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Indigenous ways—fruits of our ancestors
Abstract
In this paper the human-nature relationship is recognized as a major field of interest and a platform of ideas linked with it is explored. A ‘new’ source to inform an alternative paradigm for outdoor education is proposed; it is millennia old, has roots all over the globe and is a living, breathing, and evolving tradition—indigenous ways. While recognizing the diversity of indigenous people, the paper explores common characteristics of thought and practice within indigenous traditions. Indigenous ways are defined and their connection with outdoor education is explored. The author concludes that indigenous ways have the potential to inspire a fundamental change in outdoor education, while providing working models for theory and practice.
... The longstanding connection with land through forests, wetlands, rivers, coastal areas and mountains provides the Indigenous cultures with a sense of identity, belonging and wellbeing. This is cultivated by all individuals engaging in keeping the human-nature relationship in balance as part of their daily life and wellness (Prechtel, 1999), experiencing the natural environment as home (Cohn, 2011) and forming their knowledge and world-views. ...
... Their long-standing connection with the land through forests, wetlands, rivers, coastal areas and mountains provides Māori with a sense of identity, belonging and wellbeing. This is cultivated by all individuals who engage with keeping the human-nature relationship in balance as part of their daily life and wellness (Prechtel, 1999), experiencing the natural environment as home (Cohn, 2011) and forming their knowledge and worldviews. Therefore, sense of place is understood as cosmology and culture passed on orally through generations, which in turn roots Māori and any other Indigenous people to their tribal land spiritually, emotionally and ethically, establishing a sense of belonging simultaneously. ...
In Aotearoa New Zealand, where biculturalism has emerged as a viable organising national ideology, the role of landscape is highly contested. The Indigenous Māori of Aotearoa New Zealand contend that their relationship with the land shapes how the cultural, spiritual, emotional, physical and social well-being of people and communities are expressed. Combining a dominant culture of New Zealanders of European descent with a highly urbanised society has resulted in the deterioration of the environment. With environmental pressures, a loss of the minority Māori cultural values concerning landscape has been noticed. However, there has been a growing demand towards a better understanding of culture and place-specific contexts affecting the health and well-being of populations in different environments.
While current ecological, social, and health models are still dominated by a Westernised approach that prioritises a medicalisation of health, many other cultures, such as Māori culture, embrace a more holistic approach to resource management, health and illness of our natural and built environments. This holistic approach tends to focus on the interconnectedness with landscape through mind, body and spirit, which is strongly evident in Indigenous cultures worldwide. The longstanding connection with land through forests, wetlands, rivers, coastal areas and mountains provides the Indigenous cultures with a sense of identity, belonging and well-being. This is cultivated by all individuals engaging in keeping the human-nature relationship in balance as part of their daily life and wellness, experiencing the natural environment like home and forming their knowledge and worldviews.
Research has shown that Indigenous people suffer significant health inequalities compared to dominant colonising cultures. Evidence indicates that these inequalities can be addressed by gaining a deeper understanding of the social and cultural determinants of health, applying Indigenous views of health and developing better definitions of the term well-being. This thesis draws on research exploring the relationship between Indigenous culture, the landscape and the connection with health and well-being. Using a case-study approach, it investigates the importance of the natural environment through the past, the present and the future; to better understand the importance of landscape and the therapeutic values imparted through different constructs pertaining to Māori models of health and well-being.
This study delivered information on health practices and well-being constructs through interviews and focus groups with pāhake (older adults), kaumātua (elders) and rongoā (traditional healers) practitioners, exploring the relationship between people and the natural environment. The findings supported that Māori conceptions of health and well-being are deeply associated with land as the basis of Māori identity. The research emphasised how the health of Māori might be improved by including a stronger connection to values pertaining to whakapapa (genealogy), mātauranga (knowledge), tikanga (customs), whakaora (healing), hinengaro (mind), wairua (spirit), tinana (body), tāngata (people), whenua (land), rākau (plants), whānau (family) that acknowledge the land as more than just physical or symbolic spaces for healing. Cultural and therapeutic environments should be seen as an essential element of our living fabric rather than a feature that seamlessly develops with time.
This research concluded that landscape is a foundational therapeutic aspect of well-being, expressing the forces that positively and negatively impact this relationship. Combining Indigenous knowledge with Western science and technology can make knowledge systems work for both Indigenous and Western people. A proposed framework is introduced about re-discovering Indigenous knowledge and its continued relevance to the way we live our lives. Through understanding Māori cultural and therapeutic values, key concepts can be integrated into and produce meaningful therapeutic environments. All three concepts, Indigenous culture, health and well-being, and landscape, must be interconnected and balanced to reduce Māori health inequalities and benefit the lands and all people of Aotearoa New Zealand.
... After consultation with elders and scholars, we settled to use Traditional Custodians to refer to the people who lived on land with unique practices, language, appearance, and beliefs (Cohn, 2011), later colonized by Europeans. We acknowledge that terms like Aboriginal, Indigenous, First Nations, Traditional Owners, Natives, and others have been used appropriately in the past, though we will use Traditional Custodians as this is commonly used for an Acknowledgement of Country in Australia (see https://www.indigenous.gov.au/contactus/welcome_acknowledgement-country). ...
... For example, Cohn (2011) argued that ways of knowing from these communities have the "potential to inspire a fundamental change" (p. 15) in outdoor therapy by providing new frameworks for theory and practice. ...
Taking talking therapy outdoors is becoming increasingly popular, especially gaining traction in response to COVID restrictions on what can be done face-to-face indoors, and with increasing awareness of benefits from being outdoors in nature (Ewert & Davidson, 2021). In this paper, we draw on ethics of sustainability from the outdoor activity sector to look for metaphors for therapeutic practice outdoors, especially solution-focused brief therapy. We start with what is currently regarded as good practice for the preservation and conservation of the environments and habitats we frequent. We then develop these tenets of ethics, such as Leave No Trace, as metaphors for deliberate solution-focused therapeutic work outdoors, especially with regard to honoring the voices of our clients. Metaphors are provided to demonstrate why, and how, outdoor therapy practitioners should aim to 'leave no trace' in the lives of those they serve, as they would leave no trace of their presence on the land they travel. We illustrate how our practice can draw on sustainability ethics to enable the decolonization of our solution-focused outdoor work (Mlcek, 2017), and consider how a privilege-aware approach to practice can be used to help 'decolonize' therapeutic practice. We suggest that solution-focused approaches to outdoor therapy require additional work in counselling theory and ethics to supplement outdoor leadership qualifications.
... Potter and Henderson (2004) used the term Indigenous knowledge to describe that knowledge which is native to the place. Cohn (2011) used the term Indigenous ways to describe the "wholeness of the indigenous world-view, philosophy, value base and action," (p. 16) suggesting that Indigenous perspectives may fill a void in the philosophical foundation of OE. ...
... Shared interests in education through experience, as well as environmental learning, and knowledge of place suggest OE can provide collaborative ground for Indigenous and non-Indigenous scholars and educators (Cohn, 2011;johnson & Ali, 2020;Redvers, 2020;Ritchie et al., 2015). Indigenous scholars have explained the characteristics of Indigenous knowledge, and understanding these characteristics may better inform creative and collaborative efforts and benefit both Indigenous and non-Indigenous teachers and students of OE (Mullins et al., 2015). ...
Being active in nature carries many benefits and there are a number of ways to design and deliver outdoor programs so that young people can realize these benefits. This paper provides an environmental scan of the outdoor education (OE) programs currently offered in public school, grades 6-12, across British Columbia (BC). The environmental scan methodology involved (a) a review of academic literature related to OE in Canada and BC, and (b) an internet search of programs in each school in BC. The results of the scan outline the wide-ranging outdoor learning activities being conducted in each of the 63 school districts in BC. Analysis of the literature and websites revealed eight main categories of OE programs: (a) physical and health education courses; (b) programs with an Indigenous focus; (c) interdisciplinary programs; (d) unique content programs; (e) annual trips; (f) district programs; (g) school-wide initiatives; and (h) community partnership programs. This environmental scan has implications for educators, administrators, non-governmental organizations wishing to partner with schools, BC Boards of Education, the provincial Ministry of Education, and other provinces and countries regarding creation of programs and resource allocation for outdoor learning.
... Connecting with Anishinaabe Bimaadziwin is an Indigenous process that is best understood from a relevant Indigenous perspective. Cohn (2011) suggested that Indigenous perspectives may help provide a framework for some of the evolving philosophical developments in outdoor education and environmental education. Other outdoor scholars have presented concepts that both respect and reflect Indigenous perspectives. ...
... Hence, OALE participants, staff leaders, Elders and community members may have described or guided interpretation differently. Nevertheless, consensus from a heterogeneous community (Wikwemikong) and support in the literature (Baker, 2005;Berger & McLeod, 2006;Beringer, 1999;Cohn, 2011;Ellis-Smith, 2005a;Henderson, 2007;Lane, 2012;Takano, 2005Takano, , 2009) provide evidence that the process of connecting to the Good Life may be a relevant concept and framework for use in other Indigenous communities and perhaps even for outdoor programs in non-Indigenous contexts. The results from this study also reinforce the importance of increasing cultural awareness in program design in both Indigenous and non-Indigenous contexts. ...
Indigenous voices are largely silent in the outdoor education and adventure therapy literature. The purpose of this research collaboration was to understand how a 10-day outdoor adventure leadership experience (OALE) may promote resilience and well-being for Indigenous youth through their participation in the program. The process was examined through a community-based participatory research project that sought insight from the perspectives of one First Nations community in Canada. The OALE was implemented with six different groups for a total of 43 youth participants (ages 11.9–18.7 years) from Wikwemikong Unceded Indian Reserve in northeastern Ontario. Field data were collected from multiple sources including participant interviews, journals, focus groups, and talking circles. Using a critical ethnographic lens, we analyzed the data inductively to understand how the OALE promoted resilience and well-being. We listened to Indigenous voices, adhered to principles of Indigenous coding for thematic content and respected Indigenous ways of knowing for interpreting results. The process of connecting to the Good Life (Anishinaabe Bimaadziwin) or waking up (nsidwaaswok) to the Good Life emerged as the dominant theme. Connecting to the Good Life may offer a simple yet compelling way to understand the net impact of the OALE.
... Against this background, it is suggested that nature-based teaching and traditional Norwegian friluftsliv can be an appropriate base for engagement in Sámi culture [33,34]. This is supported by Cohn [35], who claims that incorporating indigenous ways into outdoor education will provide relevant working models within the outdoor field. He pinpoints that indigenous ways support a value-based, place-specific, and nature-centered paradigm for outdoor education. ...
The recent reforms in the Norwegian early childhood/primary/secondary education curriculum explicitly highlight the inclusion of Sámi perspectives across various subjects. In this context, one of several suggested educational practices is to include Sámi traditional practitioners in teaching activities. Against this backdrop, this paper explores the perspectives of five Sámi practitioners, concentrating on their experiences and pedagogical practices when engaging students of various ages and kindergarten children in Sámi culture in a nature-based setting. The study reveals the practitioners’ arguments for sharing their culture and skills through such learning activities and their suggestions for inclusion in teaching practices. The qualitative-based research methodology comprises semi-structured interviews with Sámi practitioners who are involved in different cooperative projects within our region. These different practitioners offer learners the chance to engage with Sámi nature-based traditional practices by participating in activities in close collaboration with reindeer herders, duodji (handicraft) practitioners, coastal Sámi caretakers, and similar cultural educators in an outdoor setting. This study advocates for the significance of involving Sámi traditional practitioners and Sámi practices on all educational levels and proposes that nature-based activities are of specific value in such practices.
... The longstanding connection with the land through forests, wetlands, rivers, coastal areas and mountains provides Māori with a sense of identity, belonging and wellbeing. This is cultivated by all individuals who engage with keeping the human-nature relationship in balance as part of their daily life and wellness [16], experiencing the natural environment as home [17] and forming their knowledge and worldviews. Therefore, sense of place is understood as cosmology and culture passed on orally through generations, which in turn roots Māori and any other Indigenous people to their tribal land spiritually, emotionally and ethically, establishing a sense of belonging simultaneously. ...
The connection the Māori, the Indigenous people of Aotearoa-New Zealand, have to the land is threatened by the effects of colonisation, urbanisation and other factors. In particular, many Māori suffer significant health and wellbeing inequalities compared to the non-Māori population. In an effort to reduce such inequalities, there is a growing consciousness of the need to better understand the cultural and place-specific determinants that affect the health and wellbeing of population groups in different environments. This article explores how environmental and cultural connections to land enable the development of place-specific and culturally-driven principles that promote the health and wellbeing of Māori populations. It argues that concepts of place, belonging, landscape and wellbeing play an important role in linking environment and culture as well as in contributing to creating therapeutic spatial environments that promote both human health and ecosystems. A set of principles is developed that allows for the landscape design of such therapeutic environments while accommodating the socio-cultural and environmental values that promote health and wellbeing of both Māori and non-Māori people.
... The long-standing connection with land through forests, wetlands, rivers, coastal areas, and mountains provides the indigenous people a sense of identity and belonging. This sense of identity is cultivated by all individuals engaging in maintaining the human-nature relationship in balance as part of their daily life (Prechtel, 1999) and experiencing the natural environment as home (Cohn, 2011). Because of the inseparability between people and the natural world, indigeneity can be defined as a holistic system of knowledge developed based on a strong understanding of the natural systems that define the landscape (Marques, McIntosh, & Campays, 2018;Baker & Marques, 2017). ...
To recognize the significance of indigenous cultures and their landscapes as well as to appraise these places, identification and evaluation have to focus on indigenous worldviews rather than on the deeply embedded Western civilization ideals and values of the design. Australian Aboriginal and New Zealand's Maori cultures are genuinely rooted in experiential interrelationships with land with a particular orientation toward relationship and time entrenched in cosmology, narrative, and place. This article explores a participatory design strategy that facilitates and benefits indigenous cultures in Australia and Aotearoa/New Zealand. Using a design-led research approach, this study endeavors to nurture capacity building within "traditional custodians" in order to contribute to the sustainability of rural communities as well as caring for landscape. The article also introduces a framework better suited to nurturing and managing cultural landscapes. This framework demonstrates the potential to simultaneously empower indigenous cultures to protect things that matter but also to enhance their economic, political, and social freedom as they understand it through the lens of their own cultural values.
... The longstanding connection with land through forests, wetlands, rivers, coastal areas and mountains provides the indigenous cultures a sense of identity, belonging and wellbeing. This is cultivated by all individuals engaging in keeping the human-nature relationship in balance as part of their daily life and wellness (Prechtel, 1999), experiencing the natural environment as home (Cohn, 2011) and forming their knowledge and worldviews. ...
The indigenous Maori of New Zealand contend that the relationship they have with the land, shapes the ways in which the cultural, spiritual, emotional, physical and social wellbeing of people & communities are expressed. While research has explored the concepts of Maori health, few studies have explored the influence of the cultural beliefs & values on health and in particular, the intricate link between land & health.
Traditional Maori knowledge regards landscape as part of a circle of life, establishing a holistic perspective with respect to the relationship to health & wellbeing. With increasing urbanisation, modern technologies and the ageing of the elders in an oral culture, traditional practices are becoming lost. This paper focusses on the mātauranga Maori process of investigating a specific landscape relying on the past, present and future to better understand the importance and value of the therapeutic qualities implemented through the four pillars of Maori health & wellbeing.
Meanings of place and the relationship between place and health have culturally specific dimensions, yet these are often overlooked. This study broadens the understanding of therapeutic landscapes through the exploration of specific dimensions in the context of everyday life. It contributes to the expanding body of research focusing on the role of therapeutic landscapes and their role in shaping health. Therapeutic landscapes demonstrate the importance of place to maintaining physical, emotional, mental and spiritual health.
... Animism and sustainability education: nature, place, creative 'verbing', story-telling and 'outdoor' learning Whilst critical outdoor education and deep ecology maintain that 'we are part of nature' (Cachelin et al., 2011;Cohn, 2011;Colwell, 1997;Gruenewald, 2003;Magntorn, 2007;Martin, 2008;Morris & Martin, 2009;Porter & Cordoba, 2009;Sterling, 2004;Strachan, 2009;Thomas & Thomas, 2000), it has been our intention to demonstrate that 'nature' does not have parts and that the use of language which suggests a 'reconnection', or highlights the human place in a series of relationships with the environment, may do little to attain its goals of tackling the 'crisis of perception', in that it may enforce preconceived notions of nature and the environment as distinct from and distant to humanity. This appears a pertinent point for consideration given arguments in outdoor and environmental education that people should spend more time in 'wild nature' so as to develop affinity with the 'natural' environment and thus become more sustainably minded. ...
Outdoor environmental education has long postulated a link between experiences outdoors in ‘natural’ environments and environmental concern. This paper suggests a straightforward relationship is problematic due to its implicit assumption of a nature/ culture divide. Critical outdoor education has sought to overcome this dualism by describing a relational understanding of the world emphasizing ecological systems and highlighting humanity’s ‘connection’ to the environment. This relational approach aims to tackle the ‘crisis of perception’, argued to be the root cause of anthropogenic planetary degradation. We draw from the philosophical work of Deleuze and Guattari to suggest that relational ontologies, as currently conceived, may reinforce a static conception of the world by emphasizing ‘points of being’ (subject and object). Deleuze and Guattari proffer immanent materiality, where points of being are dispelled by movement and ‘becoming’. We then describe ‘animism’ as a mode of living where the world is understood to be immanent and constantly becoming. The consequences of animism are explored with regards to conceptions of ‘nature’, ‘place’ and ‘outdoor’ learning for sustainability. Creative practices to tackle the ‘crisis of perception’ are suggested as approaches that circumvent static conceptions of the world implied by points in relations and prevailing conceptions of nature as ‘other’.
... 1. Of course, many other philosophers besides Peirce and Dewey have been involved with pragmatism (James, Rorty, etc.), and numerous others besides Peirce and Heidegger have engaged with phenomenology (Husserl, Merleau-Ponty, etc.), but it is my contention that the works of Dewey and Heidegger, when brought into conversation via Peirce, offer an interesting way to illuminate our understanding of the two differing standpoints, and the way that they work together in experience. 2. The work of Abram, which builds on that of Merleau-Ponty as well as Husserl, is sometimes cited in outdoor education (see, e.g., Cohn, 2011;Payne & Wattchow, 2008;Wattchow, 2007Wattchow, , 2008. However, it would be difficult to use Abram's work to prosecute my argument in this paper as he does not clarify the ontological difference, instead employing terms that more closely align with transaction, such as 'intertwined' and 'reciprocate' (Abram, 1996, p. 33), in attempts to convey a simple aesthetic whole. ...
Self, others and nature (environment) have been suggested over numerous decades and in various places as a way of understanding experience in outdoor education. These three elements and the relations between them appear to cover it all. But is this really the final word on understanding experience? In this paper I explore two emphases within experience expressed by Peirce that offer differing ways of understanding experience: in one emphasis self, others and nature are submerged and not discerned; in the other they appear as the three familiar and related elements. The first emphasis is phenomenological and focused on a simple whole; the other is pragmatic and concerned with a total whole (elements in a totality). The key distinction here is that between something simple (one-fold) and something total (manifold). For Heidegger the difference between these is the ontological difference, where the two differing emphases are be-ing (verb) and beings (noun); or, expressed in another way, phenomenological thinking and calculative thinking. For Dewey these two emphases are revealed as aesthetic and reflective experience, both connected via inquiry. Awareness of this difference and connection suggests that issues involving self, others and nature as elements emerge from and return to the aesthetic ways of being (or occupations) that we build through our programme design and conduct. Relations between self, others and nature are submerged within these ways of being, highlighting how our programme design and conduct does not merely concern activities (including reflective activities), but involves building ways of being.
The rapid deterioration of both the natural environment and mental health calls attention to investigate the link between their parallel decline. Anticipating the need for an analysis of the same, the present paper attempts to summarise the literature covering human-nature connection and its implications for mental health in terms of research, therapy and intervention. The papers reviewed are organised under three sections. The first section delineates the effects of nature exposure on health and conceptualises the various nature-based therapies and techniques in literature. The second section includes the literature on Nature Deficit Disorder- a term, given by Richard Louv, referring to the collective consequences of disconnect with nature among today’s children. Finally, the third section includes evidences that support rebuilding the connection through outdoor education and the importance of turning to indigenous ways of teaching for a better impact.
Este estudo envolveu 54 estudantes do Escola Superior de Educação de Lisboa e visou identificar o seu conhecimento e perceções acerca dos áreas protegidos através da administração de um questionário. Os estudantes identificaram algumas das áreas protegidas de Portugal mas em número limitado. Globalmente, possuem ideias claras acerca das atividades a permitir e proibir no seu seio. Revelam alguma dificuldade em posicionar-se acerca da presença humana e da implementação do turismo no seu interior, assim como do seu papel no desenvolvimento económico. Tendem ainda a ignorar a dimensão cultural a elas associado. Defendem a suo visitação pela Escola, por motivos de sensibilização ambiental e de aprendizagem científica.
Within our fast-paced, fluid society, it is arguable that outdoor education needs to be innovative to play a useful role in young people’s overall educational enterprise. A critical view, however, would suggest that we must beware of accepting technological innovation for its own sake. Innovations (or improvements) in education can take the form of ideas, methods, and products. This paper discusses how outdoor educators need to recognise how some innovations may add unwanted layers of clutter that reduce direct interaction with geophysical, ecological, and sociocultural elements of the landscape, whilst lessening the quality and quantity of interaction between humans — whether with classmates or community members. It may be possible to assess the degree to which an innovative piece of equipment or educational practice is “good” by considering its ability to elicit meaningful engagement between the learner and the ideas, physical objects, and other human beings encountered.
This study explores the observations and perceptions of environmental education centre officers and teachers regarding children's experiences with nature. The study also explores the officers' and teachers' perceptions of the potential of using nature experiences in environmental education. A thematic analysis of data from interviews with 13 officers and 8 high school teachers in Sydney, Australia, revealed a widely held perception that children and young people have limited experience with natural settings in nature reserves and national parks. The interviewees suggested that although their students were interested in learning in natural settings, many were uncomfortable, afraid, and only had a vicarious understanding of Australian ecology, flora and fauna. The participants' view of the potential of nature experiences was twofold: nature experiences were fundamental for developing a connection with nature and establishing environmental concern, and experiences in nature facilitated ecological knowledge, which was considered to be a component of understanding and developing place identity in the Australian environment.
A number of commentators have identified and critiqued and approach to outdoor experiential learning as, variously, Priestian, American and algorithmic. These comments raise the questions of what are the characteristics of this algorithmic paradigm of outdoor experiential learning and what are thought to be the problems with it? This paper will address these questions and describe what the author believes to be a new, emerging practice defined by these critiques that he has called the Generative Paradigm after Robin Hodgkin. This paradigm is described and placed in the western and global cultural and educational debates responding to issues of sustainability and human purpose.
Rites of passage practices have caught the attention of educators seeking better methods of teaching adolescents. The fascination with the rites of passage model (ROP) is especially strong among outdoor educators. Once Van Gennep (1960) defined the rites of passage, a three-stage system of social transformation mediating role changes in a community, anthropologists were able to observe his social conception throughout all cultures. Outdoor educators have demonstrated interest in framing outdoor programs as rites of passage because of the structural similarities between outdoor programs and Van Gennep's first and second stages of a rite of passage.
While the ROP model has similarities to outdoor programs, the model is generally ineffective in most contemporary contexts because of challenges associated with the third stage of the ROP model. It is important for outdoor programs to understand these challenges prior to investing effort into using ROP models to achieve expected lasting benefits.
Most outdoor adventure programs use a Contemporary Adventure Model to mediate change, a fundamentally different rite of passage from the classic anthropological model. Outdoor educators need to decide among three choices with a ROP: abandon the ROP framework based upon a lack of goal congruence, follow a classic model and answer the many challenges the model brings with it, or follow a contemporary adventure model while cognizant of the model's weaknesses.
This paper exams the largely under-researched spheres of educational and adventurous activities occurring in 'nature' in the UK and Norway. Whilst the broad areas of outdoor adventure education, friluftsliv (Norwegian open air life/life in nature) and nature-based sports are, to varying degrees, considered to be culturally, socially and environmentally significant in these respective countries, limited analyses have been undertaken from socio-historical perspectives, and issues relating to gender largely ignored. In terms of contextual analyses, 'nature' as a special arena for gendered contradictions and conflict is omitted from much sport and educational feminist discourse. This paper highlights the interrelationships between and co-influences upon nature-based sports/educational cultures in the two countries until the early 1980s in light of gendered as well as classed outdoor traditions. The complexity of, and differences between, historical influences in the UK and Norway are illuminated. A number of material and social factors are shown to have shaped the development of the outdoor traditions in diverse ways in the two countries. A marked similarity across this period, however, was the persistent, if changing, male hegemony within and between the traditions. From the late 19th century the British aristocracy influenced outdoor education in the UK whilst playfully engaging with the Norwegian 'wilderness'. In the last quarter of the 20th century the 'deep ecology' of Norwegian (male) philosophers began to influence the British discourses within the outdoor traditions.
The importance of connection with the natural environment through direct experiences is increasingly argued in the context of education. This study examines educational programs, which aim to build a bond between young participants and their environment, at two broadly defined social and cultural settings; Western mainstream (Scotland) and the northern minority (Alaska and Nunavut). The main participants of the programs in a total of seven study groups are respectively; White British, Alutiiq, Yup'ik and Inuit. The study explores core cultural and social values in relation to the environment in each group, and discovers different meanings of 'connection' that are addressed through respective programs. The relationship with the environment in each group is analysed and the possible causes of the relational change are discussed. Using the acquired knowledge, it also looks into the programs' implications for education for sustainable living.
"This paper focuses on rites of passage as a model for wilderness programs. It draws on my experience in the field, particularly with Native youth in a community-based program called 'Rediscovery.' The Rediscovery program is discussed, along with concepts of traditional indigenous knowledge and education. Foundational concepts of rites of passage are described in terms of their relevance to youth, outdoor education, and the Rediscovery program in particular. Using Rediscovery as a model, rites of passage are put forward as an educational process for youth from various cultural backgrounds. In this context, the purpose of education is to cultivate self-knowledge and to foster core personal development: the making of whole human beings. The paper closes with a reflection on my work with traditional indigenous people and the significance of rites of passage for education, cultural transformation, and the transition to ecological sustainability."
This paper explores ways in which a nature therapist considers the issue of space when choosing “the right setting” for a session with a new client. Drawing upon the therapist’s thoughts prior to the encounter, the paper illustrates ways in which nature’s influence is incorporated into the choice, using this reflection to highlight new concepts. The article begins with a review of relevant theory, to place the issue within the larger context, continues with a reflexive description, and concludes with questions and themes that emerge from the case.
In this paper I discuss issues concerning pedagogical practice and inquiry in Outdoor Education raised by recognition that the human body inhabits a ‘technological lifeworld’. The intent is to challenge certain assumptions regarding interpretations of ‘experience’, the ‘environment’ and ‘the body’ in Outdoor Education practice. The theory and practice of Outdoor Education recognises that knowing becomes embodied through action. This process is often aided by pre-action focussing and post-action reflection. I argue that the stated educational goals of many Outdoor Education programs are made vulnerable due to the ‘hidden work’ of technologies encountered and inattention to the significance of technology in experience. The approach employed in this paper is to relate a brief overview of philosophical inquiry into technology and the body to the discussion of two exhibits (a spoon and a three-legged stool), both objects crafted by secondary school students as a part of their outdoor and environmental education. I conclude that human and environmental well being cannot be separated in the ‘technological lifeworld’ that humans are destined to inhabit, and that Outdoor Education must sustain a broad range of technologically mediated experiences of the environment through, with and in the body.
This paper examines to what degree a 10-week expedition to Ghana, West Africa may be considered a rite of passage for its British participants. A case study method was adopted to interview 14 British youths two months before leaving on expedition, three times on expedition, and six months post expedition. Thematic analysis was employed to identify positive and negative indicators of van Gennep's (1960) three stage model of rites of passage: separation, transition, and incorporation. The findings indicated that while the structure of the expedition mimics rites of passage on a superficial level, there are some aspects central to rites of passage that are missing from the overseas expedition experience. Expedition providers may consider adopting van Gennep's model as a way to 're-introduce' young people back into their communities with added responsibilities.
This phenomenological study sought to identify the attributes of meaningful learning experiences as found in an outdoor education program. Thirteen students in the Wilderness Writing Program at Brigham Young University were the sample of this study. Their participation in outdoor recreational activities and their reflections about their experiences were analyzed. Through written journal entries, group discussions, observations, and writing assignments, a qualitative analysis identified attributes that occurred in their meaningful learning experiences. Meaningful learning was defined as a realization of a person's weaknesses, strengths, and potentials. This realization came through experiences with attributes of a degree of perceived risk, which led to a feeling of awkwardness, followed by a purifying process, or sublimation. A reflective period allowed for reconstruction of a person's view of himself or herself and this was closely tied with feedback from others in the group.
From the discussion in parts one and two there are two main points that emerge. The first is that it is difficult to identify from outdoor education literature a philosophical framework on which practice is based. Secondly, the body of outdoor education literature attaches more importance to learning outcomes relating to personal and social education than environmental education. The purpose of part three is to offer a philosophical framework and use it to consider the relationship between outdoor education, environmental education and the related concept of sustainability education. The paper starts out by looking at the development of western thought and how it has promoted the concept of epistemological dualism's. The paper then presents an alternative framework of epistemological diversity including experiential, presentational, propositional and practical ways of knowing that has particular relevance for environmental education and sustainability education. Although the prime focus of this paper is environmental education it also deals explicitly with a philosophical framework which includes experiential learning. Consequently, it has relevance to other claims made of outdoor education in particular personal and social education.
This paper sets out to discover if the history of outdoor education, within the UK and more particularly Scotland, provides its modern exponents with a legacy of prescribed conservatism or alternatively a form of education which embraces, or is capable of embracing, diversity of theory and practice. It begins in the post World War II period entitled “out of the ashes” and charts the history decade by decade.Secondary sources are used and include statutory instruments as well as the body of literature that relates to outdoor education. The paper has succeeded in adding to the literature through uncovering rarely used sources. Secondary sources have been supplemented by primary data in the form of interviews. The interviews were used to provide detail and fill gaps where secondary sources were lacking.The time between the post-war period until the end of the 1960s charts the growth of outdoor education provision. This growth is characterised by diversity where common themes such as “fitness for war”, “character building” “social education” “recuperative holiday for socially disadvantaged young people” and “progressive education” emerge as competing and contrasting claims. Consequently it can be stated that outdoor education defies definition in terms of being a fixed entity of common consent, homogeneous over time and space.
Outdoor education curriculum documentation and promotional material has at different times laid claim to outdoor education developing relationships with nature. Theorizing about outdoor education and relationships with nature is evident in the literature, but a research base is scarce. What is a relationship with nature? How might such relationships with nature change? Importantly, how might outdoor education programs foster such change, and in what direction? This paper will overview outcomes from qualitative research program which sought answers to these questions. The research data is used to propose a pedagogical framework for human/nature relationship development.
The anthropomorphic paradigm in psychology and psychotherapy has prevented nature from being considered a factor in the curative relationship in adventure therapy. The effectiveness of therapeutic interventions are credited instead to human factors such as program design and facilitation. A paradigm shift is needed in adventure therapy to accept and honor the healing powers of nature. (Contains 50 references.) (TD)
This book aims to provide a succinct and clear overview of the principles and practices associated with adventure education in order to help practitioners do their work more effectively. Implicit in the book is a belief that adventure education has a positive impact on an individual's self-confidence, understanding of the world, and actual behavior. Although the validity of this assumption is now well documented, it is less clear how such impact is produced, what its relevance is for particular training and individual needs, and what the implications are for society. Program effectiveness depends upon a clear specification of the adventure education process and the relating of this process to specific individual needs. Part 1, "Development," introduces the main themes of adventure education and traces the evolution of the field from early philosophical antecedents and the beginnings of Outward Bound through an era of remarkable expansion during 1950-80. Part 2, "Principles," discusses the basic psychological and sociological ideas underlying adventure education and experiential learning, the principles involved in program design, and models and guidelines for applying theory to practice. Part 3, "Practice," uses "mini case studies" to examine the specific application of adventure education techniques in various settings. The case studies include programs in British elementary and secondary schools and communities; Outward Bound wilderness expeditions; and programs tailored to teachers, corporate managers, persons with disabilities, at-risk urban youth, and adult women. Part 4, "Themes," addresses current issues and trends in adventure education and key issues for the coming century. Contains 121 references and name and subject indexes. (SV)
Much of the research in outdoor education has focused on participant outcomes rather than the aspects of the experience that elicited those outcomes. This study explores the key elements of a 10–week expedition to Ghana with Raleigh International. Data collection involved five rounds of interviews with 14 British participants over a one–year period, using categorical aggregation to determine five principal themes critical to the experience. The findings highlight the importance of diverse groups living in isolated environments. Changing groups and moving to a new physical setting after four weeks and again at seven weeks was regarded as a challenging but necessary feature of the programme. Finally, there is little evidence linking specific programme activities with specific participant outcomes. It is more important that the experience should emphasise self-sufficient living conditions and physically demanding activities.
Preface This paper is the second of a three part series. Parts one (Nicol, 2002) and two look at aspects of the historical development of outdoor education in the United Kingdom. Part three builds on this historical platform and explores the importance of environmental education and its relationship with outdoor education. Abstract This paper follows the theme of part one in that it sets out to discover if the history of outdoor education provides its modern exponents with a legacy of prescribed conservatism or alternatively a form of education which embraces, or is capable of embracing, diversity of theory and practice. Focusing on local authority residential outdoor education centres it begins with the 1970s through the 1980s and ends with the 1990s. Secondary sources are used and include government and civil service education circulars as well as the body of literature that relates to outdoor education. The paper analyses how discussions of philosophical underpinnings and aims, together with the public perception of safety and risk came to influence the practice of outdoor education. This leads to a discussion of terminology and the role of outdoor education as a curricular subject. The influence of market forces on the provision of outdoor education and the increasing call for cost effectiveness is analysed in relation to the increasingly diverse range of activities coming under the umbrella term of outdoor education.
Drawing on experiences across Fourth World contexts, with an emphasis on the Alaska context, this article seeks to extend our understandings of the learning processes within and at the intersection of diverse worldviews and knowledge systems. We outline the rationale for a comprehensive program of educational initiatives closely articulated with the emergence of a new generation of Indigenous scholars who seek to move the role of Indigenous knowledge and learning from the margins to the center of educational research, thereby confronting some of the most intractable and salient educational issues of our times.
This article details the process and analysis of a case study, conducted over a six-week period, involving an outdoor education class in an all-boys Catholic, New Zealand secondary school. The questions explored by the case study were the subjective meanings of adventure experiences in outdoor education and the benefits of qualitative research for assessing the value of outdoor education. The methodological techniques used were observation, involving some researcher participation, and in-depth interviewing. Subsequent data analysis was based upon theories of experiential education and adventure education, and concepts of leisure and human agency. The results of the study suggest that the meanings participants make of their experiences, and the value they derive from them, exceed those that may conventionally be sought and measured as an improvement in self-concept. These findings suggest that learning through adventure is potentially valuable as a holistic and life-long form of activity that enhances the capacity to enjoy and engage in living. This is an important extension beyond its often limited and compartmentalised applications, which are rationalised by specific outcome based objectives. A qualitative methodology was indispensable to an inquiry of this kind and warrants further attention in the process of understanding the meanings of adventure and learning.
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