very long (including several transfers and dealers involved) and that keeping and transport happen under poor conditions. We herein provide updated information on the abundance of the Endangered Cat Ba Tiger Gecko, which was recently shown to not only occur at its type locality, Cat Ba Island, Hai Phong City, North Vietnam, but also to inhabit small offshore islands in the Ha Long Bay, Quang Ninh Province. While the wild effective population was found to be relatively stable on four islands in Ha Long Bay, consisting of about 124 and 129 individuals in July 2017 and April 2018, respectively, the abundance of other sub-populations, impacted by anthropogenic pressures were found to be very low (2–10 individuals). Based on our findings, we propose stringent conservation measures to more efficiently protect wild tiger gecko populations, such as the inclusion in the Governmental Decree in Vietnam, the assessment of remaining species in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and the inclusion in the Appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
... Ngo et al. (in press) provided evidence for the collection of at least three of five native species, namely G. catbaensis, G. huuliensis and G. luii in Vietnam for the domestic trade. During our recent market surveys in 2018, we further recorded that all five native tiger geckos are being collected for sale and also kept as pets in Vietnam, while some tiger geckos including G. araneus, G. luii , G. catbaensis (Bauer 2009) and G. lichtenfelderii (Liu 1993) were reported to be used in traditional medicine in China. Our interviews identified commercial revenues in relation to the domestic and international pet trade as the most common incentive for domestic collection in Vietnam. ...
Tiger geckos of the genus Goniurosaurus are considered as a susceptible reptile group, due to their restricted distribution ranges, specialisation to specific microhabitats and generally low population densities. While still new species have been discovered recently, Goniurosaurus species are threatened by extinction through habitat loss and collection for the pet trade. Of the 19 described species, for only eight species, the conservation status has been assessed within the IUCN Red List between 2016 and 2018 and all have been classified in the threat categories VU (Vulnerable), EN (Endangered) and CR (Critically Endangered). Goniurosaurus spp. are popular in the international pet market at least since the 1990s and several species experienced local extirpations as a consequence of massive over-collection in the past. However, tiger geckos have not been paid much attention for conservation, amongst others, due to the lack of comprehensive knowledge on their conservation status and biology. This study provides an overview of international trade in Goniurosaurus based on available data from 1999 to 2018 in the U.S. as well as data from online surveys and interviews in Europe and Vietnam, with the main focus on species native to Vietnam. All five tiger gecko species known from Vietnam were found in the local trade as wild captures for the national and international market and / or in the U.S. and Europe for relatively higher prices. We found that entire trade chains are very long (including several transfers and dealers involved) and that keeping and transport happen under poor conditions. We herein provide updated information on the abundance of the Endangered Cat Ba Tiger Gecko, which was recently shown to not only occur at its type locality, Cat Ba Island, Hai Phong City, North Vietnam, but also to inhabit small offshore islands in the Ha Long Bay, Quang Ninh Province. While the wild effective population was found to be relatively stable on four islands in Ha Long Bay, consisting of about 124 and 129 individuals in July 2017 and April 2018, respectively, the abundance of other sub-populations, impacted by anthropogenic pressures were found to be very low (2-10 individuals). Based on our findings, we propose stringent conservation measures to more efficiently protect wild tiger gecko populations, such as the inclusion in the Governmental Decree in Vietnam, the assessment of remaining species in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and the inclusion in the Appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
... is claimed to have medicinal value and is used in the treatment of asthma, diabetes, skin ailments, cancer (Chuang et al. 1999), HIV/AIDS (Caillabet 2013), erectile dysfunction, and persistent cough (Nguyen 1993). In some countries, they are consumed in the form of an energy drink for vitality (Bauer 2009). They are also traded as pets, especially in Europe and USA (Caillabet 2013). ...
... Worldwide, at least 14 gecko species are used in traditional medicine (Bauer, 2009). Tokay geckos are the most commonly traded, both for live for the pet trade as well as being caught, disembowelled and kiln dried for use in traditional medicine (Nijman and Shepherd, 2015). ...
Ethnopharmacological relevance:
Worldwide, one of the drivers of substitution and adulteration is the cost of the natural resources (plants, animals, fungi) that are ingredients of traditional medicines. Relatively few studies have been done that link prices of traditional medicine ingredients to what drives changes in price, yet this is an important topic. Theoretically, prices have been widely considered as an economic indicator of resource scarcity. Rare, slow growing medicinal plants sell for high prices and common, less popular species for low prices. Price levels also influence the viability of farming vs. wild harvest (and incentives to overharvest high value species when tenure is weak). Prices can also influence the harvesting or buying behaviour of harvesters, traders or manufacturers. When prices are high, then there is a greater incentive to use cheaper substitute species or adulterants. As previous studies on herbal medicine ingredients have shown, adulteration applies in a wide variety of cases, including to some Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) species.
Aim of the study:
The aim of this study was to gain a better understanding of which factors influenced changes in the market prices of document prices for four popular, but very different traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) species (2002 - 2017).
Materials and methods:
Fluctuations in market prices were followed over a 15-year period (2002-2017) for four very different TCM ingredients: two plant species (one wild harvested for fruits (Schisandra sphenanthera Rehder & E.H. Wilson) the other in a transition from wild harvest to cultivation (Paris polyphylla Smith), an animal species (the Tokay gecko (Gekko gecko L.)) and the entomophagous "caterpillar fungus" (Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk). G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora).
Results:
High prices of medicinal plants are widely considered to reflect resource scarcity. Real-time market prices for three of the four very different TCM species we studied all showed major price fluctuations. The exception was P. polyphylla, whose wild populations are widely known to be increasingly scarce, where there was a steady increase in price, with few fluctuations in the upward price trend. The three other species showed significant price fluctuations. These were driven by multiple factors. Ecological and biogeographic factors that influence abundance or scarcity of supply certainly played a role. But other factors were also influential. These included both national and global economic factors (the influence of the Global Financial Crisis (GFC)), national policy changes that in turn influenced businessmen giving expensive gifts (that included O. sinensis)), climate change (influencing fruiting success of S. sphenanthera), price speculation by traders and lack of information (e.g: reduction in G. gecko prices due to traders incorrectly believing that domestication would increase supplies).
Conclusions:
Price fluctuations in the four TCM species we examined are influenced by many factors and not just resource scarcity. And the situation is more complex than the trajectory based on Homma's (1992) model, where he predicted that higher prices would result in a shift to cultivation, thus replacing wild harvest. In case of both O. sinensis and P. polyphylla, Homma (1992, 1996) was right in terms of scarcity and high prices stimulating a major investment in cultivation (P. polyphylla) and artificial production (O. sinensis). But in both cases, intensive production through cultivation or artificial propagation do not yet occur on a large enough scale to reduce harvest of wild stocks. Substitution and adulteration occur with all four species. Improving information to medicinal plant traders on the supply status of TCM stocks, whether from wild harvest or from cultivation could benefit product quality, cultivation initiatives and conservation efforts.
... The nature of the interactions between these two Hemidactylus are unknown, but H. frenatus has been known to competitively exclude a variety of other gecko species, chiefly parthenogenetic forms, in areas where they have been introduced (Petren et al. 1993, Petren and Case 1996, Bauer and Sadlier 2000, Rivas et al. 2005, and thus might be detrimental under some circumstances. Although neither of these Hemidactylus species is of current conservation concern, both are used as ingredients in traditional medicine (Jiang 1983, Nguyen 1993, Alves et al. 2008, and given the popularity of this practice (in both developed and developing nations) and the magnitude of international trade in other geckos so used (Bauer 2009), prospects exist for increased trans-border trafficking in both species. ...
... The tokay gecko is a traditional Chinese medicine used to relieve various illness, such as diabetes, asthma, skin disease, and cancer (Li et al 2004;Bauer 2009). Its population in China has dramatically declined due to excessive hunting and habitat destruction (e.g. ...
Red-spotted tokay geckos, Gekko gecko are distributed mainly in Southeast Asia. They are a traditional a Chinese medicine, with the massive hunting for export dramatically decreasing their numbers. Information on the genetic diversity of these geckos in Southeast Asia is very limited. This study aims to explore intra- and inter-population genetic variation and the genetic structure of 16 populations collected from different localities in Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia by using multilocus enzyme electrophoresis. Relatively high genetic diversity occurred at both the intra- and inter-population levels. Genetic differentiation with FST values ranging between 0.0061 – 0.8919 was found. Five distinct genetic groups of the red-spotted tokay populations could be classified. A group of populations from northern Thailand showed the highest genetic differentiation from the other groups. Moreover, there was substantial genetic subdivision depending on the genetic groups with FCT = 0.664 and FSC = 0.185. This genetic structure is related to geographical distribution and distance between populations, R2 = 0.5614, P < 0.001. Our findings of pronounced genetic structuring, and the concomitant conservation genetic consequences if further population loss occurs, management actions should therefore focus on the conservation of all of the main sites where tokay geckos still occur.
... Trade in animals for purposes other than for food or as pets is on the increase. The Chinese medicine trade and its impacts on wildlife are particularly well known (e.g., Bauer 2009), including its impacts on African wildlife (rhino horns especially; Leader-Williams 1992). Reptiles are often of particular focus Kerley 1997, 1998); for example, Bauer 2009 addresses the depletion of Tokay Geckos (Gekko gecko) in southeastern Asia for the production of potions. ...
Fetish beliefs are important to the culture of West african people. Many animals, including reptiles, are traded
in fetish markets and used for traditional medicine and for their perceived magical properties. there are few available
quantitative surveys of the reptiles traded in such fetish markets in the international literature. here, we report the results
of a survey of the reptiles traded in the largest fetish market of West africa (situated in lomé, togo). the market was visited
in three distinct periods (July 2012, december 2012, and February 2013), but counts of all traded specimens were done only
in december 2012. a total of 1,765 reptile individuals, belonging to 37 different species, were recorded. the great majority
of species came from two vegetation zones (forest and guinea savannah), with the great majority of individuals coming from
the guinea savannah region. chameleons (chamaeleo senegalensis) dominated in the sample. among snakes, the puff
adder (bitis arietans) was frequently traded. the conservation implications of the observed pattern are discussed.
... Identification was possible because resident children broke two eggs that had not yet hatched, revealing two nearly fully developed G. g. gecko embryos. Conservation comment: With the emergence of false information regarding the healing properties of G. gecko tongues in traditional Chinese medicine (there are no documented medicinal uses for animal tongues in general and gecko tongues in particular, but relief of asthma, diabetes, cancer, and even HIV infection has been ascribed to them; Bauer, 2009;Caillabet, 2011), Timor-Leste, with its ethnic Chinese minority, must be considered a potential source of specimens for the Chinese market through trade via Indonesia. As a legacy of the violent Indonesian occupation of East Timor (1975-99), there is still a considerable amount of clandestine cross-border traffic and trade, with a strong possibility for the illegal trade in wildlife supported by demand from the Chinese market. ...
Abstract Herpetological surveys of locations in six districts of Timor-Leste (Dili, Baucau, Ermera, Liquiça, Manatuto, Viqueque) during 2010 led to the discovery of a new, high-altitude species of Cryptoblepharus from Ermera District, a new country record (Hemidactylus cf. tenkatei), and the recording of two previously unvouchered species (Python r. reticulatus and Liasis m. mackloti). In this article, we summarize these new records and present numerous new district records for Timor-Leste and four records for road-killed snakes seen in West Timor (Indonesia). With the addition of the results from our 2009 survey, the update presented herein increases the confirmed number of amphibian and reptile species for Timor-Leste to 47.
... The red tokays in Subclade A2, which cover a wide range, from southern China to East Timor, are closely clustered (Figure 2), whereas two red tokays from two nearby divisions in Myanmar, which were expected to belong to the same clade, are deeply divergent (Figure 2). These observed phylogeographical discrepancies are probably attributable to the limited number of samples and human-mediated movement of tokay gecko in drug trade (Bauer, 2009;Rö sler et al., 2011). It is still confused that the black tokays (SW1, LF2 and LA2) are more closely related to the red tokays than other black tokays in the phylogenetic tree ( Figure 2). ...
With largely allopatric distribution, the black tokay and the red tokay are two distinct morphs of the subspecies Gekko gecko gecko. In consideration of their different morphological characteristics, the taxonomic status of G. g. gecko is disputed. Through detailed morphological comparison, it has been proposed that the black tokay should be elevated to species ranking, but without strong genetic evidence. In order to further investigate the taxonomic status of the tokay gecko (G. gecko), we used one mitochondrial marker (ND2) and three nuclear markers (RAG1, c-mos, and ITS2) to explore the phylogenetic and taxonomic relationship of the tokay gecko. Our results revealed a deep phylogeographical divergence in tokay gecko and at the same time provided us with the evidence of possible introgressive hybridization or/and incomplete lineage sorting between the black tokay and the red tokay. The elevation of the black tokay to species level is also supported by our results. However, due to limited sampling and genetic data, this elevation should be further corroborated by more genetic evidence.
... However, the method of preparation, usage and presentation of animals may differ from region to region. For example in China similar wines which utilize geckos normally do not have the body of the gecko retained in the wine like comparable Vietnamese and Laotian wines (Bauer 2009). In Taiwan, snake wine is brewed by soaking a whole poisonous snake in two gallons of Kaoliang wine and the vessel is buried deep underground for years (Anonymous 1964). ...
Exploitation of snakes in Vietnam takes place for different purposes, and among them the snake wine industry is prominent but has received far less attention than other dealings, such as the pet trade. Despite widespread commercialisation there is a general lack of information about this snake trade, which makes it difficult to evaluate its magnitude and impact on snake populations. This study documents the use of snakes in snake wine in four cities in Vietnam through surveys conducted in 127 locations selling snake wine in September 2009. This study provides a list of species used along with the number of individuals observed. While none of the species involved are listed in the IUCN Red List, seven species are listed in the Vietnam Red Data Book, of which five are regulated by CITES. On the other hand, the most abundant species used in the trade, Xenochrophis flavipunctatus, is not listed in any conservation document. The popularity and economic importance of snakes in the form of snake wine demonstrates the need for the development of sustainable use programs for these species.
... Our molecular phylogeny revealed two relatively deeply divergent evolutionary lineages: a western clade (Myanmar, Thailand) and an eastern clade (China, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia), within which close relationships of Chinese and Indonesian G. gecko exist ( Figure 1). As extensive human-mediated movement of G. gecko occurs in association with the traditional medicine trade throughout the range of the species (Bauer 2009), and G. gecko is common around human habitations, it is possible that the observed relationships may be confounded by translocations. Certainly, much deeper sampling of G. gecko across its entire range is needed. ...
A review of the taxonomy, phylogeny, and zoogeography of all currently recognized Gekko species is provided based on morphology (including size, scalation, color, and pattern) and mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequence data. We distinguish six morphological (phenotypic) species groups within the gekkonid genus Gekko: the G. gecko, G. japonicus, G. monarchus, G. petricolus, G. porosus, and G. vittatus groups, all of which receive support from molecular phylogenetics. The taxon G. reevesii, formerly evaluated as a synonym of G. gekko, is revalidated herein at specific rank. Furthermore, a preliminary identification key of all currently recognized Gekko taxa is provided.
The Tokay gecko (Gekko gecko), found throughout Southeast Asia and India, is a heavily harvested species of high commercial value. Recent studies have supported the elevation of the black morph of Tokay gecko, found only in southern China and northern Vietnam, to the species Gekko reevesii. Previous genetic studies focused on specimens of G. reevesii from southwestern populations. Hong Kong, in southeastern China, has native populations of G. reevesii. To verify the identity of G. reevesii in Hong Kong, we employed three mitochondrial genes (COI, Cytb & ND2) and constructed a matrilineal genealogy using other specimens from Guangxi (southwestern China) and northern Vietnam, as well as G. gecko from a wide range of Southeast Asian countries. Our study confirmed that G. reevesii occurs naturally in Hong Kong, but one exotic population of G. gecko, likely a translocation from international trade, was also revealed. Our study did not reject the species ranking of G. reevesii. Moreover, like previous studies, we recovered a paraphyletic G. gecko, which may reflect a species complex, hybridization or incomplete lineage sorting. More extensive sampling of the two species over a broader range of their asserted distribution together with the use of both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA are required to better investigate their biogeography.
Ethnopharmacological relevance:
Fu-Zheng-Tong-Luo (FZTL) formula is a Chinese herbal prescription which is used to treat idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). We previously reported that the FZTL formula could improve IPF injury in rats; however, the mechanism remains unelucidated.
Aim of the study:
To elucidate the effects and mechanisms of the FZTL formula on IPF.
Materials and methods:
The bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis rat model and transforming growth factor-β-induced lung fibroblast model were used. Histological changes and fibrosis formation were detected in the rat model after treatment with the FZTL formula. Furthermore, the effects of the FZTL formula on autophagy and lung fibroblast activation were determined. Moreover, the mechanism of FZTL was explored using transcriptomics analysis.
Results:
We observed that FZTL alleviated IPF injury in rats and inhibited inflammatory responses and fibrosis formation in rats. Moreover, it promoted autophagy and inhibited lung fibroblast activation in vitro. Transcriptomics analysis revealed that FZTL regulates the Janus kinase 2 (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of the transcription 3 (STAT) signaling pathway. The JAK2/STAT3 signaling activator interleukin 6 inhibited the anti-fibroblast activation effect of the FZTL formula. Combined treatment with the JAK2 inhibitor (AZD1480) and autophagy inhibitor (3-methyladenine) did not enhance the antifibrotic effect of FZTL.
Conclusions:
The FZTL formula can inhibit IPF injury and lung fibroblast activation. Its effects are mediated via the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway. The FZTL formula may be a potential complementary therapy for pulmonary fibrosis.
The red-spotted tokay gecko Gekko gecko (Linnaeus, 1758) is a widely distributed Asian gecko that has established outside of its native range in Florida, USA. This study used genotypic and phenotypic data to determine whether multiple, distinct forms of red-spotted tokay gecko are present in Florida, specifically the morphologically distinct " G. g. gecko " and "Form B". Two discrete mitochondrial clades (ND2) were identified in Florida tokay geckos, the native range distributions of which were found to correspond closely with the native ranges of G. g. gecko (the Malay Archipelago) and Form B (mainland Asia), respectively. Furthermore, each mitochondrial clade was non-randomly associated with a separate nuclear (RAG-1) clade, supporting the existence of two discrete genotypic lineages, representative of G. g. gecko and Form B. Both lineages were detected in Florida, and population-level morphological structure was non-randomly associated with genotype, confirming a genotype-phenotype link. Multiple lines of evidence thus indicate the introduction of both forms of tokay gecko to Florida, where hybridisation likely also occurs. The link between morphological Form B and a unique genotypic lineage also indicates the existence of a tokay gecko taxon distinct from the recognised subspecies G. g. azhari Mertens, 1955 and G. g. gecko (Linnaeus, 1758).
Ethnopharmacological relevance
Gekko gecko is used as a traditional medicine for various diseases including respiratory disorders in northeast Asian countries, mainly Korea, Japan, and China.
Aim of the study
Allergic asthma is a chronic respiratory disease caused by an inappropriate immune response. Due to the recent spread of coronavirus disease 2019, interest in the treatment of pulmonary disorders has rapidly increased. In this study, we investigated the anti-asthmatic effects of G. gecko extract (GGE) using an established mouse model of ovalbumin-induced asthma.
Materials and methods
To evaluate the anti-asthmatic effects of GGE, we evaluated histological changes and the responses of inflammatory mediators related to allergic airway inflammation. Furthermore, we investigated the regulatory effects of GGE on type 2 helper T (Th2) cell activation.
Results
Administration of GGE attenuated asthmatic phenotypes, including inflammatory cell infiltration, mucus production, and expression of Th2 cytokines. Furthermore, GGE treatment reduced Th2 cell activation and differentiation.
Conclusions
These results indicate that GGE alleviates allergic airway inflammation by regulating Th2 cell activation and differentiation.
Cathelicidins are a class of gene-encoded multifunctional factors in host defence systems. They have recently attracted a great deal of attention as promising drug candidates. Cathelicidins are well studied in vertebrates, yet no studies have been reported concerning gecko cathelicidin. Recently, we identified a novel cathelicidin from Gekko japonicus, Gj-CATH3. Unlike most cathelicidins, Gj-CATH3 exhibits potent antioxidant activity in vitro. Unfortunately, slight toxicity and high synthesis cost restrict its application. Thus, we designed a series of Gj-CATH3 analogues for development of short peptides with improved cell selectivity. Functional analysis showed that two truncated peptides, Gj-CATH3-(38–42)-peptide and Gj-CATH3-(33–42)-peptide, exhibited excellent antioxidant activity against ABTS and DPPH free radicals. Further, cytotoxicity and hemolytic activities were observably lower compared to Gj-CATH3. Interestingly, both peptides also demonstrate significant wound healing properties in a mouse model with full-thickness skin wounds. The peptides induce HaCaT cell proliferation and prevent decreases in SOD activity and increases of MDA concentration in injured-skin tissue. This report is the first to address cathelicidin from reptilia that exhibit potent wound healing activity. Our research will enrich understanding of cathelicidin biological functions, and provide a theoretical basis for its clinical application.
Reptiles are one of the most frequently encountered animal species in the trade for traditional medicine. The use of reptiles for medicinal purposes has been documented throughout the world, impacting dozens of species. Despite the broad occurrence of reptiles in medicinal trade, there is a general lack of information concerning the scale or impact of this trade and the species involved. Here we report the sale of Common Sun Skinks Eutropis multifasciata on the island of Java in Indonesia. We surveyed 13 wildlife markets and three reptile pet stores in eight cities across Java, documenting 110 Common Sun Skinks in trade in six markets in five cities. This skink is sold for traditional medicinal purposes with several vendors stating its use to treat skin problems like “itchiness”. This particular use has not been well documented in Indonesia. Further, the Common Sun Skinks were primarily sold by vendors selling Tokay Geckos for a similar purpose. This is of potential conservation concern as Tokay Geckos are harvested en masse for medicinal purposes which has resulted in significant population declines, and this could lead to potential over¬exploitation of the Common Sun Skink in response to this decline.
On 20 August 1994, an international uproar was caused by an incident involving a female African elephant who went on a rampage in Honolulu, Hawaii.1 The animal, Tyke, was ‘performing’ during an event for Circus International when, before hundreds of horrified spectators, she grabbed her trainer, thrashed him about and killed him before turning on her groomer and goring him. She then ran from the arena and escaped to city streets, where for 30 minutes she caused havoc and threatened the public before police shot her almost 100 times. It took her two hours to die.2
House gecko has become almost domesticated in every other homes in Nigeria especially Ibadan metropolis where this study was carried out due to its reduced flight zone. A total of 25 animals comprising 11 females and 14 males were collected for the study. Fresh blood was taken from the ventral abdominal vein into heparinised syringes for haematological analysis. Result revealed plasma protein density (4.709±0.48 g dL-1), haemoglobin concentration (8.127±2.18 g dL-1), red blood cell count (2.287±0.62) *106 μL-1, white blood cell count (1.563±3181.85) *106 μL-1, lymphocytes (68.273±3.17)*103 μL-1 and eosinophils (4.546±1.86) *103 μL-1 and of which values of the females were slightly higher than those of the male house geckos while the PCV (24.000±6.59%), Platelets (1.647±41403.12) *106 μL-1, heterophils (27.182±4.58) *103 μL-1 and monophils (2.636±0.50) *103 μL-1 were slightly higher in males than in female house gecko studied in the five local government areas LGAs in Ibadan metropolis. There were no significant differences in the plasma protein, packed cell volume, hemoglobin concentration, red blood cell counts, platelets, lymphocytes, heterophils, monophils and eosinophils values of both male and female house geckos across the five LGAs while in contrast there was a significant difference in the WBC values of the male and female house geckos across the five LGAs of Ibadan.
The common tokay gecko (Gekko gecko gecko) is widely distributed across southern China, Vietnam and other countries in Southeast Asia. It includes two distinct morphological forms with largely allopatric distributions, which are referred to as the black‐spotted tokay and the red‐spotted tokay. Considering their different morphological features and distributions, a question has been proposed by taxonomists and still not resolved: do these two forms belong to one subspecies? Previous studies indicated a high genetic variability between them, but did not give a consistent conclusion regarding their taxonomic status. In this work, we employed two mitochondrial genes (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I and cytochrome b) and nine microsatellite DNA loci to explore the phylogenetic relationship and population genetic structure in the two forms from southern China and northern Vietnam. MtDNA results revealed four deeply divergent lineages. Red‐spotted tokays were clustered into one lineage, and black‐spotted tokays were clustered into three lineages. Microsatellite DNA results confirmed significant levels of genetic differentiation between the red‐spotted tokay lineage and one black‐spotted tokay lineage, consistent with the mtDNA pattern. In conclusion, considering both morphological and genetic information, we suggest that the red‐spotted tokay lineage and one of the black‐spotted tokay lineages have probably differentiated into two subspecies. However, more extensive sampling and genetic information are needed to further understand the taxonomic relationships of tokay gecko, particularly the three lineages within the black‐spotted tokay.
As part of an on-going survey of herpetofaunal diversity in Timor-Leste, we documented our observations regarding encounters between local human inhabitants and their reptilian neighbours. Our interest in environmental and conservation education led to the detailed contemplation of five case studies involving reticulated pythons (Python reticulatus), a saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), a monitor lizard (Varanus cf. salvator), and Chinese pond turtles (Mauremys reevesii). In each case, we initiated a conversation about the captive animals in order to identify their social, religious, or cultural significance, which allowed us to place the captive existence of the animals into their proper context. While the rationale for keeping reptiles captive has some roots in animist beliefs, most often ownership of a 'pet' relates to social status. There does not appear to be a serious problem with the exploitation of any one of these species as a diminishing resource, but the casual relationship with wildlife has led to the endangerment of humans in the past and could facilitate initiatives designed to turn a profit from wild-caught reptiles in the future. We here detail five instances of captive reptile ownership and present implications for conservation, case-by-case resolutions, and recommendations for how in such situations public education efforts may be key to developing a deeper, pro-environment stance on the part of the human population in Timor-Leste. © 2013 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Herpetologie und Terrarienkunde e.V. (DGHT).
AIM: To investigate the anti-tumor activity of dry and fresh Gekko Swinhonis Gunther freeze-dried powder (DGFP and FGFP) on mouse H22 hepatocellular carcinoma in vivo and in vitro. METHODS: The mice bearing H22 tumor cells were used in this study. After treatment with DGFP and FGFP in vivo and in vitro, the anti-tumor effects as well as the weights of thymus and spleen were measured, and the proliferation of H22 cells was detected by MTT assay. RESULTS: The tumor inhibition rates of low-, moderate- and high-dose DGFP were 25.6%, 40.0%, 48.5%, while those of FGFP were 20.7%, 27.4%, and respectively, in vivo. As compared with those in 5-FU group, the weights together with the indexes of thymus and spleen were markedly increased (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05) after DGFP or FGFP treatment. The serum containing DGFP and FGFP obviously restrained the proliferation of H22 cells in vitro, and the inhibition rates of low-, moderate- and high-dose DGFP were 17.4%, 21.0%, and 34.5%, while those of FGFP were 16.4%, 26.3%, and 43.2%, respectively. CONCLUSION: DGFP and FGFP have conspicuous anti-tumor effects.
This chapter provides an overview of the global use of herpetofauna in traditional folk medicine and the implications for conservation. The results indicate that 331 species (284 reptiles and 47 amphibians) are used in traditional folk medicine around the world. Among the species recorded, 182 reptiles and 42 amphibians are listed in the IUCN Red List. Additionally, 93 reptiles are in some of the appendices of CITES. These numbers demonstrate the importance of understanding such medicinal uses in the context of reptile conservation as well as the need for considering sociocultural factors when establishing management plans directed toward the sustainable use of these reptiles.
A new species of the gekkonid genus Goniurosaurus is described from Cat Ba Island, Hai Phong, northern Vietnam. G. catbaensis sp. n. is, by its gracile body and limbs, the thin, posteriorly protracted nuchal loop, the three (or four) thin immaculate dorsal body bands between limb insertions, without dark spotting and with dark, narrow border surrounding the body bands, the lack of postrostral (internasal) scales, the presence of a greatly enlarged row of supraorbital tubercles, the outer surface of the upper eyelid being composed of granular scales of about the same size of those on top of head and with a longish row of 6-9 enlarged tubercles, granular body scales, with 8-11 granular scales surrounding the dorsal tubercles, deep axillary pockets, claws being sheathed by four scales, and 16-21 precloacal pores. The new taxon is known only from Cat Ba Island and is the eleventh Goniurosaurus species known and the fourth known species from Vietnam. We provide first data on its natural history and a key to the currently recognized Goniurosaurus species.
Although animal-derived remedies constitute an integral part of folk medicine in many parts of the world, particularly for
people with limited or no access to mainstream medical services, their role in health care has generally been overlooked in
discussions about public health, conservation and management of faunistic resources, and ecosystem protection. In this article,
we report on the use of 283 medicinal animal species in Brazil, 96% of which are wild caught and 27% of which are on one or
more lists of endangered species. Further population declines may limit users' access to these bioresources and diminish the
knowledge base upon which traditional medicine is built.
Inter-linkages between cultural diversity and the environmental ethics or traditional conservation, has been very less understood, lest studied (Negi 2003). Traditional mode of living or sustenance, invariably relates to the immediate nature and the resources that reside therein. Traditional people, thus have been using the myriad resources- be that the timber, fibres, medicinal plants, edible plants and others, but more importantly have been engaged in bringing forth the subtle and innovative uses of the same so that the maximum benefit is accrued. One such innovation is the use of wild fauna or their parts in the traditional medicine and rituals. The present paper thus attempts to inventorize this little left out resource base among the Shoka tribes of Darma and Johaar valleys, in Pithoragarh district in the state of Uttaranchal, India, with an aim that this knowledge bank could be put to more efficacious use through sustainable harvest. A total of 38 species (mammals-20, birds-6, reptiles-5, insects-4, fish-2, and a lone amphibian), belonging to 16 families, led by bovidae (6), equidae, felidae and leporidae (2 each), and the rest being constituted by a single species, were either being used by the common-folks in the treatment of different diseases or were in possession of the knowledge base of the usage of the same. A total of 19 different diseases or disorders were being treated using the animal products. Out of the total 38 species, only a minuscule 3 species had multiple uses, as regards the treatment of different diseases.
The perception of animals as "insects" and their use as medicinal resources in the city of Feira de Santana, state of Bahia, Brazil. The present article deals with the medicinal use of animals, referred to as "insects" by men and women actuating in Centro de Abastecimento, located in the city of Feira de Santana, state of Bahia. Data were obtained through open interviews, conducted with ten marketers. Eighteen animals categorized as "insects" were recorded. They were, actually, insects, reptiles, amphibians, and arachnids. The extracted raw materials are used in the elaboration of folk remedies, which are prescribed for the treatment of different illnesses. It was observed that animal- based medicines are administered usually as teas. The very disseminated and recurrent use of animal-based medicines allows the supposition that medicinally useful chemicals, yet unknown to the Western science, may be present in their bodies. The zootherapeutic potential of these resources is significant for public health programs that may be suitable to the local culture, and opens perspectives for the economic and cultural valorization of animals regarded as useless or harmful.
Amphibians and reptiles are taken from the wild and sold commercially as food, pets, and traditional medicines. The overcollecting of some species highlights the need to assess the trade and ensure that it is not contributing to declines in wild populations. Unlike most countries, the United States tracks the imports and exports of all amphibians and reptiles. Records from 1998 to 2002 reveal a US trade of several million wild-caught amphibians and reptiles each year, although many shipments are not recorded at the species level. The magnitude and content of the global com- mercial trade carries even greater unknowns. The absence of accurate trade and biological information for most species makes it difficult to estab- lish whether current take levels are sustainable. The void of information also implies that population declines due to overcollecting could be going undetected. Policy changes to acquire baseline biological information and ensure a sustainable trade are urgently needed.
The gecko Gekko nutaphandi is described from Sai Yok District, Kanchanaburi Province, western Thailand. It is a member of the large-bodied Gekko gecko group and within this group is probably most closely related to G. siamensis Grossmann & Ulber, 1990 with which it shares a similar dorsal pattern of transverse series of white spots on a drab background. It differs from G. siamensis in its greater number of precloacal pores, lower number of dorsal tubercle rows, and in having red (versus green) eyes. Comparisons are also made with several other nominal Gekko species currently synonymised with G. gecko and with undescribed, but well-characterized ''forms'' of G. gecko. The new species, dedicated to the late Thai herpetologist Wirot Nutaphand, is one of the many recently described Southeast Asin geckos that appear to be restricted to limestone habitats and their surroundings.
SIMELANE, T.S., and G.I.H. KERLEY. 1997. Recognition of reptiles by Xhosa and Zulu communities in South Africa, with notes on traditional beliefs and uses. Afr. J. Herpetol. 46(1): 49–53.Only a few reptiles found in South Africa are being recognised by Xhosa (26 species) and Zulu (24 species) communities of southern Africa. Recognised species are known to these communities by their African names. Some of these are valued according to their use, beliefs and other traditional purposes, including the species of conservation concern. While lack of recognition and demand of reptiles for traditional purposes may represent a threat to reptiles, traditional beliefs of reverence of some species could also lead to the conservation of these species and their habitat.
REPTILE SPECIES ARE DECLINING ON A GLOBAL SCALE. SIX SIGNIFICANT THREATS TO REPTILE POPULATIONS ARE HABITAT
LOSS AND DEGRADATION, INTRODUCED INVASIVE SPECIES, ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION, DISEASE, UNSUSTAINABLE
USE, AND GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE.
We analyzed the threats to imperiled vertebrate species in China and compared our results with those from a similar study
conducted in the United States. Overexploitation is the most pervasive threat to Chinese vertebrates, contributing to the
endangerment of 78% of imperiled species, followed by habitat destruction (70%), pollution (20%), alien species (3%), and
disease (< 1%). Harvest for food and use in traditional Chinese medicines are the two main forms of overexploitation, while
logging is the most pervasive form of habitat destruction. Threats to vertebrate species are strikingly different in the United
States, where habitat destruction affects 92% of imperiled vertebrate species, followed by alien species (47%), pollution
(46%), overexploitation (27%), and disease (11%). The greater frequency of overexploitation in China stems from China's larger,
poorer, and more rural population, along with widespread trade in wildlife products. The apparent lower frequency of alien
species in China may reflect neglect of this issue by Chinese scientists.
The first record of Goniurosaurus luii from Vietnam is reported herein. The specimen is a female and the largest member of the species known to date. This brings the total number of Goniurosaurus in Vietnam to three.
A survey on trade in live wild animals was conducted along the Guangxi border between China and Vietnam during 1993–1996. The results showed that there were 55 species, which were underestimated, involved in the trade, including 15 species of mammals, 10 species of birds, 29 species of reptiles and 1 species of amphibian. Many of them were species listed on Appendices I and II of CITES and on China's protection list (known as ASSP). During the investigation, about 2.29–29.325 tons of wildlife per day were imported to China form Vietnam. Some species with a large volume of trade may be over-exploited. Sixty-three percent of middle–high quality restaurants in three border cities and Nanning in Guangxi sold wildlife foods. Twenty kinds of wild animals were eaten at the restaurants. Although numbers of species involved in the trade remained fairly stable over the survey period, numbers of species listed in Appendices I and II of CITES and the state protection list had declined. The scale of wildlife markets in border cities of Guangxi and consumption levels of wildlife in the restaurants had been reduced because border control measures were enforced on the trade by local governments of China. However, the prices of the 5 main species in wildlife markets were still going up. This suggested that demand for wildlife in Guangxi was strong and will facilitate the illegal trade. The key steps to control the illegal wildlife trade between the two countries should focus on (i)suppression of illegal wildlife markets and prohibition of the sale of wildlife food in restaurants consisting of species listed in the ASSP inventory; (ii) international cooperation in the control of the trade; (iii) tighter enforcement of CITES for both countries; (iv) control of invasion of exotic species and epidemics of disease in the trade in China; and (v) education for wildlife conservation in China.
Though Western medicines and ideas about asthma have become popular in many Asian nations, local beliefs about treatment prevail. The multiracial society of Singapore shows a variety of beliefs about causes of asthma attacks (for example, the balance of yin and yang) and types of treatment--herbal remedies, inhaled versus eaten medicines, the influence of Ramadan. Many of the cultural practices mentioned are probably preserved among south east Asian minorities residing in the United Kingdom. Eastern treatments typically take a holistic approach to asthma and do not ignore the psychosomatic component of the disorder.
Squamate reptiles (snakes, lizards, and amphisbaenians) serve as model systems for evolutionary studies of a variety of morphological and behavioral traits, and phylogeny is crucial to many generalizations derived from such studies. Specifically, the traditional dichotomy between Iguania (anoles, iguanas, chameleons, etc.) and Scleroglossa (skinks, geckos, snakes, etc.) has been correlated with major evolutionary shifts within Squamata. We present a molecular phylogenetic study of 69 squamate species using approximately 4600 (2876 parsimony-informative) base pairs (bp) of DNA sequence data from the nuclear genes RAG-1(approximately 2750 bp) and c-mos(approximately 360 bp) and the mitochondrial ND2 region (approximately 1500 bp), sampling all major clades and most major subclades. Under our hypothesis, species previously placed in Iguania, Anguimorpha, and almost all recognized squamate families form strongly supported monophyletic groups. However, species previously placed in Scleroglossa, Varanoidea, and several other higher taxa do not form monophyletic groups. Iguania, the traditional sister group of Scleroglossa, is actually highly nested within Scleroglossa. This unconventional rooting does not seem to be due to long-branch attraction, base composition biases among taxa, or convergence caused by similar selective forces acting on nonsister taxa. Studies of functional tongue morphology and feeding mode have contrasted the similar states found in Sphenodon(the nearest outgroup to squamates) and Iguania with those of Scleroglossa, but our findings suggest that similar states in Sphenodonand Iguania result from homoplasy. Snakes, amphisbaenians, and dibamid lizards, limbless forms whose phylogenetic positions historically have been impossible to place with confidence, are not grouped together and appear to have evolved this condition independently. Amphisbaenians are the sister group of lacertids, and dibamid lizards diverged early in squamate evolutionary history. Snakes are grouped with iguanians, lacertiforms, and anguimorphs, but are not nested within anguimorphs.
Animals have been used as medicinal resources for the treatment and relieve of a myriad of illnesses and diseases in practically every human culture. Although considered by many as superstition, the pertinence of traditional medicine based on animals cannot be denied since they have been methodically tested by pharmaceutical companies as sources of drugs to the modern medical science. The phenomenon of zootherapy represents a strong evidence of the medicinal use of animal resources. Indeed, drug companies and agribusiness firms have been evaluating animals for decades without paying anything to the countries from where these genetic resources are found. The use of animals' body parts as folk medicines is relevant because it implies additional pressure over critical wild populations. It is argued that many animal species have been overexploited as sources of medicines for the traditional trade. Additionally, animal populations have become depleted or endangered as a result of their use as experimental subjects or animal models. Research on zootherapy should be compatible with the welfare of the medicinal animals, and the use of their by-products should be done in a sustainable way. It is discussed that sustainability is now required as the guiding principle for biological conservation.
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that as many as 80% of the world's more than six billion people rely primarily on animal and plant-based medicines. The healing of human ailments by using therapeutics based on medicines obtained from animals or ultimately derived from them is known as zootherapy. The phenomenon of zootherapy is marked both by a broad geographical distribution and very deep historical origins. Despite their importance, studies on the therapeutic use of animals and animal parts have been neglected, when compared to plants. This paper discusses some related aspects of the use of animals or parts thereof as medicines, and their implications for ecology, culture (the traditional knowledge), economy, and public health.
Why does a trait evolve repeatedly within a clade? When examining the evolution of a trait, evolutionary biologists typically focus on the selective advantages it may confer and the genetic and developmental mechanisms that allow it to vary. Although these factors may be necessary to explain why a trait evolves in a particular instance, they may not be sufficient to explain phylogenetic patterns of repeated evolution or conservatism. Instead, other factors may also be important, such as biogeography and competitive interactions. In squamate reptiles (lizards and snakes) a dramatic transition in body form has occurred repeatedly, from a fully limbed, lizardlike body form to a limb-reduced, elongate, snakelike body form. We analyze this trait in a phylogenetic and biogeographic context to address why this transition occurred so frequently. We included 261 species for which morphometric data and molecular phylogenetic information were available. Among the included species, snakelike body form has evolved about 25 times. Most lineages of snakelike squamates belong to one of two "ecomorphs," either short-tailed burrowers or long-tailed surface dwellers. The repeated origins of snakelike squamates appear to be associated with the in situ evolution of these two ecomorphs on different continental regions (including multiple origins of the burrowing morph within most continents), with very little dispersal of most limb-reduced lineages between continental regions. Overall, the number of repeated origins of snakelike morphology seems to depend on large-scale biogeographic patterns and community ecology, in addition to more traditional explanations (e.g., selection, development).
Two new species of the gekkonid lizard genus Cyrtodactylus Gray, 1827 are described on the basis of voucher specimens collected in isolated mountains separated from the Truong Son Mountain Range, southern Vietnam. Both species were collected from shallow caves, as have been many of the recently described Cyrtodactylus from across Southeast Asia. Both species, C. takouensis sp. nov. from Ta Kou Nature Reserve, Binh Thuan Province and C. huynhi sp. nov. from Chua Chan Mountain, Dong Nai Province, are characterized by a small number of enlarged femoral scales separated from the precloacal scales by a large diastema. They may be distinguished from one another and from all other congeners by differences in rows of tubercles and ventral scales, subcaudal scalation and dorsal color pattern. These new taxa bring the number of currently recognized Cyrtodactylus species in Vietnam to twelve.
Este artigo trata dos recursos animais utilizados pelos índios Pankararé que vivem na região semiárida do estado da Bahia, nordeste do Brasil. O estudo foi realizado com os Pankararé residentes da aldeia Brejo do Burgo, que se localiza no municipio de Glória. Os dados foram obtidos seguindose métodos etnocientíficos e através de entrevistas abertas realizadas com 15 informantes de ambos os sexos e com idades acima dos 18 anos. Os recursos faunísticos medicinalmente utilizados são distribuídos em 5 categorias taxonómicas científicas, tais como insetos (37%), mamíferos (29%), aves (20%), répteis (12%) e anfíbios (2%). Registraram-se 68 recursos zooterápicos provenientes de 49 etnoespécies. Estas matérias-primas são prescritas pelo “caecó” ou curador da aldeia, que aprendeu as propriedades curativas dos productos naturais com os “encantados”, os quais são entidades sobrenaturais percebidas como guardiã dos recursos naturais. O registro da utilização medicinal de animais por este grupo indígena fornece uma contribução relevante ao fenómeno da zooterapia. Sugere-se a realização tanto de estudos bioquímicos quanto famacológicos para promover o desenvolvimento de novas drogas para la indústria.
Aim: To investigate the influence of the extracts of Chinese herb Gecko Swinhonis Gunther on osteoporosis through observing the bone content and biomechanical indexes, and discuss its effect on the construction of bone tissue. Methods: The experiment was conducted in Staff Room of Radiation Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University of Chinese PLA from August 2005 to July 2006. Twenty-four healthy female SD rats of 8 weeks old and (220±15) g were randomly divided into control group, model group, prevention group and treatment group with 6 rats in each group. Except the control group, the others were all subjected to bilateral ovariectomy. 1 mL Gecko Swinhonis Gunther, which was provided by the Fourth Military Medical University of Chinese PLA, was intragastrically given to the rats of the prevention group 6 days after operation and the treatment group 3 months after operation at dose of 0.2 g/kg per day; Rats in the control group and model group were given matching normal saline 6 days after operation. Six months later, all rats were executed to measure the bone mineral density, content of bone calcium, maximum stress, maximum strain, elastic modulus, and cortical thickness of bone. Results: Twenty-four rats were involved in the result analysis. 1 Compared with the model group, the bone mineral density and content of bone calcium of the control group were obviously changed, indicating that the animal model of osteoporosis was established successfully. The bone mineral density of the whole bone and lumbar vertebra, and bone calcium content in the prevention group and treatment group were obviously higher than those of the model group (P < 0.01). 2 The maximum stress, maximum strain, and elastic modulus of bone tissues in the prevention group and treatment group were higher than those of the model group (P < 0.01), but did not recover to the level of the control group. 3 The cortical thickness of bone of the prevention group and treatment group was thicker than that of the model group [(0.784±0.081), (0.686±0.077), (0.506±0.091) mm, P < 0.01], but the diameters of marrow cavity of the two groups were all lower than that of the model group [(1.993±0.149), (1.975±0.087), (2.120±0.098) mm, P < 0.01, P < 0.05]. Conclusion: Gecko Swinhonis Gunther could increase the cortical thickness of bone and diameter of marrow cavity of rats, increase the bone intensity and content, and prevent and cure osteoporosis.
The demand for vertebrates by traditional healers in South Africa suggests that the use of these animals in traditional medicinal or cultural practices has major conservation implications. This is supported by the fact that 31% of vertebrates used in these practices are listed in South African Red Data Books, indicating that their conservation status is already a matter of concern. Of those vertebrates used, mammals (65%) constitute the largest proportion, followed by birds (22%), reptiles (11%) and amphibians (1.3%). Some of these vertebrates (more especially those with critical conservation status) are significantly less available in the market. We suggest that, whereas this form of resource use has been largely ignored in the past, it may represent a threat to the conservation of biodiversity if poorly managed. It may also provide an opportunity to aid the conservation and sustainable use of indigenous vertebrates if properly managed.
A new species of Gekko is described from the south slope of the west Qinling Mts in Gansu, China. Gekko wenxianensis, sp. nov., is characterized by its nostril-rostral contact, moderate sized body with dorsal tubercles extending from the occiput and temporal region to the back and tail base, but lacking on the forelimb and thigh, 6-8 precloacal pores in a continuous series in males, and tail generally with two cloacal spurs on each side. Molecular phylogenetic analyses using 1556 bp of mtDNA (825 bp COI and 731 bp cyt b) from 7 species of Gekko indicate that the new species is the sister taxon of G. japonicus. It is the twelfth species of Gekko recorded from China.
We analyzed the threats to imperiled vertebrate species in China and compared our results with those from a similar study conducted in the United States. Overexploitation is the most pervasive threat to Chinese vertebrates, contributing to the endangerment of 78% of imperiled species, followed by habitat destruction (70%), pollution (20%), alien species (3%), and disease (< 1%). Harvest for food and use in traditional Chinese medicines are the two main forms of overexploitation, while logging is the most pervasive form of habitat destruction. Threats to vertebrate species are strikingly different in the United States, where habitat destruction affects 92% of imperiled vertebrate species, followed by alien species (47%), pollution (46%), overexploitation (27%), and disease (11%). The greater frequency of overexploitation in China stems from China's larger, poorer, and more rural population, along with widespread trade in wildlife products. The apparent lower frequency of alien species in China may reflect neglect of this issue by Chinese scientists.
Two new continental species of Goniurosaurus, G. luii from the Guangxi Province and the Island of Hainan, China, and G. araneus from northern Vietnam, are described herein. An evolutionary classification consistent with the phylogenetic pattern (luii + araneus) + ((lichtenfelderi + hainanensis) + (yamashinae + ((orientalis + kuroiwae) + (toyamai + splendens))) is proposed, elevating the endemic insular subspecies of G. kuriowae and G. lichtenfelderi to full species. A historical biogeographical scenario is presented invoking extinction of a continental ancestor of the kuroiwae and lichtenfelderi groups. Conservation efforts are needed to ensure the safety of the decreasing wild populations of G. luii and G. araneus which are being exported ant of their respective countries far the international pet trade at an alarming rate.
Les analyses féministes des vies de femmes et des dynamiques entre les sexes au Zimbabwe ont mis l’accent sur les contraintes structurales imposées par des lois inéquitables, des pratiques coutumières et les circonstances économiques. Si ces questions sont indispensables à la compréhension des expériences vécues par les femmes dans le Zimbabwe rural, cet article déclare que l’intérêt accordé à la micro-dynamique des relations entre les sexes offre une perspective nouvelle sur l’action des femmes et les définitions données par les femmes elles-mêmes à leurs combats, tout en permettant une compréhension plus grande du contexte culturel et des négociations quotidiennes dans la lutte entre les sexes. Examiné sous l’angle de l’institution sociale mupfuhwira ou “plantes pour le domptage de l’homme,” cet article nous éclaire sur l’état actuel désastreux du mariage dans le Zimbabwe rural, sur le rôle des guérisseurs traditionnels et des réseaux féminins dans les questions de mariage et sur la transmission rampante du SIDA.
Southeast Asia has the highest relative rate of deforestation of any major tropical region, and could lose three quarters of its original forests by 2100 and up to 42% of its biodiversity. Here, we report on the current state of its biota and highlight the primary drivers of the threat of extinction now faced by much of the unique and rich fauna and flora of the region. Furthermore, the known impacts on the biodiversity of Southeast Asia are likely to be just the tip of the iceberg, owing to the paucity of research data. The looming Southeast Asian biodiversity disaster demands immediate and definitive actions, yet such measures continue to be constrained by socioeconomic factors, including poverty and lack of infrastructure. Any realistic solution will need to involve a multidisciplinary strategy, including political, socioeconomic and scientific input, in which all major stakeholders (government, non-government, national and international organizations) must participate.
Eighty-nine species of lizards, six of which polytypic (forming a total of 97 taxa), are presently known from Brazilian Amazonia. This number includes six species and one subspecies described as new to science in this paper: Stenocercus fimbriatus, Lepidoblepharis hoogmoedi, Leposoma osvaldoi, L. snethlageae, Tretioscincus oriximinensis, Tupinambis longilineus, and Anolis nitens tandai. Stenocercus dumerilii is resurrected from the synonymy of S. tricristatus. Bachia cophias is considered a junior synonym of B. flavescens. B. peruana is a new record from Brazil. Anolis nitens has priority over A. chrysolepis. The Amazonian Tupinambis is shown to be T. teguixin (of which T. nigropunctatus is a junior synonym). The name T. merianae should be used for T. teguixin sensu Boulenger (1885b). Mabuya ficta is a junior synonym of M. bistriata, while the name M. nigropunctata should be used for M. bistriata sensu Vanzolini & Williams (1980). Of all species extensive descriptions and ecological data, if available, are presented. A zoogeographical analysis based on the combined distribution maps of the various species shows a main division in Amazonia of a western and an eastern fauna. A southwestern group is also recognised and, although defined by a smaller number of species, a Guianan group. The lizard fauna from Rondônia shows multiple affinities. The distribution of lizards in enclaves of open formations in Amazonia does not support the idea of continuous areas of savannas throughout Amazonia in relatively recent times.
This paper is based on an empirical study of human behavior, attitudes, and beliefs toward geckos in South and West Asia. Proverbs, sayings, and information provided by numerous informants show that the common small house geckos are regarded as omi- nous creatures associated with ill fortune. They are also considered highly impure, and thought to be carriers of leprosy and other diseases. People are nevertheless rather am- bivalent on the question of whether geckos should be killed; in some cases there is evidence of underlying beliefs that link the animals with fertility and well-being.
eptiles are heavily harvested and traded in Viet Nam for food and traditional medicine. This study, carried out in October and November 2000, examines the harvest and trade of reptiles by res- idents living inside or near the U Minh Thuong National Park in southern Viet Nam. A total of 21 reptile species, amounting to approximately 1900 individual reptiles, were found in reptile trade shops, of which 16 species were seen harvested by local people living in the park. The three most abundant species observed in trade were, in descending order, Sunbeam Snake Xenopeltis unicolor, Bocourt's Watersnake Enhydris bocourti, and Puff-faced Watersnake Homalopsis buccata. Of the 21 species found in trade, one species (Yellow-headed Tem- ple Turtle Hieremys annandalii) is globally listed in the 2003 IUCN Red List as Endangered, two species (Malaysian Box Turtle Cuora amboinensis and Malayan Snail-eating Turtle Malayemys subtrijuga) are listed as Vulnerable, and the status of the Mekong Delta Water- snake Enhydris innominata, endemic to southern Viet Nam, is poorly known. The current harvesting practices in and around U Minh Thuong National Park are probably not sustainable for some of these 21 reptile species.
Azerbaijan is a country at the crossroads of numerous cultures, religions and civilizations. There fore, ancient Azerbaijani medicine was influenced by various healing systems, such as Turkic, Iranian, Semitic and Greek medicine. Starting from 1986, important investigations in the medieval Azerbaijani pharmacy and medicine are lead in the Institute of Manuscripts in Baku where 366 old medical manuscripts are kept. As a result, 724 species of medicinal plants, 150 species of animals and 111 species of minerals used in the medicine of medieval Azerbaijan have been identified and studied.
A phylogeny of gekkotan lizards was derived from C-mos nuclear DNA sequence data. Forty-one currently recognized genera, representing all major gekkotan lineages, were included in the study. A total of 378 bp of partial C-mos gene sequences was obtained and aligned. Maximum parsimony (MP) and maximum likelihood (ML) trees were generated based on unweighted analysis using PAUP*; similar tree topologies were recovered by both methods. The Eublepharidae were monophyletic and its relationship to other major clades was poorly resolved. The Pygopodidae of Kluge (1987) was monophyletic, but relationships within this group differed from those retrieved by previous analyses. The Diplodactylini + padded carphodactylines were the sister group of pygopods + padless carphodactylines. The Gekkonidae were monophyletic, but we found no evidence in support of the Teratoscincinae, as Teratoscincus was embedded well within the gekkonids. Both MP and ML analyses supported the basal position of Sphaerodactylus within the gekkonids, in contrast to morphologically based hypotheses. We propose a new higher order classification of the Gekkota that reflect these results. Five gekkotan families: Eublepharidae, Gekkonidae, Pygopodidae, Diplodactylidae, and Carphodactylidae are recognized. The higher order status of the sphaerodactyls will require more intensive sampling of this group. Our results support the hypothesis that the early cladogenesis of the Gekkota was associated with the split of Eastern Gondwanaland from Western Gondwanaland. Divergences among living genera in the Eublepharidae and the Eastern Gondwanan lineages (Diplodactylidae, Pygopodidae and Carphodactylidae) may be older than those in the Gekkonidae. © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2004, 83, 353–368.
Phylogenetic relationships among gekkotan lizards were estimated from five nuclear protein-coding genes in separate and combined analyses using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses. All analyses recovered a monophyletic trans-Atlantic gecko clade (Phyllodactylidae) consisting of the genera Asaccus, Haemodracon, Homonota, Phyllodactylus, Phyllopezus, Ptyodactylus, Tarentola and Thecadactylus. No other phylogenetic or taxonomic hypotheses have proposed linking these genera, which have been consistently grouped with other taxa outside of the clade. In this paper, we determine the relationships of this new clade to other major gekkotan groups, evaluate previous phylogenetic hypotheses regarding constituent members of this novel clade, and critically examine the use of historically important morphological characters in gekkotan systematics as they relate to this novel clade, specifically - phalangeal formulae, hyoid morphology and external structure of the toe-pads.
Aim Geckos (Reptilia: Squamata), due to their great age and global distribution, are excellent candidates to test hypotheses of Gondwanan vicariance against post‐Gondwanan dispersal. Our aims are: to generate a phylogeny of the sphaerodactyl geckos and their closest relatives; evaluate previous phylogenetic hypotheses of the sphaerodactyl geckos with regard to the other major gecko lineages; and to use divergence date estimates to inform a biogeographical scenario regarding Gondwanan relationships and assess the roles of vicariance and dispersal in shaping the current distributions of the New World sphaerodactyl geckos and their closest Old World relatives.
Location Africa, Asia, Europe, South America, Atlantic Ocean.
Methods We used parsimony and partitioned Bayesian methods to analyse data from five nuclear genes to generate a phylogeny for the New World sphaerodactyl geckos and their close Old World relatives. We used dispersal–vicariance analysis to determine ancestral area relationships among clades, and divergence times were estimated from the phylogeny using nonparametric rate smoothing.
Results We recovered a monophyletic group containing the New World sphaerodactyl genera, Coleodactylus , Gonatodes , Lepidoblepharis , Pseudogonatodes and Sphaerodactylus , and the Old World Gekkotan genera Aristelliger , Euleptes , Quedenfeldtia , Pristurus , Saurodactylus and Teratoscincus . The dispersal–vicariance analysis indicated that the ancestral area for this clade was North Africa and surrounding regions. The divergence between the New World spaherodactyl geckos and their closest Old World relative was estimated to have occurred c . 96 Myr bp .
Main conclusions Here we provide the first molecular genetic phylogenetic hypothesis of the New World sphaerodactyl geckos and their closest Old World relatives. A combination of divergence date estimates and dispersal–vicariance analysis informed a biogeographical scenario indicating that the split between the sphaerodactyl geckos and their African relatives coincided with the Africa/South America split and the opening of the Atlantic Ocean. We resurrect the family name Sphaerodactylidae to represent the expanded sphaerodactyl clade.
Based on the sequences of the mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene fragment of 17 samples from Gekkonidae, Salamandridae, Agamidae and Hynobiidae, respectively, a pair of allele-specific primers was designed for differentiating the Chinese medicinal material Gecko from its adulterants by PCR. The results of amplification with the primers indicate that amplicons from the templates of Gekko gecko were clearly revealed by agarose gel electrophoresis, whereas no evident amplicons were found from other species. The primers were employed to identify crude drug samples from different sources. Among a total of 9 samples, 3 were diagnosed as genuine Gecko. This result is consistent with morphological identification and DNA sequence analyses.
The rapidly increasing diabetes mellitus is becoming a serious threat to mankind health in all parts of the world. The control and treatment of diabetes and its complications mainly depend on the chemical or biochemical agents, but the fact is that it has never been reported that someone had recovered totally from diabetes. With the distinctive traditional medical opinions and natural medicines mainly originated in herbs, the traditional Chinese medicine performed a good clinical practice and is showing a bright future in the therapy of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Based on a large number of chemical and pharmacological research work, numerous bioactive compounds have been found in Chinese medicinal plants for diabetes. The present paper reviews 86 natural medicines with regards to their origin, anti-diabetic active principles and/or pharmacological test results, which are commonly used in the traditional Chinese medical system and have demonstrated experimental or/and clinical anti-diabetic effectiveness. Among these natural medicines, 82 originate from plants and 4 from animals or insects, which covers 45 families. It is strongly significant to pay close attention to traditional Chinese medical therapeutics and natural medicines for treatment of diabetes mellitus and its complications.
To explore the effect of Gecko Swinhonis Gunther freeze-dried powder (GFP) in inducing apoptosis of C6 glioma cells.
Thirty mice were randomly divided into three groups and treated with intraperitoneally injection of cisplatin, orally taken GFP or distilled water respectively. After treatment for 20 days, the serum of mice was collected for treating the C6 glioma cells. The apoptosis state of cells was observed by morphological examination, flow cytometry and TUNEL method, and the cell apoptosis related gene expression of bcl-2 and bax were determined by S-P immunocytochemical assay.
The C6 glioma cell apoptosis induction of GFP contained serum in vitro could be confirmed by morphological examination, flow cytometry analysis and TUNEL method. Comparison between the GFP treated group and the blank control group on intracellular bcl-2 gene expression showed no difference, but bax gene expression was higher in the GFP treated group.
GFP contained serum could induce C6 glioma cell apoptosis, its mechanism might be related with the up-regulation of bax gene.
With more than 80 species inhabiting all warm continental land masses and hundreds of intervening continental and oceanic islands, Hemidactylus geckos are one of the most species-rich and widely distributed of all reptile genera. They consequently represent an excellent model for biogeographic, ecological, and evolutionary studies. A molecular phylogeny for Hemidactylus is presented here, based on 702 bp of mtDNA (303 bp cytochrome b and 399 bp 12S rRNA) from 166 individuals of 30 species of Hemidactylus plus Briba brasiliana, Cosymbotus platyurus, and several outgroups. The phylogeny indicates that Hemidactylus may have initially undergone rapid radiation, and long-distance dispersal is more extensive than in any other reptilian genus. In the last 15 My, African lineages have naturally crossed the Atlantic Ocean at least twice. They also colonized the Gulf of Guinea, Cape Verde and Socotra islands, again sometimes on more than one occasion. Many extensive range extensions have occurred much more recently, sometimes with devastating consequences for other geckos. These colonizations are likely to be largely anthropogenic, involving the 'weedy' commensal species, H. brookii s. lat, H. mabouia, H. turcicus, H. garnotii, and H. frenatus. These species collectively have colonized the Mediterranean region, tropical Africa, much of the Americas and hundreds of islands in the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic oceans. Five well-supported clades are discernable in Hemidactylus, with the African H. fasciatus unallocated. 1. Tropical Asian clade: (Cosymbotus platyurus (H. bowringii, H. karenorum, H. garnotii)) (H. flaviviridis (Asian H. brookii, H. frenatus)). 2. African H. angulatus and Caribbean H. haitianus. 3. Arid clade, of NE Africa, SW Asia, etc.: (H. modestus (H. citernii, H. foudai)) (H. pumilio (H. granti, H. dracaenacolus) (H. persicus, H. macropholis, H. robustus, H. turcicus (H. oxyrhinus (H. homoeolepis, H. forbesii))). 4. H. mabouia clade (H. yerburii, H. mabouia). 5. African-Atlantic clade: H. platycephalus ((H. agrius, H. palaichthus) (H. longicephalus, H. greeffi, H. bouvieri, Briba brasiliana))). Cosymbotus and Briba are synonymized with Hemidactylus, and African populations of H. brookii separated as H. angulatus, with which H. haitianus may be conspecific. Some comparatively well-sampled widespread species show high genetic variability (10-15% divergence) and need revision, including Cosymbotus platyurus, H. bowringii, Asian H. brookii, H. frenatus, H. angulatus, and H. macropholis. In contrast, most populations of H. mabouia and H. turcicus are very uniform (1-2% divergence). Plasticity of some of the morphological features of Hemidactylus is confirmed, although retention of primitive morphologies also occurs.
To investigate the inhibitory effects and its mechanism of lyophilized powder of fresh Gekko Chinenis (GCLP) on H22 hepatocarcinoma growth and angiogenesis in vitro.
The transplant tumor model of H22 hepatocarcinoma in mice was established. Thirty mice were randomly divided into three groups, the cisplatin group, the GCLP group and the control group, they were treated respectively with intraperitoneal injection of cisplatin 1 mg/g, oral administration of GCLP in a dose of 1.2 g/kg, and equal volume of saline, the medication was given for 20 times totally. The anti-tumor activity was evaluated by tumor tissue weighing, the cell apoptotic rate was detected by TUNEL method, the micro-vessel density in tumor tissue was determined by Weidner method, the protein expression of vascular endothelin growth factor (VEGF) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) were detected by S-P immunohistochemistry.
GCLP could obviously inhibit the hepatocarcinoma growth, induce tumor cell apoptosis, and reduce micro-vessel density in tumor tissue through down-regulating VEGF and bFGF protein expression.
GCLP can effectively inhibit the growth of H22 hepatocarcinoma and angiogenesis. Its mechanism might be related to the down-regulation of the protein expression of VEGF and bFGF.