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Salt: A Review of its Role in Food Science and Public Health
Abstract
Salt has been used in food preparation since pre-history and is still routinely added in modern food manufacturing processes. Salt may be added at the table or during cooking; however a large amount of dietary salt originates from processed foods (∼60-70% of adult daily dietary salt). Excess salt intake is strongly linked to increases in blood pressure (hypertension) and subsequently pre-disposes individuals to the onset of cardiovascular disease (CVD), a leading cause of death in developed countries. Excess dietary salt intake has also been linked to the development of kidney disease, aggravation of asthma conditions and to the onset of osteoporosis. Results from large numbers of human studies have led to worldwide initiatives being put in place in order to reduce current levels of salt consumption. Hence there is an urgent need to reduce excess dietary salt intake from processed foods in particular. Current daily consumption figures can be as high as ∼10-12g NaCl per day while an intake of 4g salt per day is sufficient. Therefore a target reduction to an intake of 6g per day is the goal for a number of public health agencies worldwide. An incremental reduction in salt content in foods appears to be the best strategy to reduce population blood pressure values. However any reduction in salt content in processed foods must not impact on product safety or sensory quality. In this review various public health aspects of salt intake are considered. Additionally, the technological implications of salt reduction in foods are discussed and the possibilities for replacement of salt by addition of salt replacers, herbs, spices and other food ingredients to maintain product quality are highlighted.
... Table salt, chemically known by the name sodium chloride (NaCl), is a substance composed of sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-) ions [1], which typically appear as small, white, crystalline granules or as a fine powder, soluble in water, and have a salty taste [2,3]. Salt is a ubiquitous dietary component consumed worldwide for human health and nutrition [4][5][6]. However, the quality and mineral content of salt vary significantly depending on its source [7], storage conditions [8], production, and processing methods [9][10][11]. ...
... This suggests that non-iodate salts are most likely present in the public environment, undermining the effectiveness of iodization programs and exacerbating nutritional deficiencies among the population [9,12]. Other minerals such as Nitrate (NO 3 − ), phosphate (PO 4 3− ), sulphate (SO 4 2− ), iron (Fe 2+ or Fe 3+ ), manganese (Mn 2+ ), ammonium (NH 4 + ), and copper (Cu 2+ ) are necessary for general health and nutrition [8,16,32,33], their deficiencies have profound effects on increased risk of anemia, osteoporosis, and cardiovascular disease [34]. ...
The study examines the mineral content of table salts used by households in villages adjacent to the production areas. A total of 210 samples from commercial and local salts were collected, and analyzed using iodometry titration, spectrophotometry, colorimetry, and atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) techniques, followed by a household interview for salt type preference. The lowest detectable concentration LOD, lowest quantifiable concentration LOQ and, recovery of methods ranged (0.32–2.155 μg/kg), (0.117–6.387 μg/kg) and, (94.2–103.6 %), respectively. Significant differences in mineral contents were observed within and between local and commercially branded salts (p < 0.001). The mean iodine in the local salt samples from Kitangiri (SA), Singidani (SB), Kindai (SC), Chibumagwa (SD), and Sulunga (SE) ranged from 10.5 ± 0,02 to 16.9 ± 0.01 mg/Kg, with only SA and SC in the World Health Organization (WHO) limits, while commercially branded salt samples SF (Malindi), and SG (Dar es salaam) ranged from 23.4 ± 0.01 to 35.9 ± 0,02 mg/kg that were in the Tanzania Bureau of Standards (TBS) and WHO agreed range. Other ions recorded were nitrate (3.3–4.4 mg/kg, 5.45–7.40 mg/kg), phosphate (0.02–0.48 mg/kg, 0.03 mg/kg), sulphate (0.31–0.42 mg/kg, 0.03–0.07 mg/kg), ammonia (0.5 mg/kg, 0.5 mg/kg to 0.6 mg/kg), copper (1.0–2.0 mg/kg, 0.9–2.0 mg/kg), iron (0.5–1.8 mg/kg, 0.9 mg/kg), and manganese (0.5–1.8 mg/kg, 0.9 mg/kg) for local and commercially branded salt, respectively. Households preferred local to commercial-branded salts: Nkonkilangi 163 (69.9, 32.1 %), Mangwanjuki 96 (17.2, 82.8 %), Unyanga 54 (26.7, 73.3 %), Chibumagwa 106 (63.0, 37.0 %), and Chali Igongo 51 (74.6, 25.4 %), respectively. Public health interventions are recommended to promote the consumption of adequately iodized salt for informed dietary choices.
... People consumed salt exclusively through food millions of years ago, which amounted to less than 0.5 g/ day [1]. Salt became the most sought-after item in the world when it was discovered that it is a potent additive that extends the shelf life of foods and ensures microbiological safety [2]. Salt is a compound of sodium 40% and chlorine 60%, i.e. 1 g of salt contains 0.4 g of sodium (Na) and 0.6 g of chlorine (Cl). ...
... Salt is a compound of sodium 40% and chlorine 60%, i.e. 1 g of salt contains 0.4 g of sodium (Na) and 0.6 g of chlorine (Cl). On the declaration worldwide, the manufacturer is obliged to declare the amount of salt per 100 g or 100 ml food [2]. ...
People consumed salt exclusively through food millions of years ago, which amounted to less than 0.5 g/day. Recent researches indicate that the average daily consumption of salt is more than 10 g/day. The general conclusion of studies investigating the relationship between dietary salt intake and blood pressure led to recommendations on reducing salt intake and limiting total intake to 5 g of salt per day by the World Health Organization and the European Safety Agency of Food. Increased salt intake causes suppression of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone system by reducing sodium renal excretion. Also, an increase in salt intake leads to an increase in the concentration of sodium in the blood, which causes high secretion of vasopressin and causes high blood pressure. Namely, bread is a basic food and is high in salt, but the salt parameter is not mandatory in accordance with the regulations. Today, almost every EU country has different strategies that include recommending salt reduction through food reformulation to reduce the salt content of food, including bread and bakery products. Achieving and maintaining the reduction of the population's salt intake will soon give a great benefit in terms of the prevention of cardiovascular events as the first cause of death globally, then great savings for the health system and an individual.
... This strategy allows for a decrease in sodium content without compromising the palatability and the intensity of the salty taste of food [15]. Herbs are promising saltiness enhancers [16]. Barnett et al. [17] determined that the addition of herbs to ready-to-eat (RTE) pasta meals enhanced the perception of saltiness at lower salt concentrations than at higher concentrations; thus, it was possible to reduce the salt content up to 50% without compromising the overall liking of the meals. ...
... The addition of herbs to the meals enhanced the detection of saltiness. In meals with the same salt concentration, the added herbs positively impacted the enhancement of salty and the detection of saltiness, a finding that points to herbs as an effective strategy in salt reduction [16,17,26]. ...
This study employed a home-use test to explore the sensory perception and evoked emotions of older adults in the assessment of chicken pasta meals with different salt concentrations. Ready-to-eat (RTE) meals with three salt levels (100%, 75%, and 50%) and two treatments—with and without added herbs—were tested. Multiple sensory attributes and overall meal liking were evaluated by participants (n = 54; 60–86 years of age) with hedonic and just-about-right scores. Twenty-five food-evoked emotions were also tested. Sensory results suggested a 50% salt reduction is possible with minimal impact on the overall liking, while a 25% salt reduction did not affect the saltiness and flavor liking of the meals. Herb addition positively impacted the aroma, flavor, and spiciness liking of the meals. The emotions that differed (p < 0.05) among meals were active, aggressive, bored, calm, happy, and wild, with the meals with herbs added eliciting more positive emotions. A questionnaire elicited information about participants’ interest in healthy eating, food technology neophobia, and picky behaviors to determine the influence of these factors on participants’ salt consumption habits. Sensory acceptance data combined with questionnaires explored what influenced this group of older adults in their acceptance of and interest in RTE meals.
... "Blindness and varying degrees of visual impairment were widespread in the ancient Greco-Roman world" [21], and Roman emperor Nero was said to be nearsighted [22]. Salt was a highly valued commodity at the time, and the ancient Greeks described the value of a slave with the expression, "not worth his salt", while the word "salary" is derived from the salt paid to Roman soldiers [23]. In ancient China, salt was used to preserve food as early as 5000 years ago [23], and "interest in diseases of the eyes (which were probably rampant in antiquity) is evident in early medical writings from the Middle East, India and China" [24]. ...
... Salt was a highly valued commodity at the time, and the ancient Greeks described the value of a slave with the expression, "not worth his salt", while the word "salary" is derived from the salt paid to Roman soldiers [23]. In ancient China, salt was used to preserve food as early as 5000 years ago [23], and "interest in diseases of the eyes (which were probably rampant in antiquity) is evident in early medical writings from the Middle East, India and China" [24]. Greek philosopher Aristotle is credited with coining the word myopia in 350 BC [22]. ...
Theories of myopia etiology based on near work and lack of outdoor exposure have had inconsistent support and have not prevented the rising prevalence of global myopia. New scientific theories in the cause and prevention of myopia are needed. Myopia prevalence is low in native people consuming traditional diets lacking in sodium chloride, and nutritional epidemiological evidence supports the association of rising myopia prevalence with dietary sodium intake. East Asian populations have among the highest rates of myopia associated with high dietary sodium. Similar associations of sodium and rising myopia prevalence were observed in the United States in the late 20th century. The present perspective synthesizes nutritional epidemiology evidence with pathophysiological concepts and proposes that axial myopia occurs from increased fluid retention in the vitreous of the eye, induced by dietary sodium chloride intake. Salt disturbs ionic permeability of retinal membranes, increases the osmotic gradient flow of fluid into the vitreous, and stretches ocular tissue during axial elongation. Based on the present nutritional epidemiology evidence, experimental research should investigate the effect of sodium chloride as the cause of myopia, and clinical research should test a very low-salt diet in myopia correction and prevention.
... Salt naturally occurs in the sea, lakes, rocks, and wells [34]. Seawater deposited in an enclosed area produces salinas (solar pond work) after crystallization due to evaporation and the heating effect of sunlight. ...
In the last century, human activities were the primary cause of air, water, and soil contamination. However, in the twenty-first century, while pollutants like sulfur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) remain significant, microplastics (MPs) have emerged as a new global environmental concern. Microplastics are plastic fragments that are less than 5 mm in diameter. Their widespread distribution in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems has adverse impacts on various ecological systems. The presence of MPs has been well documented in diverse matrices, such as table salt, drinking water, indoor and outdoor air, beer, cold drinks, aquatic organisms, plants, and earthworms. The potential adverse effects of MPs consumption have been reported in various organisms, including earthworms and aquatic fishes; however, their potential effects on human health through respiratory, dietary, and other exposures are still being elucidated. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on potential sources, quantities present in water, table salt, air, and possible routes in the human body through different trophic levels. Furthermore, this paper reviews insights into the movement and accumulation of MPs at different trophic levels (i.e., aquatic, and terrestrial organisms) and their impacts on the cycling of soil carbon and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus). Additionally, this review paper addresses the current trends in MPs research and proposes strategic management techniques to mitigate MPs pollution.
... Salt is one of the essential mineral components of a healthy diet, used in food preparation and food manufacturing processes which is added at the table or during cooking. Physically, salt is a white crystal with the largest chemical compound being sodium chloride (NaCl >80%) (Durack et al., 2008;Sumada et al., 2018). The elements of sodium and chloride include types of macro minerals needed by the human body in large quantities (> 100 mg/day). ...
As a natural ingredient containing many nutrients and beneficial to human health, Moringa oleifera leaf extract can be used as a food-fortification ingredient. Fortifying daily seasonings such as salt with M. oleifera leaf extract can help to fulfill human daily nutrition requirements and deliver health benefits. This research aimed to study the influence of fortifying sea salt with M. oleifera leaf extract on the product's chemical characteristics and sensory properties. M. oleifera leaf extract was added into fine salt with different concentrations of 20% and 40% (w/v) and heated at 55℃ for 10 mins. The chemical properties were analysed to evaluate the nutritional properties of the product, for instance, β-carotene, vitamin C, moisture and NaCl content. Subsequently, sensory properties are presented to assess product preference from panellists. The result showed that the β-carotene and vitamin C in 20% and 40% treatments were 12.641 to 27.922 μg/ kg and 5.06 to 7.392 mg/kg, respectively. The moisture content in control, 20%, and 40% treatments were all below 5%. NaCl content, as the major compound in the product, was affected by adding M. oleifera leaf extract into the product. Applying 40% M. oleifera leaf extract to the salt significantly decreased the NaCl content of the product compared with 20% treatment and control. All sensory properties attributes have decreased as an increase of M. oleifera leaf extract concentration. Compared with the 40% treatment, the 20% treatment showed a higher value of sensory properties. A preference for salt fortification was also shown at the 20% treatment in the neutral midpoint. Thus, an additional 20% of M. oleifera leaf extract provided higher nutritional content than the control and was more acceptable to consumers than the 40% treatment.
Edible brown seaweeds, sea spaghetti (SS) and Irish wakame (IW), were incorporated at 2.5% into the formulation of reduced-fat (fat reduced from 25% to 20%, 15%, and 10%) and -salt (sodium chloride—NaCl) (salt reduced from 2% to 1.5%, 1%, and 0.5%) pork sausages. The physicochemical and sensory characteristics of the reformulated sausages were analysed. Subsequently, shelf-life evaluation (lipid oxidation and microbiological analyses) was performed on selected sausages stored under aerobic (AP), MAP70/30 (70% N2:30% CO2), MAP80/20 (80% O2:20% CO2), and vacuum (VP) conditions. Relative to the control, seaweed sausages containing 10% fat had higher (p < 0.05) protein and 1.5% salt seaweed sausages had higher (p < 0.05) ash content. The addition of seaweed did not affect the pH of reduced-fat and -salt sausages, and cook loss increased in reduced-fat sausages. Reduced-fat and -salt seaweed sausages were darker in colour than the experimental controls. Based on sensory results, the most accepted sausages using SS and IW were 10% fat, 0.5% salt (SS10f/0.5s), and 15% fat, 1% salt (IW15f/1s), respectively. With regard to the shelf life of selected seaweed sausages, MAP70/30 (70% N2, 30% CO2) and VP (vacuum packaging) were the most effective approaches for the lipid oxidation and TVC (total viable counts), respectively.
Today salt is the most desired and routinely added major food ingredient used in many food preparation and food processing technologies as well as in many therapeutic purposes. The taste of salt or saltiness is universally accepted by the human society since time immemorial. There are many literatures describing about the modern human civilizations obtaining salt from different sources to satisfy their gustatory senses. Likewise the Karbi tribe, a hilly tribe of Assam, India, have been observed practicing extraction of a liquid condiment as salt-substitute from different plants and plant parts since time immemorial. The extracted condiment is known as Phelo in the region and it provides a unique flavour and many essential minerals to the local diets. But at present it is observe that such salt-alike condiment extraction practice is vanishing from this region because of replacement of these local condiments with the commercially available refined salts and soda powder. Therefore the present study was an attempt to help uncover the forgotten salt resources and transform these liquid condiment used as salt-substitute to a solid form and also highlight its therapeutic potentialities. Today many man-made harmful food ingredients and food additives causing many deleterious health issues are the main cause of concern among the people, so the present study will provide a new herbal salt-substitute with an up-to-date nutritional information which is very natural and safe for human consumption.
Umami is the term that identifies the taste of substances such as L-glutamate salts, which were discovered by Ikeda in 1908. Umami is an important taste element in natural foods; it is the main taste in the Japanese stock “dashi,” and in bouillon and other stocks in the West. The umami taste has characteristic qualities that differentiate it from other tastes, including a taste-enhancing synergism between two umami compounds, L-glutamate and 5′-ribonulceotides, and a prolonged aftertaste. The key qualitative and quantitative features of umami are reviewed in this paper. The continued study of the umami taste will help to further our general understanding of the taste process and improve our knowledge of how the taste properties of foods contribute to appropriate food selection and good nutrition.
