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The Language Planning Situation in the Philippines
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development
Abstract
The article begins with the language profile of the Philippines based on census data and the sociolinguistics and historical literature of the languages (local and second, largely English) in the country. The uses of the languages in various domains, especially in the field of education are described, and current policy on the Philippine version of bilingual education discussed and evaluated. In the third section, on language policy and planning, a historical sketch of language planning from laws enacted, revised and policies implemented is given. The prospects for the future are weighed and some guesses and estimates made on the future of the local languages and the second language, English.
... Broadly speaking, the process of creating and implementing language policy across contexts can be in part understood as being intimately interconnected with the ways in which the state imagines national and linguistic futures for itself at many intersecting ideological strata, as well as a conduit though which to align a citizenry with the discursive formulations of abstract, idealized national epistemes, broadly conceived (Blommaert, 2005). In examining the interconnection of the development of national consciousness and language in relation to shifts in language policy over the last century, scholars of the Philippines have identified a series of critical periods that have been of analytical significance as they map onto key shifts in largescale discourses espoused by the state (Bernardo, 2004;Gonzalez, 1998;Rappa & Wee, 2006;Tollefson, 1986Tollefson, , 1991. In this context, an outward litmus of the transformation in largescale discourses can be traced materially in seismic shifts related to approved mediums of instruction in schools and curricula (and their attendant discourses) as centermost components in frameworks linked to national development. ...
... It was at this time that the concerns of Filipino intellectuals, many of whom themselves came from minority-language communities came to be acknowledged and addressed centrally through language policy (Gonzalez, 1998). This was a critically important step which foremost acknowledged the living status and potential value of the country's many heterogeneous languages, cultures, and peoples within an early iteration of a multicultural and multilingual national paradigm. ...
... These conversations often centered on bringing to bear critiques of the apparent order of social hierarchy which valued certain speakers and orderings of people in ideological frameworks forged in the context of colonial and imperial occupation, that left everyday Filipinos with lessened material or social capital in the national scene. The Language Wars of the 1960s represented a florescence and newly legitimated stage upon which to circulate local understandings and valuations of the heterogeneous languages and lifeways of peoples throughout the archipelago, deriving from the people themselves on the national stage, for the first time in Philippine history (Gonzalez, 1998). In this way, this epoch marked a period where not only was the Philippine archipelago united under the umbrella of a "nation," but possibilities for locally-structured concepts of multiculturalism and multilingualism began to weave themselves into the tapestry of Philippine national consciousness and possibilities of belonging in ways that would be revisited later with the birth and promulgation of late modern discourses. ...
This analysis examines an archaeology of statal narratives as they relate to the multilingual linguistic milieu of the Philippines since independence at mid-20th century. Critical transformations to statal narratives linked to language over the last century have been shaped by interacting, sometimes competing discourses, deriving from a paradoxical mix of influences: on one hand, contemporary narratives of language have been shaped by modernist discourses focused on the unification of the nation through language, but more recently, these discourses have shifted to focus also on the possibilities of figuring certain local and regional languages in pragmatic terms that index an increasing orientation to preoccupations inherent in discourses of late modernity. In late modern contexts, discourses of multilingualism and multiculturalism in the Philippines have been intertwined with ideological orientations that promote regional peace, cooperation, and economic growth in part informed by the country’s involvement in ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), where the recognition and maintenance of the multilingual and multicultural character of participating nations are framed as key mandates. By examining the emergence and transformation of discourses from modern to late modern ones at the level of the statal narrative, this analysis sheds light on emergent forms of nationalist narratives focused on both the instrumental value of global languages such as English, but also the valuation and figuration of certain local and regional languages in new ways and the contentious processes in history though which these discourses have taken hold.
... As part of the worldwide trend towards decolonization in the 20 th century, the Philippines exercised several popular methods of nation-building, including the identification of a national language, based on Tagalog (Executive Order 134, 1937). Tagalog is a Philippine language native to Central Luzon, including Metro Manila and the provinces of Rizal, Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Quezon, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, and parts of Tarlac and Camarines Norte (Gonzalez, 1998). While the national language has gone through different phases of acceptance and even names (known officially as National Language, Pilipino, and then Filipino), the l987 Philippine Constitution defines it as a language that will be enriched from other local and non-local languages. ...
... Over the past few decades, several academics have proposed ways in which this enrichment could be realized (see, for example McFarland, 1994;Miranda, 1994;Santiago, 1984), while the University of the Philippines has published Filipino dictionaries that have intentionally inserted new words coming from other native languages. In practice, however, the structural base and majority of its lexicon-as used in media, education, and formal communicationsis still Tagalog, with a significant number of loan words from Spanish and English (Gonzalez, 1998). While there are a large number of cognates across Philippine languages (McFarland, 1994), very few uniquely non-Tagalog words of Philippine origin have entered common usage in the formal register of the national language, apart from place or culturallyspecific vocabulary like food. ...
... In addition to the native Philippine language groups, there is a community of Chinese Filipinos who commonly use Hokkien among the adult population, having primarily emigrated from the Hokkien-speaking region of China in the last century. Finally, classical Arabic is used in religious activities among Muslim Filipinos, although it is not generally a home language (Gonzalez, 1998). ...
This technical report provides an overview of the diverse Philippine language context and its implications for the education system, particularly in the early grades. It is notable in weaving together a scholarly description of Philippine languages, demographic data on Philippine languages, and educational concerns such as language policy, language acquisition, literacy, instruction, and assessment.
The report was prepared for the project entitled Strengthening Information for Education, Policy, Planning and Management in the Philippines (PhilEdData), as part of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) global initiative, Education Data for Decision Making (EdData II), led by RTI International.
... The Philippines, a postcolonial ethnolinguistically diverse and multilingual country with over 400 years of colonial history, implemented the Mother Tongue-based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) policy in 2009 (Tupas and Martin, 2017). Historically, extensive LPP has been implemented in the country, sparking scholars' interest in researching this linguistic topic (e.g., Dekker and Young, 2005;Gonzalez, 1998;Martin, 2020;Ricento, 2000;Sibayan, 2011). The country, needless to say, has a complex language ideology, prolonged language evolution, and multiple LPPs. ...
... This legislation established free and compulsory education in Spanish for a specific age group, and it also led to the reformation of civil servants' language proficiency, requiring them to learn Spanish. During the Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines, a limited number of literacy schools (~2000) were established under the guise of primary schools, which focused on teaching religious content, calligraphy, and elementary mathematics (Bolton et al., 2020;Gonzalez, 1998;Stanley, 2013). However, there were no traditional schools that provided access to higher education. ...
This study utilizes Cobarrubias’ (1983. Ethical issues in status planning. In: Progress in language planning: international perspectives. pp. 41–85) taxonomy of language ideologies as the framework to uncover the ideologies underlying language policy and planning (LPP) in the Philippines. We discuss the different language ideologies, including linguistic assimilation, vernacularization, linguistic pluralism, and internationalization, through a historical analysis of the mandated LPP in the Philippines and how they have influenced the country’s LPP. Our findings reveal that legislation and administrative measures have played a crucial role in the process of linguistic assimilation, which has historically been the dominant ideology underlying LPP in the Philippines. Furthermore, we highlight that various language ideologies can coexist and be present simultaneously within a language policy or society. We also posit that Cobarrubias’ (1983. Ethical issues in status planning. In: Progress in language planning: international perspectives. pp. 41–85) framework has the potential to aid in the analysis and enhancement of LPP in other countries facing similar linguistic scenarios. Additionally, multilingual and multicultural countries must continually adapt their LPP to emphasize inclusive language policies, language maintenance initiatives, and national identity construction that values and respects linguistic diversity, empowers local communities, and strives for social inclusivity and cohesion within the context of neocolonialism and globalization.
... The place/s of Tagalog Tagalog is the basis of Filipino, the national language, and one that is used as the language of the central government, the media, and education alongside English (Gonzalez, 1998 Lai, 2013;Lock, 2003;Scollon & Wong Scollon, 2003) seemed to have entirely missed Tagalog. ...
... Talking to them mainly in Tagalog was a strategic move of transporting our shared sociolinguistic understanding into the interview setting and other related encounters. Due to English's associations with the upper social class in the Philippines (seeBolton & Bautista, 2009;Gonzalez, 1998Gonzalez, , 2009Tupas, 2009;Tupas & Salonga, 2016), I tried my best to limit my use of English. Predominantly using Tagalog in the conversations is also my way of saying that I am one of and with them, regardless of my education and profession in the Philippines. ...
One of the hallmarks of Hong Kong’s service economy is the presence of a transnational domestic helper workforce. It is estimated that 370,000 of overseas helpers are employed in Hong Kong homes, of whom 200,000 are Filipino Domestic Workers (FDWs). This linguistic ethnographic study examines FDWs’ positionality and place-making by focusing on their communicative repertoires. The thesis is primarily anchored in the sociolinguistics of transnational labor and globalization and employs analytic frameworks such as content analysis of narrative accounts, spatialization, and sociolinguistic scales. My data, collected in 2017, come from participant and non-participant observation, semi-structured interviews including body silhouette drawings, photographed multilingual and multimodal signage, and other objects displayed in public spaces. The data reveal that participants mobilize their multilingual repertoires in a manner that enables them to negotiate their symbolic place within global migration flows and local (domestic work and leisure) affairs. In their narratives, participants thematize communication, transportation, and financial infrastructures linking the Philippines and Hong Kong allowing them to both reflect and reconcile their transnational status and positionality, being ‘at home’ both in Hong Kong and in the Philippines. Participants’ desire for maintaining a home environment is likewise observed in certain spaces of gathering in their time off work, such as those on Sundays and public holidays in Hong Kong’s Central district. It is then that this ‘global’ financial and business district is transformed and re-scaled by their home-making and activism in social, material, and affective ways as ‘Little Philippines’, indexing a global ‘periphery’. This re-ordering enables FDWs to fleetingly own these spaces as places of familiarity, belonging, and preferred futures. However, the analysis of regulatory and commercial signs carrying Tagalog in Central reveals a more contradictory institutional positioning of FDWs. On the one hand, they are construed as economically desirable target consumers, while on the other as low status and marginalized workforce. Thus, notwithstanding the inequalities and injustices evident in the ‘unskilled,’ ‘Global South-North’ migration labor flows, this study offers a somewhat counter-balancing perspective to the English language-focused view of FDWs as predominantly disempowered victims of globalist forces. While acknowledging the marginalization and abuse experienced by FDWs in Hong Kong, this study demonstrates that multiple symbolic and material resources within the migrant’s repertoire (viz., languages, ‘immobile’ infrastructures, and space) unlock possibilities, however nascent, towards an expanded view of transnational domestic workers. That is, migrants move equipped with the means, ability, and disposition to exercise their agency with which, to some extent, they are capable of challenging, subverting and constraining the conditions of neoliberal capitalism, globalization, and power that frame their transnational existence.
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... Selain kedelapan bahasa besar tersebut, terdapat pula sekitar seratus lebih bahasa lokal lain yang dituturkan oleh penutur dengan jumlah kecil. Jika dijumlahkan, bahasa lokal di Filipina mencapai kurang lebih 120 bahasa (McFarland dalam Gonzalez, 1998). Tingkat keragaman bahasa yang cukup tinggi ini menyebabkan perencanaan bahasa di negara tersebut dihadapkan pada banyak tantangan (Symaco, 2017:93). ...
... Tingkat keragaman bahasa yang cukup tinggi ini menyebabkan perencanaan bahasa di negara tersebut dihadapkan pada banyak tantangan (Symaco, 2017:93). Selain bahasa Filipino dan bahasa Inggris, terdapat pula bahasa-bahasa lokal yang telah disebutkan pada bagian sebelumnya yang dapat digunakan sebagai medium instruksi tambahan, serta bahasa asing lain yaitu bahasa Spanyol dan Arab (bahasa Arab umumnya dipelajari atau digunakan oleh komunitas Islam di Filipina (lihat Gonzalez, 1998)). ...
As one of the ASEAN countries, the Philippines is a strategic target country of Indonesian language internationalization. The internationalization endeavor in the Philippines has begun since 2016 when a number of BIPA (Bahasa Indonesia bagi Penutur Asing (‘Indonesian as a Foreign Language)) teachers were assigned to the country. Up to 2018, there have been 14 institutions facilitated with 898 students. This article aims to describe the potential and challenges of the spread of Indonesian language in the Philippines in terms of linguistic and non-linguistic aspects. This research employed a descriptive-qualitative method. The data in this research were obtained from interviews, questionnaires, observations, and literature studies. The results show that Indonesian language has potential to be internationalized and developed in the Philippines. It is based on several aspects: 1) the similarity between Indonesian language and Filipino, 2) the motivation of Indonesian language learners in the Philippines, 3) the good economic cooperation between Indonesia and the Philippines; and 4) the fairly big number of tourism visits from Indonesia to the Philippines and vice versa. However, the potential is also followed by some challenges. Some of them are 1) language policy in the Philippines, 2) the very strong influence of English language in the Philippines, and 3) the lack of Filipinos’ knowledge on Indonesian society, cultures, and politics. ABSTRAKSebagai salah satu negara ASEAN, Filipina merupakan negara sasaran strategis peng-internasionalan bahasa Indonesia. Penyebaran bahasa Indonesia secara formal di negara ini di-mulai sejak tahun 2016 ketika sejumlah tenaga pengajar BIPA (Bahasa Indonesia bagi Penutur Asing) dikirim ke negara tersebut. Hingga tahun 2018, tercatat sudah 14 lembaga yang terfasilitasi dengan 898 pemelajar. Artikel ini bertujuan untuk memaparkan potensi dan tantangan pe-nyebaran bahasa Indonesia di Filipina ditinjau dari aspek kebahasaan dan nonkebahasaan. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif. Data dalam penelitian ini diperoleh dari hasil wawancara, kuesioner, observasi, dan studi pustaka. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa bahasa Indonesia memiliki potensi untuk terus disebarkan dan dikembangkan di Filipina. Hal ini didasarkan pada beberapa hal: 1) kemiripan antara bahasa Indonesia dan bahasa Filipino, 2) motivasi pemelajar bahasa Indonesia di Filipina yang besar, 3) kerja sama ekonomi yang baik antara Indonesia dan Filipina, dan 4) jumlah kunjungan pariwisata yang cukup besar dari Indonesia ke Filipina dan sebaliknya. Namun demikian potensi tersebut juga disertai dengan tan-tangan. Beberapa tantangan yang ditemui adalah 1) kebijakan bahasa di Filipina, 2) kuatnya pengaruh bahasa Inggris di Filipina, dan 3) pengetahuan masyarakat Filipina yang masih minim tentang Indonesia, khususnya di bidang sosial, budaya, dan politik.
... However, the foundational language processing remains consistent across monolinguals, bilinguals, and trilinguals. Key differences in acquiring these languages pertain to language status and dominance (Clyne, 1997;Gonzalez, 1998). Around 13% of the world's population is fluent in three languages (iLanguages, 2018). ...
... The Philippines is a multiracial and multi-ethnic country and the Tagalog people are the second largest ethnic group in the Philippines after the Visayan people and mostly practice Christianity (Andrew, 1998). Body weight can provide an important clue about the physiology of the perpetrator. ...
Person identification is the mainstay in any forensic investigation based on physical evidence found at crime scenes. Foot impressions/ footprints serve as vital evidence in crime scenes. Studies have indicated that foot impressions can be used to determine stature, gender and body weight and to narrow down the suspects and for identification. Anyhow it is important to consider ethnicity whenever dealing with the determination of stature and body weight, and if not, it may end with the wrong result. Hence the present research aimed to develop regression equations to determine living body weight from 2D foot impressions among the adult Tagalog population, an indigenous ethnic group in the Philippines. The study recruited 100 male and 100 female volunteers with ages ranging from 18 to 60 years, whose 2D foot impressions and body weight were collected. A total of 10 length measurements, five from the left and five from the right side of the participants were made and the length is the distance between the posterior end of the heel and the anterior end of all toes. The data were analysed statistically using SPSS software version 27 and developed linear regression equations separately for males and females. The result showed that a significant positive correlation exists between 2D footprint length and living body weight. The correlation coefficient (r) values are found to be higher in males (0.336-0.390) than in females (0.111-0.227) and the standard deviation values are also low. The developed regression equations can be well used in real crime scenes to determine body weight from 2D-foot impressions among Tagalog people in the Philippines.
... Intellectualization is a concept well associated with the Prague School of Linguistics. Basically, intellectualization is the development of a language from its current status to a status where it is used as language of scholarly discourse (Gonzalez, 1998). Hence, the transformation of indigenous languages into academic and scientific languages is known as intellectualization. ...
2022 International Conference on Multidisciplinary Research (MyRes)
8-9 December 2022, The Ravenala Attitude Hotel, Balaclava, Mauritius
... Intellectualization is a concept well associated with the Prague School of Linguistics. Basically, intellectualization is the development of a language from its current status to a status where it is used as language of scholarly discourse (Gonzalez, 1998). Hence, the transformation of indigenous languages into academic and scientific languages is known as intellectualization. ...
This paper provides an overview of the intellectualization of the indigenous languages of South Africa through a translation of academic texts and using isiZulu by way of example. The intellectualization of a language means the advancement, upliftment, and enrichment of a language, enabling it for use in different domains as a language of research, science and technology, and teaching and learning. The point of departure for this paper is the value of translation as an enabler for the intellectualization of languages. Using Nord’s functionalist theory, this paper seeks to provide an overview of the process of translation of doctoral abstracts from English into isiZulu as a contribution towards the intellectualization of isiZulu at the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN), South Africa. The aim of this qualitative study, therefore, was to explore the intricacies involved in the journey to the intellectualization of languages that belong to different language families, specifically English and isiZulu. The data used were 12 doctoral dissertation abstracts randomly selected from a pool of abstracts from various disciplines submitted for translation from English into isiZulu at UKZN as part of the initiative of intellectualizing isiZulu. The study established an acknowledgment of the intricacies involved in the translation of academic texts and suggests possible practices to be followed to contribute successfully to the intellectualization of indigenous languages of South Africa, isiZulu in particular.
... Third, some fans attempted to get to the meaning of the conversation through their knowledge of other Philippine languages. Although Philippine languages are not easily mutually comprehensible, they belong to the same family of languages [8], thus specific words may share similar meanings across some Philippine languages. ...
This paper discusses and maps out an instantiation of everyday multilingualism online. It argues that translingual dispositions – ways of speaking, thinking and doing which embrace, rather than reject, all forms of linguistic difference – are an important component in the struggle for the survival and maintenance of languages in the Philippines. Such dispositions, for example, are harnessed online through the promotion of ‘multilingual P-Pop’ (Pilipino Pop). The pandemic has made it doubly difficult to engage with issues of multilingualism, especially because one battleground for such issues are now online. However, it is not (yet) a lost battle. Willingness to communicate with the intention to understand and listen to others allows one to negotiate meaning through various strategies of online intercultural communication.
... The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines declared Filipino and English as the official languages of the country. Gonzalez (1998) clarified that the linguistic situation of most of the Filipinos is multilingual in character. Philippine local languages are spoken at home and in the neighborhood. ...
The historical linguistic conflict of the Cebuano people against the Tagalog-based Philippine national language has been evident in the literature written by Cebuano academics. However, there is no published empirical evidence that presents the on-ground language attitudes of the Cebuanos on the Cebuano, Filipino, and English languages. Employing mixed methods research, the researchers found that both generations predominantly use the Cebuano language for everyday communication. A significant difference was observed in the use of Filipino and English languages as the younger generation spoke it more than the elder counterparts. A language shift was also seen from Cebuano to English on the language used formal communication between the generations. Attitudes on everyday communication revealed that Cebuanos prefer to maintain their mother tongue as the language to be used in speaking with family, friends, relatives, and close people seeing that the younger generation has limited vocabulary on the Cebuano language. Respondents mostly favored English to be the language used for formal communication due to its stature as an international language and its association to high socioeconomic standing. A collective majority from both generations would also like to maintain Tagalog-based Filipino to be the Philippine national language.
... This supports what several studies have already noted the importance of having a positive attitude and high motivation in learning. In a language classroom, for instance, speakers are projected to acquire and use the target language if they hold a positive attitude toward the language (Krashen, 1981;Ellis, 1994Ellis, , 1997Saville-Troike, 2006;Karahan, 2007;Zhang & Slaughter-Defoe, 2009;Garrett, 2010). Having a positive attitude toward the Ilocano classroom environment, therefore, could be an indication of the imminent success of learning. ...
Since its implementation in 2012, the Philippines mother tongue-based multilingual education (MTB-MLE) program has already generated issues that point to the seemingly inadequate preparation of the education bureau when it comes to teacher training and instructional materials production. However, one concern that is seldom mentioned in the literature is the learners attitude toward the languages they learn in the process. This is crucial because this attitude could reveal their learning motivations and formation of linguistic and sociocultural identity. Informed by the notion of language attitudes and construction of identity, this study explores the perception of trilingual children on their mother tongue and second languagesIlocano, Filipino, and English, vis--vis their identity construction. Results show that most of the learners hold a positive attitude toward the three languages. However, the identified negative attitudes of some learners as regards these languages may cause pedagogical concerns linking to language teaching and the discourse of culture, nationalism, and globalization.DOI: doi.org/10.24071/llt.2020.230107
... Participants were eligible if they (a) were at least 18 years old; (b) identified as either trans-WSM or cis-MSM; (c) reported condomless anal sex in the past year; (d) resided in Manila and Cebu cities; (e) demonstrated English comprehension; and (f) gave online written consent. While English is commonly spoken in the Philippines (Gonzalez, 1998), we ensured language comprehension via a brief cognitive screening form which tested participants' capacity to understand English by asking a series of true/false questions based on the consent form. In our questionnaire, we also utilized the Flesch-Kincaid reading level test to maintain readability at the 6th grade level (Flesch, 2007). ...
Introduction
The HIV crisis in the Philippines is driven largely due to condomless sex among communities of transgender women and cisgender men who have sex with men (trans-WSM and cis-MSM, respectively). Condom use could be promoted by increasing social capital in these communities because social capital might increase one’s condom use self-efficacy.
Methods
We performed mediational analysis using a survey data (June 2018–May 2019) with 318 Filipinx trans-WSM and cis-MSM.
Results
In our final standardized structural equational modeling adjusted for gender, age, location, and income, higher social capital was significantly associated with self-efficacy in condom initiation/negotiation (β = 0.47, p < 0.001), and self-efficacy in condom initiation/negotiation was strongly associated with condom use (β = 0.61, p < 0.001). Moreover, we found that self-efficacy in condom initiation/negotiation fully mediated the relationship between social capital and condom use (β_before mediation = 0.16, p < 0.05 vs. β_after mediation = 0.01, p > 0.05).
Conclusion
Future HIV prevention interventions should consider promoting social capital among communities of trans-WSM and cis-MSM in the Philippines.
... The brief cognitive screening form tested participants' capacity to understand English by asking participants a series of true or false questions based on the consent form. English is common in the Philippines (as it is one of the national languages) [18] but given that the survey was written in English, we wanted to ensure that the enrolled participants demonstrated sufficient language comprehension. To further ensure survey comprehension, we used the Flesch-Kincaid Reading Level Test [19] to design the survey such that it could be read by someone at the sixth grade level. ...
Background
The Philippines is experiencing an HIV crisis and is considering implementing pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) as a national public health strategy for HIV prevention for cisgender men who have sex with men (cis-MSM). However, critical information on the awareness of PrEP among cis-MSM is needed to roll out this public health initiative.
Objective
This study aims to assess PrEP awareness and related correlates (ie, sociodemographic variables, social factors, and health care access and use) among Filipino cis-MSM.
Methods
We conducted a web-based survey with Filipino cis-MSM (n=179) residing in the cities of Manila and Cebu, Philippines. Multivariable analysis procedures were performed to examine the factors associated with PrEP awareness.
Results
Our sample demonstrated high awareness (134/179, 74.9%) and interest (159/179, 88.8%) in taking PrEP. The adjusted model showed that greater odds of PrEP awareness were associated with having a college education or higher versus a high school education or lower (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 7.30, 95% CI 1.01-52.47), earning between PHP 10,000 (US 397.2) versus <PHP 10,000 (US $198.60; aOR 9.32, 95% CI 1.41-6.22), having had a prior HIV test (aOR 6.06, 95% CI 1.20-13.55), having high HIV knowledge (aOR 3.50, 95% CI 1.11-10.98), and having friends who discussed PrEP (aOR 11.17, 95% CI 2.73-14.5).
Conclusions
Our findings demonstrate that Filipino cis-MSM are aware of and interested in taking PrEP, but there is currently an unmet need for such biomedical HIV prevention technologies among this population. Incorporating PrEP education into routine HIV screening and leveraging cis-MSM social networks may be useful in optimizing potential PrEP implementation in the Philippines.
... The positive regard toward English, meanwhile, is supported by the notion of stable diglossia (Ricento 2000), which is widely apparent in the Philippines. What this suggests is that favoring English as the language of education, judiciary, business, and government, other languages, which also have the potential to carry all these roles, are subordinated (Gonzalez 1998, Mahboob & Cruz 2013. Likewise, the presence of a dominant language, such as English, may pose a challenge to the use of other spoken languages in the multilingual society (Jazul & Bernardo 2017). ...
As one of the official languages of the Philippines, English predominantly figures in the domains of education, government, and the judiciary. This reality has always put English at the top of the linguistic ladder, relegating local languages to lower ranks. This scenario appears to be evident also in the domain of the church. In this paper, I investigate signs posted within the compound of a major Catholic church located in the Philippines in terms of types and language use. Informed by linguistic landscape concepts pioneered by Landry and Bourhis (1997), Spolsky and Cooper (1991), and Ben-Rafael (2009), I analyzed over a hundred signs in the religious linguistic landscape, which I call 'churchscape'. Findings show that English dominates in the churchscape as a language of communication and language of tourism while local languages such as Filipino and Pangasinan assume a secondary role in the churchscape. This study affords us an interesting view and alternative understanding of multilingualism as a phenomenon through the churchscape in question.
... The language skills of overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) in English and more recently, in the languages of their destination countries, have been a central part of the discourse of Filipino competitiveness in global labor markets and of sustaining the OFW 'brand' (Lorente 2012). Gonzalez (1998) considers the Philippines' position as a labor-sending state to have significantly influenced Philippine language policy, especially the maintenance of English as a medium of instruction. This "grip of English" (Lorente 2013) on language-in-education policy has remained and has been reinforced further by the rise of outsourcing and more specifically, of call centers (Salonga 2010). ...
... However, observation shows that teachers typically begin teaching in the required language (either English or Filipino) and repeat the same content in the local language to ensure student comprehension of the curriculum content. Or, teachers may codeswitch within the same statement (Gonzalez, 1998;Young, 2002). Practically this means that local languages are used to explain the curriculum content to students rather than using those languages specifically as the media of instruction and teaching English and Filipino as subjects. ...
... The earliest of these arrived in 1901 and were soon dispersed throughout the islands. They had an important impact, not only as teachers, but also as teacher-trainers, so that by 1921, 91% of all teachers were native-born Filipinos and, thus, almost from the beginning, Filipinos learned English from Filipinos and the seeds of what we now call Philippine English (PE henceforth) began (Gonzalez, 1997). Llamzon (1969in Torres, 2019 claimed that "there is a standardized variety of English" which has arisen in the Philippines and it stands or falls short on the premise that there is sizeable number of native and non-native speakers of English in the country. ...
One of the linguistic aspects making Philippine English (PE) distinct from the so-called General American English (GAE) is its phonological feature. Llamzon (1997) underscored that although PE is historically derived from GAE, Filipinos rarely conform to the norms of GAE in all things. That is, when educated Filipinos interact to their fellow Filipinos, they speak the Filipino way. To strengthen Mc Kaughan’s (1993) claim that PE has emerged as an autonomous variety of English with its own self-contained system, such as in the area of phonology, there is a need to conduct more studies in order to contribute to the existing literature of the features of PE phonology. Following Tayao’s (2004) preconceived notion on lectal grouping, the present paper aims to look at the phonological features of the acrolect, mesolect and basilect speakers from Central Luzon to validate previous findings on the features of PE phonology.
... However, observation shows that teachers typically begin teaching in the required language (either English or Filipino) and repeat the same content in the local language to ensure student comprehension of the curriculum content. Or, teachers may codeswitch within the same statement (Gonzalez, 1998;Young, 2002). Practically this means that local languages are used to explain the curriculum content to students rather than using those languages specifically as the media of instruction and teaching English and Filipino as subjects. ...
Mother Tongue Based Multilingual Education in Lubuagan reveals what Lubuagan students are actually capable of in academic study when their first language is used as the primary language of instruction across the curriculum. Students are able to understand the lessons and integrate learning into their knowledge systems rather than merely memorizing information that carries no meaning as is common when the language of instruction is unfamiliar to learners. This research documents what is possible when learners understand the language of instruction.
... Third, some fans attempted to get to the meaning of the conversation through their knowledge of other Philippine languages. Although Philippine languages are not easily mutually comprehensible, they belong to the same family of languages [8], thus specific words may share similar meanings across some Philippine languages. ...
... 177 There are also other Spanish speakers who are not included in the statistics-those who the Philippines' former Secretary of Education, Andrew González, defined as having "passive ability" in Spanish: people who understand Spanish, but are unable to structure complex phrases in their answers. 178 Furthermore, it should be taken into account that almost all university-educated Filipinos aged over 50 have a superficial knowledge of Spanish, as they studied for the compulsory 12 credits required until 1986. In the preceding course alone (1984)(1985), 1.73 million Filipinos were studying at university, and therefore attended 12 credits of classes in Spanish as a foreign language. ...
Chamorro language has a role in business, trade, tourism, media, education, public administration and localo activities.
Some important enteprises have been established by Chamorros.
Available in
https://www.mineco.gob.es/portal/site/mineco/menuitem.d27e450d6789dd5c6a5af299026041a0/?vgnextoid=8428c5e06cedf510VgnVCM1000001d04140aRCRD
... Interviews were conducted in English. As English is one of the national languages in the Philippines and is taught in all levels of the Philippine's education system (Gonzalez, 1998), it was not a barrier to recruitment or to building rapport with key informants. ...
IntroductionSuccessful implementation and promotion of biomedical HIV prevention strategies like pre- and post-exposure prophylaxes (PrEP/PEP) necessitate healthcare workers possessing sufficient knowledge of and positive attitudes toward PrEP/PEP.Methods
Using semi-structured qualitative interviews conducted between July and August 2017, we examined PrEP/PEP awareness and attitudes among 15 healthcare workers as key informants in Manila, Philippines, where HIV is a rapidly expanding national public health crisis.ResultsMost key informants had heard about PrEP (n = 11) and PEP (n = 14). High medication cost and low PrEP/PEP awareness were identified as major barriers for PrEP/PEP implementation. Others expressed concerns for viral resistance and greater risk compensation. Concerns about infrastructural issues such as problems with logistics and funding inequities were identified as potential barriers.Conclusion
Healthcare workers demonstrated awareness of PrEP/PEP and endorsed supportive attitudes toward PrEP/PEP but raised logistic and infrastructural concerns about implementation.Policy ImplicationsIn order for PrEP/PEP to be feasible in the Philippines, public funding, provider education, and standardized national prescription protocols, guidelines, and policies are needed. Such recommendations and support should take into account concerns of and address prescribing barriers among future PrEP/PEP providers.
... Participants were eligible to be part of this study if they self-reported: (1) being 18 years old or above, (2) identify as transgender, (3) sexually active within the past year (i.e., having had condomless anal sex in the past 12 months), (4) currently living in two highest HIV burden areas of Metro Manila/National Capital Region (NCR) or Central Visayas, and (5) demonstrated English and consent comprehension. Although English is one of Philippines' national languages (Gonzalez, 1998), we ensured that participants completing the survey had adequate English comprehension and were eligible to participate by implementing a brief cognitive screening form that tested participants' capacity to consent and understand English. The cognitive screening form asked participants definition or true/false questions based on the consent form. ...
Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) can efficaciously avert HIV acquisition for individuals at risk, including transgender individuals (trans) in the Philippines. We conducted multivariate logistic regression procedures in an online sample of Filipina trans women (n = 139) to examine associations of PrEP awareness. In this sample, 53% of Filipina trans women were unaware of PrEP, but almost all (93%) expressed interest in taking PrEP once learning about it. Greater odds of PrEP awareness was associated with discussion of HIV services with their health care providers, higher HIV knowledge, and discussion of PrEP among trans friends. Lower odds of PrEP awareness was associated with reporting being currently unemployed. The findings underscore a subset of trans women who might be early adopters of PrEP, and highlight PrEP inequities among trans women most marginalized, including those who are unemployed and have engaged in sex work.
In today's globalized world, where linguistic diversity is both a reality and a challenge, educational demands are randomly evolving. As educational systems strive to accommodate the needs of diverse linguistic communities and promote inclusive learning environments, researchers and practitioners alike are actively exploring innovative approaches and policies.
In this paper, I examine the changing currency of languages in the context of migration and mobility based on case studies of Filipino migrants in Australia. Drawing on two sociolinguistic studies conducted with and for Filipino migrants, I highlight how the “monolingual mindset” ( Clyne, 2008 ) reinforced by the “White-English complex” ( Piller, Torsh, & Smith-Khan, 2023 ) negatively impact on the value and currency of Philippine languages. As an alternative, I offer the concept multilingual mindset as an inclusive framework for valuing multilingual migrants in the diaspora.
I first introduce the linguistic ecology and national language policies of both the Philippines and Australia to set the scene for my argument. I then map out the migration trends in both countries and the simultaneous socio-political events that have driven the growth of Filipino migration in Australia and introduce the two sociolinguistic studies with and for ( Blackledge, 2006 ; Tetteh, 2015 ) Filipino migrants. This is followed by the presentation and critical discussion of three key conceptual arguments of this paper derived from these studies. Employing the “monolingual mindset” ( Clyne, 2008 ) and “White-English complex” ( Piller et al., 2023 ) as lenses, I then critically discuss how these concepts are detrimental to heritage language maintenance and inclusive multilingualism and argue that the maintenance of migrant languages in the diaspora would best be facilitated by an adoption of a multilingual mindset . The paper concludes with a discussion on the significance of the multilingual mindset to sociolinguistic studies and migration linguistics ( Borlongan, 2023 ), in general, and to language attitudes, language practices, and language policies across different sectors, in particular.
Language matters occupy a complex site for research, which calls for ongoing academic attention from several interrelated disciplines. What makes language a polemic subject is its multi-layered relations with other unresolved aspects of identity, linguistic ideologies, hegemony, language practices and culture in ever-evolving linguistic and sociocultural contexts. Such significance of language in human communities makes it a subject of scrutiny, especially within the enduring debates on decolonialisation, education, changing sociolinguistic environments, global politics, language shifts and linguistic ideologies among other polemical zones. In many respects, this volume responds to these issues in an attempt to proffer critical interpretations of emerging trends, practices, language shifts and cultural contacts. The main focus of the various chapters in this volume is to offer additional directions towards new understandings in language-related domains. The entry points for the various chapters are multifaceted, a situation that is in line with the convolution of language matters in Zimbabwe. Certainly, this single book offers staging posts and highlights areas that deserve further inquiry for more comprehensive solutions to language polemics in the Zimbabwean context. This is imperative, particularly in contemporary times when there is an increase in the call for reimagining the future for African communities by contesting long-held conceptions of language and its usage.
In the present article, I offer a theoretical and explorative overview of the relationship between deliberative democracy and multilingualism to claim that multilingualism is an asset for deliberative democracy. I argue that the traditional approaches to deliberative democracy have often overlooked the importance of linguistic diversity, partially due to the dominant narrative of the prerequisite of a common language for–deliberative–democracy. This paper examines why it is worthwhile to reconcile democratic deliberation and multilingualism, exploring the benefits and challenges of integrating linguistic pluralism into deliberative democracy. By unpacking the positive impacts of embracing multilingualism and providing insights into suggestive possibilities on how deliberative mini-publics can best accommodate multilingualism, I advocate for a more robust and inclusive deliberative democratic framework.
[WORKING PAPER]
A preliminary investigation of English in the Philippines and its social and economic repercussions.
_____
This paper was originally published in the UP Working Papers in Linguistics, Vol.1 No.1
https://linguistics.upd.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/26-The-Good-and-the-Bad-The-Social-Role-and-Position-of-English-in-the-Philippines.pdf
"Lost in Translation" celebrates the strength of multilingualism and calls for greater awareness and advocacy to ensure that all students have the opportunity to thrive in their educational journey, regardless of the language in which they study.
In this empirical study, I examine the transnational labour migration process of nurses who immigrated to Canada from the Philippines and via the United States during the 1950s and 1960s. Using institutional ethnography as a method of inquiry and historical research methods, I conducted in depth life history/oral history interviews with Filipino nurses who were recruited to work in hospitals in North America between 1957 and 1969. I also analyzed historical documents (i.e., correspondence between authorities at federal and provincial levels of government) obtained from archival repositories in Canada and the United States, including Archives of Ontario, Library and Archives Canada (LAC), and National Archives and Records Administration (NARA).
Despite Canadian state securitization, strict border control, and the enforcement of restrictive immigration policies which prioritized white immigrants, I argue that nurses who had trained in elite private nursing schools in the Philippines attained lateral and/or vertical labour mobility in Canada between the late 1950s and the latter years of the 1960s. Notably, among the fifteen nurses I interviewed, a small number arrived prior to the commencement of the liberalization of Canadian immigration policy in 1962. Albeit Canada’s explicit prioritization and preference for white immigrants (i.e., British, French, and American citizens), as well as its imposed restrictions on and discrimination against Asian migrants during the post 1962 period, nearly half of my participants were appointed to supervisory positions (i.e., head nurse, nurse coordinator, nurse supervisor, director of nursing) or nurse educator positions (i.e., nursing instructor, clinical instructor, professor of nursing).
I argue that historical, structural, and social influences prefigured the labour mobility of these nurses to and within Canada during the mid-twentieth century. Using a meso-level analytical approach, I illustrate how their appointment in Canadian hospitals was organized by social institutions (i.e., government, education, healthcare, family), state policies in the Philippines, United States, and Canada (i.e., immigration, labour, and healthcare), and influenced by the American colonial history of the Philippines. Moreover, the data reveal that a lack of uniformity existed in the manner by which the credentials, skills, and employment experience of my participants were evaluated. Instead, the evaluation and admissions process was individualized and Canadian immigration authorities maintained flexibility in their assessment practices in accordance with economic and labour need in the country.
Although this study points to the exemptions that Canadian immigration officials made on behalf of Filipino nurses and illustrates the flexibility they employed in their practices for this particular ethnic group of nursing professionals, it still, however, represents a racialized system. The Canadian state continues to privilege local labour market needs and seek immigrants or racialized groups who are equipped with various or specific forms of capital (i.e., economic, social, human, cultural). Although the nurses I interviewed attained occupational mobility, their successful career trajectories do not suggest a labour or immigration policy that is post racial. The findings of this study confirm that the practice of identifying and hiring ‘ideal immigrants’ for labour market shortages and demands nonetheless continues in a racialized manner.
In this paper, I investigate the lived experiences with English of Filipino domestic workers in Hong Kong from roughly 30 hours of recorded ethnographic interviews and fieldwork with 28 key participants talking about language in relation to their living and working experiences. Employing linguistic ethnographic approaches to analysis, I describe recurring accounts reflecting the tension between doing being an English-proficient and an English-deficient other: a tension that emanates from enabling and constraining sociolinguistic conditions in the workplace and the host society, and informed by participants’ experiences and education from their home country. I demonstrate how participants seem to discursively invoke and locate themselves in a hierarchy of English speakers: on the one hand, as better English speakers in the household-workplace, commanding respect and being accorded family language policy decision-making powers; while on the other, as of lesser English speaking abilities and rights than native English speakers, choosing to be silent or aloof, and passing negative judgement to fellow Filipinos who deploy stylized English in communication situations. The accounts of Hong Kong-based Filipino domestic workers thus show conflicting effects of unequal Englishes framing migrant workers’ experiences in ways that simultaneously fuel and challenge power asymmetries inherent in this transnational labor set-up.
N.B. This is only the first draft. This is not the final copy. This has not been properly checked and has not yet been properly referenced or formatted. I will be running double-checks on plagiarism and grammar.
John Paul II's theory of the nation seems to be dated in light of modern theories of nationalism and definition of nation. But is this really the case? In Theology of the Nation: An Introduction, Daniel Tyler Chua uses Thomistic philosophy to demonstrate that John Paul II's ideas are perfectly compatible with modern research - provided that everything is put into perspective.
At the turn of the twentieth century, the Philippine archipelago transitioned from nearly 400 years of colonial occupation under the Spanish to imperial occupation under the Americans. This analysis interrogates the dynamics through which the heterogeneous languages of the Philippine archipelago were maintained alongside state-sanctioned languages that over time came to create and sustain various forms of consciousness potentiated around the nexus of language. Using a theoretical foundation that intertwines Gramsci and Bakhtin’s understanding of the heteroglossic nature of language, the ways in which the interanimation of languages emerges as a potential site for the realization of certain forms of political consciousness is explored. This analysis interrogates the tensions emergent in forms of discourse linked to the question of language that gave rise to the contemporary linguistic situation in the Philippines today, both “from above” as well as “from below” at the fin de siècle.
Anchored within current issues and debates in the field of Linguistic Landscape (LL) scholarship, this edited volume is concerned with politics of language and the semiotic construction of space in multilingual and multi-ethnic Asian countries. Spanning Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, Indonesia, the Philippines, Hong Kong, Taiwan and China, the chapters explore how different individuals and collectivities use semiotic resources in different spaces-schools, airports, streets and shops as well as online platforms-to reinforce or contest existing social structures, bearing strong implications for language maintenance and cultural revitalization, construction of ethnolinguistic and national identities, and socioeconomic mobility. Part I looks into how globalization and its accompanying forces and influences-such as the importance of English in socioeconomic mobility-come into contact with local Asian cultures and languages. Part II examines minority languages, demographically and socio-politically established in the countries, shedding light on the role of LL that plays in both their minorization and revitalization processes. Part III investigates how LL is utilized as a site for constructing identities to pursue socioeconomic, political and cultural goals. It is within this perspective that the presence and salience of English in the LL of the countries along with the use of the Asian languages is analyzed and understood, shedding light on how Asian heritage languages and cultures are preserved and/or certain identities in the times of political unrest or economic development are expressed. This fascinating insight into linguistic landscapes in Asia will be of interest to researchers, students and policy makers in sociolinguistics and applied linguistics anywhere in the world.
Das Buch vergleicht drei multiethnische Gesellschaften Süd- und Südostasiens - die Philippinen, Sri Lanka und Malaysia - in Bezug auf deren Fähigkeit, interethnische Konflikte gewaltarm zu bearbeiten. Gezeigt wird, dass weder Multiethnizität Gewalt befördert, noch dass eine demokratische Regierungsform als Allheilmittel zur Zivilisierung des interethnischen Konfliktaustrags gelten kann. Vielmehr kommt dem Faktor Kultur eine zentrale Rolle sowohl für die Wege in die Gewalt als auch für deren Vermeidung zu. Ethnizität und politische Institutionen können in Abhängigkeit von kulturellen Mustern sowohl konfliktverschärfend als auch -zivilisierend wirken.
The community of people of Filipino origin in Catalonia is of considerable dimensions and underwent large growth in the first decade of the 21st century. This paper presents the results of a questionnaire on linguistic competence and the use of Filipino languages in the family environment. The sample consists of 177 informants of this community, both of the migrant generation and of the first native generation, of several different ages and with different years of residence in Catalonia, living in the metropolitan area of Barcelona. The declared linguistic data are described and analyzed and it is found that even between the migrant generation and the first native generation there are indications of interruption of intergenerational linguistic transmission as well as of disruption between the initial language and the habitual language within the same generation.
La comunitat d'origen filipí a Catalunya té unes dimensions considerables i ha experimentat un creixement molt important durant la primera dècada del segle xxi. Aquest article presenta el resultat d'un qüestionari sobre la competència lingüística i l'ús de llengües filipines en l'en-torn familiar. La mostra consta de cent setanta-set informants d'aquesta comunitat, tant de la generació migrant com de la primera generació nativa, de diverses edats i anys de residència a Catalunya, que viuen a l'àrea metropolitana de Barcelona. Es descriuen i analitzen les dades lin-güístiques declarades i es constata que fins i tot entre la generació migrant i la primera genera-ció nativa es produeixen indicis d'interrupció de la transmissió lingüística intergeneracional, així com disrupció entre la llengua inicial i la llengua habitual dins la mateixa generació.
Paraules clau: transmissió lingüística intergeneracional, immigració filipina, llengua i im-migració, llengües a Catalunya.
Measuring learning outcomes on core skills is key to building evidence on which teaching and learning interventions are most effective, and ultimately informing policy that prioritises these skills, amongst early learners. However, developing national or systems-level assessments pose considerable challenges, including implementing an effective translation process from centrally developed tools. In developing nations, limited resources compounded the challenges. This paper investigated the effect of test, classroom, and home (or mother-tongue, MoT) language correspondence on the relationship between numeracy and literacy skills amongst early-grade learners (N = 4032) in high-poverty regions in the Philippines. Results show that language correspondence does not in itself have an effect on numeracy skill but positively moderates (i.e. strengthens) the relationship between literacy and numeracy skills. The findings suggest that targeted translation can effectively remove the effect of test language on the construct being measured, language match still exerts an indirect effect on the strength of relationship amongst the skills being tested together. The finding that language factors have no direct effect is dependent on the effectiveness of the targeted translation process, but also underscores its importance especially in linguistically diverse test settings. Finally, the impact of test language and implications for systems-level testing are discussed.
Writing Systems and Phonetics provides students with a critical understanding of the writing systems of the world. Beginning by exploring the spelling of English, including how it arose and how it works today, the book goes on to address over 60 major languages from around the globe and includes detailed descriptions and worked examples of writing systems which foreground the phonetics of these languages. Key areas covered include:
the use of the Latin alphabet in and beyond Europe
writing systems of the eastern Mediterranean, Greek and its Cyrillic offshoot, Arabic and Hebrew
languages in south and south-east Asia, including Hindi, Tamil, Burmese and Thai, as well as in east Asia, including Chinese, Japanese and Korean
reflections on ancient languages such as Sumerian, Egyptian, Linear B and Mayan
a final chapter which sets out a typology of writing systems.
All of the languages covered are contextualised by authentic illustrations, including road signs, personal names and tables, to demonstrate how theoretical research can be applied to the real world.
This two-part volume provides a collection of 27 linguistic studies and contributions that shed light on the evolution of different Englishes world-wide (varieties, learner Englishes, dialects, creoles) from a broad spectrum of different perspectives, including both synchronic and diachronic approaches. What makes the volume unique is that it is the first-ever contribution to the field which includes a section exclusively commited towards testing, discussing and refining Schneider’s (2007) Dynamic Model against recent realities of English world-wide (Part 1). These realities include a wide variety of case studies ranging from regions (socio)linguistically as diverse as South Africa, the Phillipines, Cyprus or Germany. Part 2 goes beyond the Dynamic Model and offers both empirical and theoretical perspectives on the evolution of World Englishes. In doing so, it provides contributions with a theoretical focus on the topic as well as cross-varietal accounts; it sheds light on individual Englishes from different geographical regions and offers new perspectives on “old” varieties.
This chapter approaches English in the Philippines not as one language, but as several varieties that are used in a wide range of situations and contexts. What most studies and policies on English in the Philippines have continued to neglect is the fact that there are a variety of Englishes that multilingual Filipinos constantly use in a variety of situations and contexts. The chapter refers to these Englishes as Pinoylish – Philippine Englishes in constant flux, in continuous construction, always fluid, occupying various points in a cline of centrality and peripherality, drawing from a repertoire of local languages, including English as a Philippine mother tongue, as well as other modes of communication that shape what is meaningful to the Filipino. It discusses the features of the “standard” Philippine English variety and the diffuse state of language policies in the Philippines.
This chapter examines different contact processes of Spanish in the Pacific in a socio‐historical framework. Although Spanish has a long history in the region, the Pacific is a largely forgotten area in Spanish contact linguistics. The socio‐historical background in the Pacific considered in the chapter include the motivations for lexical borrowing in Tagalog and Chamorro, the features attested in Philippine Spanish, as well as structural innovations in Chabacano in the first place, and highlighting the differences between creolization and other types of contact situations in the second place. As the varieties here examined are still spoken in the area, contemporary language ideological perspectives to the role of the colonial language are also discussed. Today, Spanish in the Philippines is a dying language with very few native speakers. Language loss and endangerment can lead to regularization and partial loss of agreement patterns. The overseas varieties of Spanish present a variety of contact situations.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--Cornell University, 1975. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 373-383). Microfilm.
STATISTICAL DATA DEALING WITH BASIC VOCABULARY COMPARISONS AMONG A SIGNIFICANT GROUP OF AUSTRONESIAN LANGUAGES ARE PRESENTED. SOME OF THE LANGUAGES ARE CLASSIFIED INTO SUBGROUPS UNDER GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS, AND OTHERS ARE REGARDED AS SUBGROUPS IN THEMSELVES. THE LANGUAGES COVERED IN THE STUDY STRETCH GEOGRAPHICALLY FROM MADAGASCAR TO EASTER ISLAND AND FROM TAIWAN, SOUTHEAST ASIA, AND HAWAII ON THE NORTH TO INDONESIA, NEW ZEALAND, AND POLYNESIA ON THE SOUTH. (JH)
A frequency count was conducted of linguistic features in the English of the Philippine mass media. Philippine English was found to have a smaller inventory of phonological units than Received Standard English. Vowel reduction does not seem to be prevalent. The collapsing of phonological distinctions is most evident in vowels and fricatives. Syllable structures consisting of complicated consonant clusters are simplified. Shifting of stress is distinctive, especially in words of more than three syllables. There seems to be a preference for sustained juncture at the end of clauses and phrases. Spelling pronunciations are prevalent. In written Philippine English, there exists a local set of rules for tenses, and tense sequence tends to be lacking. Local use of prepositions is found, as well as unusual lexical and collocational items that cannot be explained by linguistic borrowing. The diachronic evolution of a future Standard Philippine English is predicted and tentatively described. (Author/JB)
The major local (Austronesian) languages of the Philippines are Cebuano, Tagalog (the basis of pilipino), Ilocano, Hiligaynon, Bicol, Waray (Samber-Leyte), Kapampangan, and Pangasinan (rank ordered according to the number of first-language speakers). Earlier, any language which had at least 500,000 first-language speakers was considered a major language; with the growth in population, this number has been pushed to 1,000,000. All but Pangasinan, which has about 950,000 first-language speakers, have over a million first-language speakers based on the 1975 census. (A census was taken in 1980 and preliminary reports have been released; however, a breakdown according to language speakers is not yet available.)
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Cornell University, February, 1957. Includes bibliographical references.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ateneo de Manila University, 1976. Includes bibliographical references (p. 781-790) and index. Photocopy.
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