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Abstract

Research at Rujm el-Hiri, a Bronze Age megalithic monument in the southern Levant provides a broad insight into two episodes in the prehistory of the Levant—the construction and usage of the Early Bronze Age (EBA) ceremonial complex, and the erection of a cairn at the center of the monument some 1500 years later. Excavations in 1988–1991 provide information on Rujm el-Hiri's geometry, alignment associations between the architecture of the complex and celestial bodies and events, physical elements in the landscape, and local ecology-related phenomena. We also examine the significance of timekeeping and its implications for the agricultural calendar and cosmological domains of the local cultures. Data drawn from archaeological, astronomical, ethnohistorical, and biblical sources reveal the sophistication of the 3rd millennium B.C. construction phase of the Rujm el-Hiri complex. Among the finds reported are the systematic use of a measuring unit to construct the site; the establishment of an accurate alignment system for both celestial and non-celestial elements in the landscape; the organization of an orientation calendar as a basis for economic activities; and the hints of a rich cosmology. Overall, our study of the Rujm el-Hiri megalithic phenomena reveals a level of cultural complexity not previously documented in the Levant of the 3rd millennium B.C.
... Since its discovery in 1968, Rujm el-Hiri has captivated the imagination of many archaeologists and enthusiasts alike [22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]. Comprised of a central cairn surrounded by several concentric circles made of basalt stones, the complex reached ca. 150 m in diameter and ca. ...
... This implies that the primary axes of Rujm el-Hiri have rotated over time along with the entire region, casting significant doubt on the popular theory that Rujm el-Hiri was an observatory. Studies such as Aveni and Mizrachi [26] have recalculated the sky map and aligned the directions of the solstices, equinoxes, Sirius, and other celestial bodies as they would have appeared in 2500-3500 BCE, matching them with the current orientation of Rujm el-Hiri's symmetry axes and entrances. However, our analysis reveals [72]). ...
... This implies that the primary axes of Rujm el-Hiri have rotated over time along with the entire region, casting significant doubt on the popular theory that Rujm el-Hiri was an observatory. Studies such as Aveni and Mizrachi [26] have recalculated the sky map and aligned the directions of the solstices, equinoxes, Sirius, and other celestial bodies as they would have appeared in 2500-3500 BCE, matching them with the current orientation of Rujm el-Hiri's symmetry axes and entrances. However, our analysis reveals that the alignment of the gateways and radial walls during that historical period was entirely different from today's. ...
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Remote sensing techniques provide crucial insights into ancient settlement patterns in various regions by uncovering previously unknown archaeological sites and clarifying the topological features of known ones. Meanwhile, in the northern part of the Southern Levant, megalithic structures remain largely underexplored with these methods. This study addresses this gap by analyzing the landscape around Rujm el-Hiri, one of the most prominent Southern Levantine megaliths dated to the Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age, for the first time. We discuss the type and extent of the archaeological remains identified in satellite images within a broader context, focusing on the relationships between landscapes and these objects and the implications of their possible function. Our analysis of multi-year satellite imagery covering the 30 km region surrounding the Sea of Galilee reveals several distinct patterns: 40–90-m-wide circles and thick walls primarily constructed along streams, possibly as old as Rujm el-Hiri itself; later-period linear thin walls forming vast rectangular fields and flower-like clusters of ~ 20 m diameter round-shaped fences found in wet areas; tumuli, topologically linked to the linear walls and flower-like fences. Although tumuli share similar forms and likely construction techniques, their spatial distribution, connections to other archaeological features, and the statistical distribution in their sizes suggest that they might serve diverse functions. The objects and patterns identified may be used for further training neural networks to analyze their spatial properties and interrelationships. Most archaeological structures in the region were reused long after their original construction. This involved adding new features, building walls over older ones, and reshaping the landscape with new objects. Rujm el-Hiri is a prime example of such a complex sequence. Geomagnetic analysis shows that since the entire region has rotated over time, the Rujm el-Hiri’s location shifted from its original position for tens of meters for the thousands of years of the object’s existence, challenging theories of the alignment of its walls with astronomical bodies and raising questions regarding its possible identification as an observatory.
... Several thousand megalithic monuments have been documented in the area; however, only 300 of them have been excavated. Digs have been carried out in Israel (Aveni & Mizrachi, 1998;Bahat, 1972;Epstein, 1985;Freikman & Porat, 2017;Vinitzky, 1992), Jordan (Fernandez-Tresguerres Velasco & Junceda Quintana, 1991;Fernandez-Tresguerres Velasco, 2011;Kerner, 2019;Kerner et al., 2017;Polcaro et al., 2014;Polcaro & Muniz, 2018;Kołodziejczyk, personal communication), Syria (Braemer et al., 2004(Braemer et al., , 2011Steimer-Herbet, 2006;Steimer-Herbet & Besse, 2017), and Lebanon (Steimer-Herbet et al., 2022;Tallon, 1964). Some researchers have also undertaken a review of the constantly evolving research on this subject (Avner, 2002;Fraser, 2018;Steimer-Herbet, 2004-2005. ...
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The aim of this paper is to present the methodology used to study the megalithic architecture of Menjez’s monuments (Akkar, Lebanon), as part of the MEG-A Project - “First megalith builders in the northern Levant” (2022–2025). Twenty-four monuments have been investigated since 2018. The primary objective is to pioneer a comprehensive understanding of the unique Levantine megalithic building techniques and re-establish the “chaînes opératoires,” by determining the builders’ sequence of actions. This groundbreaking methodology originally developed for Western European megalithic monuments, notably in Brittany, France, has been innovatively applied and customized to suit the Levantine context, specifically focusing on the distinctive basaltic monuments of Menjez and its surrounding areas. By using photogrammetry as a tool, the researchers are able to de-construct the megalithic architecture by analyzing the different components of these monuments. Moreover, it is then possible to describe monoliths according to their place within the monument and their geological and geomorphological features. Our work has led us to consider the symbolic aspect expressed in the megalithic architecture of Menjez. Employing this groundbreaking methodology not only yields concrete answers regarding the typology of these monuments but also dramatically reshapes our perception of their construction. It establishes a precise relative chronology for the various architectural phases and, most significantly, reveals the hidden details of the raw material supply chain.
... Menhirs, stone circles and passage graves all relate to prominent landscape features, such as mountain crests, streams and hillocks. A distribution of man-made megalithic monuments erected with relation to natural megaliths is seen in the vast area between the Arabian Peninsula and the Orkney Islands (see, e.g., Aveni and Mizrachi 1998;Garcí� a Sanjuán and Wheatley 2010;Bueno Ramí� rez, Balbí� n Behrmann and Bemejo 2017). ...
... Thus, LECs also form important components of biocultural diversity [23]. In the twentieth century, codified calendars were studied mostly for their role as instruments of power [24], relationship with social organization [25], influence over cityscapes [26,27], astronomical knowledge and agricultural productivity [28], calendrical devices [29], etc. The beginning of twenty-first century saw a renewed interest in calendars, but with a focus on LECs that are disappearing, perhaps at a faster pace than local languages, culture and biodiversity. ...
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Background Local ecological calendars are ecocultural frameworks that link temporal and spatial scales, contributing to resilience and adaptive management of natural resources and landscapes. They also facilitate management, access and withdrawal of provisioning ecosystem services. In this article, we describe how the ecological calendar of the Kedayan people of Brunei Darussalam links skyscape and biodiversity with sociocultural aspirations to foster adaptive management of landscape, and provide an understanding of the transmission of calendric knowledge in the community. Methods In 2018, we collaborated with sixteen purposively sampled knowledge keepers from the Kedayan community of Brunei Darussalam to document the Kedayan local ecological calendar, and develop a calendrical pictogram. Using a structured questionnaire, we then interviewed 107 randomly selected community members, to understand the contemporary relevance and popularity of the Kedayan calendar, and the transmission of calendric knowledge in the community. Results Our findings reveal that very few respondents (n = 27, 25.3%) are aware of the existence of Kedayan ecological calendar; majority (n = 80, 74.7%) were not aware of its existence. There is no statistically significant correlation between consulting healers, knowledge on appropriate time requisite to consult healers, and awareness and self-professed knowledge of Kedayan calendar. Only 14 (13.1%) of the respondents reported to have received some form of calendric knowledge, while the majority (86.9%; n = 93) never received any calendric knowledge. Only a negligible 1.9% reported to have transmitted calendric knowledge to others indicating a breakdown in transmission of calendric knowledge. Conclusion The calendric pictogram would help the community in revitalizing their calendar. However, the community will have to invest on enhancing transmission of calendric knowledge.
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