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Shiitake Mushrooms Consumption, Production and Cultivation
Abstract
Production and consumption of the shiitake mushroom has increased steadily since 1945. Interdisciplinary research has facilitated these increases. Japan, the major producer, accounts for nearly 83% of the total world production. Over 60% of the total world production is dried before consumption. In Taiwan, South Korea, and China, nearly all shiitake mushrooms are used in the dried form. Most shiitake are produced on natural logs. However, many farms in the USA, Taiwan, Canada, and Singapore are now producing shiitake on synthetic substrate. The main advantages of synthetic log cultivation over the natural log method are time and efficiency.
... In Japan, commercial cultivatio n of the Shiitake using traditional natural log inoculation methods grown outdoors remains a common practice. Many growers also have adopted the use of greenhou ses to maintain ''outdoor'' production during the winter months (Royse et al., 1985 ). Japan remains a world-leade r in Shiitake mushroom production. ...
... Many growers also have adopted the use of greenhou ses to maintain ''outdoor'' production during the winter months (Royse et al., 1985 ). Japan remains a world-leade r in Shiitake mushroom production. World production of Shiitake mushroo ms in 1985 was reported to be 206,700 metric tons, of which 82.8% was accounted for by Japanese growers (Royse et al., 1985 ). Sixty percent (60%) of all Shiitake mushrooms consumed during this period were de-hydrated using sun drying methods or hot air convection systems (Royse et al., 1985). ...
... Many growers also have adopted the use of greenhou ses to maintain ''outdoor'' production during the winter months (Royse et al., 1985 ). Japan remains a world-leade r in Shiitake mushroom production. World production of Shiitake mushroo ms in 1985 was reported to be 206,700 metric tons, of which 82.8% was accounted for by Japanese growers (Royse et al., 1985 ). Sixty percent (60%) of all Shiitake mushrooms consumed during this period were de-hydrated using sun drying methods or hot air convection systems (Royse et al., 1985). Thus, the consumption of vitamin D containing sundried mushrooms and mushrooms grown outdoors has a long and widespread history of consumptio n. ...
... Systematically, shiitake mushroom belongs to the class Basidiomycetes, underclass Holobasidiomycetes, genus Agaricales, row Lentinus and kind Lentinus edodes. Mushrooms are terrestrial organisms, without chlorophyll, eukaryotic and saprophytic ogranisms (Royse et al., 1985; Turner, 1988). Their fruitful bodies are excellent food for human nutrition. ...
In the Republic of Macedonia shiitake mushroom is grown in little spaces. It is used for consummation fresh, as well as processed. From the processed forms widely used is dried mushroom. The mushrooms chemical content has an essential importance for human diet and for the technological process, too. Chemical content of fresh mushrooms is important for choosing the technological processes and for products quality properties. The aim of this research was to determine the differences of the chemical content of both fresh and dried shiitake mushrooms. The quality properties were determined by determining the mechanical and the chemical properties. Research was made in 2013. Drying was made in ventricular drier with heated air. The principle of drying is accurately performed to obtain characteristic odor and appearance of the mushroom. All of determined components have higher values in dried mushrooms, compared with fresh ones. The content of total dry matters is higher in dried mushrooms (92.20%) compared with fresh mushrooms (25.20%). The content of total acids in dried mushrooms is 0.48% and its value in fresh mushrooms is 0.16 %. The content of vitamin C in dried mushrooms is 13.53 mg %, but in the fresh ones is 8.24 mg %. The value of mineral matters is 4.80% in dried and 1.00 % in fresh mushrooms. Drying in ventricular drier is fast method which reduces the necessary water quantity, inactivates the enzymes and reduces microorganism’s metabolism. This is basic principle in product conserving and storage for a longer period.
Keywords : mushrooms, ventricular drying, chemical content
... O cultivo deste teve inicio na China, sendo introduzido no Japão por intermédio de cultivadores chineses. Posteriormente, a cultura expandiu-se para outros países (ROYSE et al., 1985;SABOTA, 1996). ...
The growing of shiitake on wooden logs attracts a variety of insects depending on the local conditions, the phase of development and the growing system. This study was designed to evaluate the diversity of insects associated to the growing of this mushroom on Eucalyptus spp. logs in the county of Arroio do Padre, RS, by way of evaluations during the colonization phase. A model INTRAL AL 012 (12 volts) luminous trap was used to capture specimens. In this period 9 orders of insects were detected, the order Diptera predominating, presenting a relative frequency of 80.57% and absolute frequency of 1,393. In this order, the family Sciaridae was found in the greatest absolute frequently, there being 1,085 specimens.
KEY WORDS
Growing shiitake; Luminous trap; Diptera; Sciaridae
... L. edodes is a white rotting fungus which could be cultivated on dierent lignocellulosic substrates, depending on the local availability. There is a trend using sterilized agricultural and forest by-products in order to reduce production time and increase yield (Royse et al. 1985 ). In order to decrease the cost of production , moderate heating (pasteurization) of substrates has also been studied (Badham 1988; Delpech & Olivier 1991; Levanon et al. 1993) and used successfully at a commercial scale. ...
Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Pegler was cultivated in sterilized or pasteurized wheat straw both with and without inoculation with Trichoderma sp. Enhancements of -mannosidase and laccase activities and lowering of Mn-dependent peroxidase activity were observed seven days after inoculation in substrates inoculated with Trichoderma sp. These enzymes were not produced by Trichoderma sp. Most of the polysaccharidase activities were higher in substrates with Trichoderma sp. than in absence of Trichoderma sp. The area of the substrate contaminated with T. harzianum significantly correlated with cellulase, laccase and Mn-dependent peroxidase activities measured in the substrate. The increase of cellulase activity was due to enzymes produced by Trichoderma sp. and the decrease of Mn-dependent peroxidase activity was due to diminished growth of L. edodes. The stimulation of laccase activity was linked with the formation of brown lines (oxidation of polyphenols) at the contact between the mycelia of the two antagonists.
... Pegler, the popular Japanese shiitake, is the second most important mushroom among the industrially cultivated species. This important Asian mushroom is a white rotting fungus, which is cultivated throughout the world on sterilised or pasteurised agricultural and forest by-products (Royse et al. 1985; Delpech and Olivier 1991; Levanon et al. 1993). The quantity and the quality of the lignin and soluble phenolic compounds are among the major components varying with lignocellulosic substrates. ...
Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Pegler was cultivated in liquid media containing malt and yeast extract. Extracellular laccase activity, measured
in the culture fluids, was 5–18 times higher in cultures incubated for 29 days than in cultures incubated for 24 days. The
addition of water-soluble lignin derivatives or Trichoderma sp. in cultures of L. edodes incubated for 11 days increased laccase activity 3- to 20 fold. The higher response was obtained with live mycelium of Trichoderma sp., but cell-free culture fluids of Trichoderma sp. in pure cultures were also effective. Trichoderma sp. induced changes in the laccase isoenzyme pattern as a result of the alteration of laccases secreted by L. edodes and not the induction of new isoforms.
... This white rotting fungus is cultivated on arti®cial logs made of various sterilized lignocellulosic substrates. The main problem during its cultivation is the contamination of the logs by competing fungi (Royse et al. 1985). Lentinula edodes produces several compounds that exert inhibitory effects on a wide range of microbes (Jong and Birmingham 1993; Hatvani 2001), and such compounds may play a role in the defence against competitors. ...
The main problem that arises during the cultivation of Lentinula edodes, the Asian Shiitake mushroom, is that the logs on which the cultivation is performed are contaminated by competing micro-organisms, especially Trichoderma spp. The aim of this study was to examine the changes in activity of extracellular enzymes in dual cultures of Trichoderma spp. and L. edodes.
Extracellular enzyme activities were determined spectrophotometrically. Trichoderma enzymes important for the degradation of fungal cell walls (N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminidase and laminarinase) were shown to be induced by inactive L. edodes mycelia in liquid culture. The changes that occurred in the extracellular enzyme activities of L. edodes and mycoparasitic Trichoderma spp. (T. aureoviride, T. harzianum and T. viride) were examined during antagonistic interactions on solid medium. The extracellular enzyme patterns of both partners proved to be altered. Trichoderma spp. were induced to produce N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminidase and laminarinase in the presence of active L. edodes mycelia, similarly as observed in liquid culture. The activities of both laccase and manganese peroxidase of L. edodes decreased after physical contact with active Trichoderma mycelia, possibly in consequence of the beginning of degradation of L. edodes by the Trichoderma enzymes. However, besides a decrease in manganese peroxidase activity, an enhancement of L. edodes laccase activity was observed on solid media containing crude culture fluids from Trichoderma liquid cultures. The metabolites responsible for these effects proved to be heat stable.
Induction and inhibition of several extracellular enzymes of both partners were shown in dual cultures of L. edodes and Trichoderma strains, indicating the important role of these enzymes in the antagonistic interaction between the two species.
As the main problem during the large-scale cultivation of L. edodes is the contamination of the growth substrate by Trichoderma mycelia, the particular knowledge of the mechanism of this competition might be relevant.
Because of the enzymatic make-up of Stropharia, a cultivated and edible mushroom, it is capable of using agricultural wastes as substrates for growth. Different substrates and methods of preparation are compared in order to improve the resistance of the mushroom to fungal contamination by reducing soluble carbon and nitrogen content. The substrates (wheat straw, corn stalk, or wastes from pea plants) were soaked at various temperatures and durations in order to eliminate soluble nutrients. High temperatures are more efficient for a rapid depletion of free nitrogen compounds. The best substrate used for the first time in mushroom cultivation was the agricultural waste from Pisum. Because of its naturally high content of soluble nutrients, this substrate needs to be soaked in hot water to reduce contaminations. Yields of Stropharia (220 g/kg) are higher and more regular than those obtained on conventional substrate (straw). On corn stalk, a high contamination rate was found, as well as relatively poor yields.
Lentinula edodes, the Japanese Shiitake, is an important cultivated mushroom. L. boryana grows only in the American continent and wild strains had recently been isolated to study their ability to be cultivated. The mycelium growth rate and laccase production by L. edodes were observed during successive cultures in agar media with or without water soluble lignin derivatives. The effects of lignin derivatives on the inhibition of mycelial growth and their effects on laccase induction were time dependent with a variability between strains. No correlation between the growth rate and laccase activities was observed but strains producing higher laccase activities with the faster response to induction were able to reach their maxima of mycelial growth rate during the first cultivation in the presence of lignin derivatives. With high inhibition of growth during the first: culture with lignin derivatives and low production of laccase activities, the strains of L. boryana presented a weak adaptability to lignin derivatives. That was in agreement with their lower ability to be cultivated in lignocellulosic substrates than Shiitake.
Clade /omphalotaceae (Moncalvo et al. 2002) comprises several genera of the traditional family Tricholomataceae (a group of white-spored mushrooms). Using ITS 1-5.8S-ITS 2 sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA, we present a phylogenetic reconstruction of /omphalotaceae. In order to use taxo-nomenclatural names as accurately as possible, we have compared voucher basidiomata to type specimens and have employed sexual compatibility experiments to probe the genetic cohesion of putatively related collections. Numerous generic type species are placed within the phylogeny and taxonomic implications are discussed. An area of tandem repeats was discovered in numerous species, with implications for their phylogenetic placement. In some widely distributed species phylogeographic signals were inferred. A few new taxa and a few new nomenclatural combinations are proposed.
Increasing food supplies, diminishing quality of health and increasing environmental deterioration are affecting the future well-being of humankind. The applied mushroom biology combined offer partial but meaningful solutions through the generation of relatively cheap source of high quality food protein, the provision of health-enhancing dietary supplements and the bioremediation of environmental adulterants and maintenance of balanced ecosystems. Mushrooms are very nutritious
Species of mushroom genus Lentinus (=Lentinula) are best known for the commercially important and extensively studied culinary-medicinal shiitake, L. edodes. A few mycelium growth studies have focused on Lentinus boryana, but information is lacking for L. raphanica and L. aciculospora, endemic to the Americas. In this study, 14 dikaryon strains representing 5 Lentinus species were grown on 5 nutritive agar media at increments of 5°C. Growth for each species was significantly slower on corn meal agar, but no differences were found among malt extract, potato dextrose, malt peptone, and yeast malt extract agars. Lentinus aciculospora and L. boryana consistently exhibited the slowest mycelium growth rates among all species and across all temperatures tested, with optima at 15°C and 20°C. The fastest mycelium growth rates for L. edodes, L. novaezelandiae, and L. raphanica occurred at 25°C. Strains of the latter continued to grow well at 30°C, whereas growth of the other 2 species declined significantly. Differences in mycelium growth rates for American strains could be partially explained by their geographic locations, indicating that understanding this physiological parameter has important ramifications for the edible mushroom industry.
In 1978, I was invited to conduct the first Mushroom Training Workshop in China. At that time, the production of cultivated edible mushrooms in China was only 60,000 tons, which accounted for only 5.7% of total world production. However, in 2002, China's mushroom production was over 8.6 million tons and accounted for about 70% of the total world output. The year 1990 can be considered the turning point in mushroom production in China. It was the year in which, for the first time, China produced more than 1 million tons of cultivated edible mushrooms, accounting for more than 28% of world mushroom production. The number of species of both edible and medicinal mushrooms cultivated has also been increasing over the years. Whereas the dynamics of production have been maintained for quite a few years, recent data indicate that the buoyant development is far from reaching a peak. China is now the largest mushroom producer, consumer, and exporter in the world. The reasons underlying China's success in the development of its mushroom industry during the past two and half decades can be broadly summarized as follows: (1) the vision, strong leadership, and initiative of central and local governments in grasping the immense potential benefits of mushroom cultivation; (2) strong scientific support from academic institutions; (3) manifold innovations in mushroom cultivation technology by talented mushroom farmers; and (4) the growth of the domestic market as a result of a strong national economy, which has been a key factor in the expansion of mushroom cultivation in China. The complementary major challenges now facing the mushroom industry in China are entry into an era of improved management, marketing, and quality control of its mushrooms and mushroom products and further promotion of research. In particular, improvements in communication technology are vital for modern business transactions. Advancement of the Chinese mushroom community's standing internationally should also be encouraged by hosting more international conferences, producing and publishing more high-quality scientific articles in international journals, and even establishing a home-based international journal for mushroom sciences. This will then further contribute to, and have a great impact on, the development of the mushroom industry at national and international levels.
Fungi, namely white-rot fungi, growing on lignocellulosic substrates such as wood and straw secrete a mixture of hydrolytic and oxidative enzymes that depolymerize the substrate components. Biocon version of lignocellulosic agro-residues through mushroom cultivation offers the potential for con verting these residues into protein-rich palatable food, reducing the environmental impact of the wastes. The growth of four strains of the mushroom Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Sing. in four different substrates was studied. The mushrooms were cultivated in particulate sawdust substrates enclosed in autoclavable plastic bags. This 'space bag' production of biomass offers foreshortened production cycles. The fructification phase occurred during 10 days after a spawn-run time of 90 days compared with 18 months to two years for traditional methods. Mushroom production depended on strain, varying from 12.5% to 15.0%. Biological efficiency comprised between 42.3% and 59.5%. The fruiting bodies were analyzed to determine their nutritional value. They had high contents of protein and total carbohydrates but low contents of lipids and nucleic acids. L. edodes has low fiber content com pared with other species. Cellulose degradation was similar for all the strains which had produced carpophores. Lignin degradation comprised between 40.7% and 59.10%.
White button mushroom accounts for 35-45% of the total mushroom produced in the world. Modified atmosphere packaging or MAP is a technology that, along with low temperature storage, helps in extending the shelf life and maintenance of quality of the produce packaged in polymeric films. The present study mathematically modeled the various transport processes associated with the mushroom under MAP at 15C and 75% relative humidity (RH) using the enzyme kinetics approach. Low density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP) and oriented polypropylene (OPP) films were used to pack the mushroom. Numerical solutions to the transient state equations were programed in a computer programing language to predict the in-pack gaseous partial pressures at any instant of time. The model was experimentally validated, and a simple qualitative tool based upon optimum whiteness of mushroom was developed using the predictions to determine the safe period of storage. The predicted and experimental in-pack partial pressures of O2 and CO2 were in fair agreement with each other. In the OPP film packages, the O2 and CO2 levels stabilized around 6.87 and 12.93 kPa, respectively. Whereas, O2 levels decreased drastically in LDPE and PP film packages. A combination of predicted in-pack environment in all the film packages, storage time and whiteness of mushroom led to the conclusion that mushrooms can be stored safely for 32, 44 and 108 h in the gaseous environment available in the LDPE, PP and OPP film packages, respectively.
Because of the enzymatic make-up of Stropharia, a cultivated and edible mushroom, it is capable of using agricultural wastes as substrates for growth. Different substrates and methods of preparation are compared in order to improve the resistance of the mushroom to fungal contamination by reducing soluble carbon and nitrogen content. The substrates (wheat straw, corn stalk, or wastes from pea plants) were soaked at various temperatures and durations in order to eliminate soluble nutrients. High temperatures are more efficient for a rapid depletion of free nitrogen compounds. The best substrate used for the first time in mushroom cultivation was the agricultural waste from Pisum. Because of its naturally high content of soluble nutrients, this substrate needs to be soaked in hot water to reduce contaminations. Yields of Stropharia (220 g/kg) are higher and more regular than those obtained on conventional substrate (straw). On corn stalk, a high contamination rate was found, as well as relatively poor yields.Key words: mushroom, Stropharia, substrate, waste, yield, fungal contamination.
Pleurotus ostreatus (444) and P. sajorcaju (537) were grown on a pasteurized mixture of chopped wheat straw (70%) and milled corncobs (30%) nonsupplemented and supplemented with two levels of delayed-release nutrient. Yields for both lines increased 2.3 and 3.2 fold on substrate containing 16% and 32% (dry weight basis) delayed-release nutrient additions, respectively. For mushroom size, a differential response was observed for genotype and delayed-release nutrient. Line 444, a wild isolate from Missouri, produced larger mushrooms on substrate containing higher levels of delayed-release nutrient. Line 537, a commercial isolate used in Italy, produced smaller mushrooms with higher levels of nutrient. Mushrooms of line 537 were harvested 3 to 4 days earlier and line 444 was harvested 12 to 14 days earlier from supplemented substrate.
Among the various horticultural crops, mushroom cultivation is one of the most suitable and safest commodities suitable for
tropical, subtropical and temperate climatic regions. Mushroom cultivation helps in the recycling and conversion of agricultural
wastes into protein-rich food and it is nowadays carried out in cropping rooms where fluctuations in climatic conditions like
temperature and drought have little impact. The growing of mushrooms is a labour-intensive activity, so it can help in employment
generation, particularly in developing countries. Mushroom production during the past three decades has achieved a phenomenal
growth not only in production but also in productivity. There is an immense biodiversity in mushrooms, which can and will
be exploited for food, medicinal and industrial applications. The recent technology for growing some of the edible mushrooms
is discussed. Today not only the total production but also the number of commercially cultivated varieties have increased
and several new edible species are under the process of commercialization throughout the world.
Along with a brief review of Lentinula edodes (shiitake mushroom) submerged cultivation history within the framework of important extracellular proteins biosynthesis,
this study contains the authors’ own results. The possibility of regulating the lectin activity of shiitake using the synthetic
components is shown. The time course of lectin production in culture liquid of L. edodes in different media under submerged culture conditions was studied. The activity of agglutinins depended on the ratio between
carbon and nitrogen sources and the pH of the culture medium. A relationship between the chemical composition of nutrient
medium, the activity of extracellular lectins of L. edodes, and the formation of pigmented mycelial film in liquid culture has been found. The formulation of medium, on which the brown
mycelial film appears in several days of submerged cultivation, is proposed. The results obtained make a contribution to the
present notion of biochemical processes that give rise to the occurrence of the aforesaid morphological structure of shiitake.
Finally, two extracellular lectins from the submerged culture of L. edodes have been isolated and purified to homogeneity. Their physicochemical properties and composition have been studied.
KeywordsExtracellular proteins-Lectins of higher fungi-Brown mycelial film-Molecular structure-Quantum chemical study
Carbohydrate metabolism in different tissues was studied using radiorespirometry and enzymic analysis. The 14C-1/14C-6 ratios in CO2 respired from specifically labelled glucose fed to Lentinula edodes tissues grown on a chemically defined medium ranged from 2·5 (vegetative mycelium) to 14·9 (young lamellae). This reflects the relative activity of the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), very high in basidiome but low in mycelium, the highest ratio being recorded in tissues which are biosynthetically most active (young lamellae), requiring the reducing power of NADPH generated through the PPP. Extensive conversion of 14C-3, 4-labelled glucose to 14CO2 in the mycelium underlined the important role of the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway (EMP) in that tissue. A 14C-1/14C-6 ratio of 14·8 for young lamellae grown on woodchips indicates that the growth medium did not influence the pathway used in the basidiome. Ratios for the young pileipellis and stipe were 8·0 and 10·4 respectively. A ratio of 3·6 for Coprinus cinereus gills confirms the comparatively lesser importance of the PPP in this organism.Enzymic determination corroborated the metabolic pattern deduced from radiolabelling. Activity of PPP enzymes (glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase) were three times as high in the basidiome compared with the mycelium, highest activity being in the young pileus. EMP enzymes (fructose 1,6-bisphosphate aldolase and glucose 6-phosphate isomerase) were more active in mycelium than in fruit body, and also more active than PPP enzymes within the mycelium itself. Within the basidiome, specific activities of EMP and PPP enzymes were about the same. Enzymic activity in mature pileus of C. cinereus resembled the pattern in the mycelium rather than the basidiome of L. edodes; EMP enzymes were very much more active than PPP. The positive correlation between high PPP activity and accumulation of large amounts of mannitol in the basidiome is discussed.
Malted barley waste produced during the brewing process was used as a medium for the growth of Lentinus edodes mycelium. This by-product proved to be a suitable material for mycelial growth and for the production of high levels of laccase and manganese peroxidase, especially when mixed with oak wood chips. Enzyme production by the mycelium grown on a mixture of malt-containing by-product, oak wood chips and perlite was compared in three fermentation systems. High amounts of enzymes were produced in the solid phase in a model solid-state fermentation system, and also in the liquid phase in a system in which the liquid phase was situated under a malt substrate overgrown with L. edodes mycelium in contact with the air.
Mycelial growth of two strains of the mushroom Lentinula edodes (IE-40 and IE-105) was evaluated on barley straw, corn cob, corn stover, rice bran, bracts of pineapple crown, coffee husk, sugarcane bagasse and sugarcane leaves. The last four substrates were chosen for mushroom production essays. A mixture of coffee husks, coffee pulp and sorghum,grains was used as spawn. The substrates were sterilised and inoculated, under aseptic conditions, in plastic bags. The bags were incubated at 25 degrees C in darkness. There was no development of primordia in the coffee husks. In the other substrates, primordia were observed between 30 and 62 days. Both strains, IE-40 and IE-105, showed their highest production in sugarcane bagasse, with biological efficiencies of 130-133 %, followed by 83-98 % in sugarcane leaves and 36-37 % in bracts of pineapple crown. ((C) Inra/Elsevier, Paris.).
Chinese natural medicinal products as feed supplements have been used as growth and health promoters in farm animals in China for centuries. A current estimation of the number of Chinese natural medicines ranges between 6,000 and 8,000, of which less than 5% has immuno-active properties. Most of these medicinal products originate from plants. Polysaccharides are considered to be the most important components, which may act as immune enhancers or immuno-modulators. The relationship between polysaccharide structure and bio-activity is, however, not well understood. In this review, immune activities of the polysaccharides from two mushrooms, Lentinus edodes and Tremella fuciformis, and a herb, Astragalus membranaceus radix, are reported, based on studies in chickens, mice, rats and humans. It can be concluded from these studies that polysaccharides derived from these products can play important roles in: (1) stimulating the growth of immune organs such as spleen, thymus and bursa; (2) increasing the number and activities of many interdependent cell types such as T, B lymphocytes, macrophages, natural killer (NK) cells and lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cells; (3) enhancing T-cell mediated immune response, such as an increased rate of T-lymphocyte transformation and proliferation; (4) enhancing humoral immune response, such as spleen and serum antibody production, the number of haemolytic plague forming cells (PFC) and haemolysin production and (5) inducing secretion and production of cytokines and complements of T-cells and NK cells. Today's poultry producers are confronted by numerous prophylactic techniques to prevent diseases. The immuno-active polysaccharides from mushrooms and herbs might be good candidates as health promoting feed additives in poultry diets. Further studies are needed to investigate the effects of such bioactive components to improve productive performance in chicken and to elucidate the possible modes of action related to the gut ecosystem and the immune response.
Lentinula edodes is the second most important cultivated mushroom worldwide, the most commercial strains have been identified only through traditional phenotypic analysis. In this study, a simple rapid PCR-based molecular method was developed for distinguishing commercial strains of L. edodes by developing specific sequence characterized amplified region (SCAR) markers and establishing multiplex PCR assays with the SCAR primers. Derived from the randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and sequence-related amplified polymorphism (SRAP) techniques, 10 informative SCAR markers were generated from 10 polymorphic RAPD and SRAP bands. The differences in SCAR phenotypes among different strains made these SCAR markers potentially useful to characterize 6 strains and identify them from other studied strains. Moreover, different SCAR phenotypes also made the other 17 studied strains to be divided into four distinguishable groups. The multiplex PCR assays were further established for the joint use of some SCAR markers efficiently. Compared with some identification methods reported previously, the special feature of this new molecular method is technically rapid and convenient in the practical use and suitable for analyzing large numbers of samples. Thus, the simple rapid PCR-based molecular method can be used as a helpful assistant tool for the lentinula industry. To our knowledge, this study is the first to describe a development of a new SCAR maker-based multiplex PCR assay for rapid molecular typing of edible mushroom.
Basidiomacromycetes represent a circumscribed group of higher fungi of the class Basidiomycetes, wherein the basidia bearing the exogenously produced basidiospores represent the fertile layer (hymenium), which in turn is lined up, encroached, and covered by tufts of tissues to form distinct objects of the Earth's beauty, namely the basidiocarps. Genetic incompatibility factors (bipolarhetrapolar) allow these fungi fungi great diversity in their ability to grow over a range of conditions: fermented or unfermented; pasteurized or unpasteurized; sterilized or unsterilized; on soft woods or hardwoods; on cereal straws or oil crop residues, or plantation crop residues. Moreover, Basidiomacromycetes display an array of physiological properties that have a range of useful applications. Edible species represent the best examples: they grow over a range of lignocellulosic substrates to yield fruiting bodies, and the degarded substrates can in turn be used in a number of useful ways. The search for new species of basidiomacromycetes and research on new and different ways to use these fungi should be a matter of priority. It is a task that requires much intelligence and perseverance. Increasing the list of their applications depends on prolonged and continued research. It can take the ingenuity of mankind, coupled with nature's mercy, to unravel the untapped potentialities of the basidiomacromycetes.
Starch gel electrophoresis of allozymes extracted from mycelium grown in submerged culture was used to identify and catalog lines of Lentinula edodes. Variability at 11 multiallelic loci was used to separate 91 lines collected from worldwide sources into 35 genotypic classes. Genotypic class 2 was the largest, with 18 lines; 18 other genotypic classes contained more than one line; and 16 genotypic classes contained only one line each. Three hybrids, with potential commercial value, were produced by crossing single-spore-derived monokaryons of different genotypes. Each of the three hybrids could be differentiated from the above 35 classes based on their multilocus allelic combinations. Multilocus enzyme analysis should aid the description, registration, and licensing of improved shiitake cultivars.
Substrate formulations of sawdust, wheat bran, and millet were inoculated with spawns from one hybrid and two parental genotypes of Lentinula edodes. Biological efficiency (BE) and size data on mushrooms harvested from two substrate formulations with spawn run times of 60, 90, and 120 days were analyzed. A significant genotype-spawn run time-substrate formulation interaction was observed for BE. The longer spawn runs resulted in greater BE than the shorter spawn runs. This study points to the need for more work to determine the underlying variability within genotypes.
Three experiments were performed to determine the effect of selected saccharides on mushroom yield and basidiome size of shiitake (Lentinula edodes) when grown on a synthetic substrate. Substrate formulations of sawdust, wheat bran, and millet were nonamended or amended with sucrose, fructose, or glucose. Addition of sucrose (0.6 to 1.2% [dry weight]) to the substrate stimulated mushroom yield by 11 to 20% or more. Addition of fructose at 1.2% and glucose at 0.6% resulted in similar yield increases. Most of the yield increase occurred on the first break. The substrate amended with 1.2% sucrose tended to have a more synchronous maturation for the second break resulting in fewer days when mushrooms were harvested.
Mannitol metabolism was evaluated in fruiting bodies of Lentinus edodes. Cell extracts were prepared from fruiting bodies, and key enzymes involved in mannitol metabolism were assayed, including hexokinase, mannitol dehydrogenase, mannitol-1-phosphate dehydrogenase, mannitol-1-phosphatase, and fructose-6-phosphatase. Mannitol dehydrogenase, fructose-6-phosphatase, mannitol-1-phosphatase, and hexokinase activities were found in extracts of fruiting bodies. However, mannitol-1-phosphate dehydrogenase activity was not detected. Mycelial cultures were grown in an enriched liquid medium, and enzymes of the mannitol cycle were assayed in cell extracts of rapidly growing cells. Mannitol-1-phosphate dehydrogenase activity was also not found in mycelial extracts. Hence, evidence for a complete mannitol cycle both in vegetative mycelia and during mushroom development was lacking. The pathway of mannitol synthesis in L. edodes appears to utilize fructose as an intermediate.
DNA restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) were examined in Lentinula edodes strains. Genomic DNA from strain 70 was cloned in plasmid vector pUC19, and 18 random clones containing low-copy DNA sequences were used to probe seven strains in Southern DNA-DNA hybridizations. Each cloned fragment revealed DNA polymorphism. An RFLP genotype was determined for each strain and the genetic relatedness was assessed. The coefficients of genetic similarity among the seven strains ranged from 0.43 to 0.90. The inheritance of RFLP markers was examined in single spore isolates. Homokaryons displayed a loss of polymorphic bands compared with the parent dikaryon. Hybrids constructed by crossing compatible homokaryons displayed the inheritance of RFLP markers from each parent homokaryon.
In the last 20 years, mushroom consumption and production have increased at a faster rate than almost any other agricultural food product. The consumption and production of Agaricus (A. bisporus and A. bitorquis) and the Shiitake (Len tin us edodes) mushrooms account for 74% and 14%, respectively, of the total world production and demand for cultivated mushrooms. Since the origin of Agaricus cultivation in France, much progress has been made and the bulk of the scientific and engineering progress has been achieved since the beginning of this century. Mushroom science, a composite science of many disciplines including plant pathology, entomology, horticulture, food science, agricultural engineering, agricultural economics and rural sociology has contributed a great deal to the worldwide growth of the industry. Future improvements in mushroom culture will come notonly from a more thorough understanding of ingle facel within the overall process, but from a more complete understanding of the interrelationship of these facets with each other.
Mushrooms represent one of the world's greatest untapped resources of nutritious foods. They can be grown on various agricultural and industrial waste materials; they are rich in protein, minerals, and vitamins; and they contain an abundance of the essential amino acid lysine. Therefore, mushrooms can be a good supplement to cereals.