ArticleLiterature Review

Ecological Intensification: Harnessing Ecosystem Services for Food Security

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Abstract

Rising demands for agricultural products will increase pressure to further intensify crop production, while negative environmental impacts have to be minimized. Ecological intensification entails the environmentally friendly replacement of anthropogenic inputs and/or enhancement of crop productivity, by including regulating and supporting ecosystem services management in agricultural practices. Effective ecological intensification requires an understanding of the relations between land use at different scales and the community composition of ecosystem service-providing organisms above and below ground, and the flow, stability, contribution to yield, and management costs of the multiple services delivered by these organisms. Research efforts and investments are particularly needed to reduce existing yield gaps by integrating context-appropriate bundles of ecosystem services into crop production systems.

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... Over the past few decades, there has been an acceleration in the replacement of natural vegetation covers with low-complexity production systems, where land covers became less diverse over time and space, relying more on fossil fuel-based subsidies and external inputs (e.g., fertilizers and herbicides) (Bommarco et al. 2013). While this process of agricultural intensification has contributed to increased agricultural yields, it has also led to negative environmental impacts such as the depletion of limited resources, the generation of pollutants, and the loss and fragmentation of natural habitats (Foley et al. 2005;West et al. 2014). ...
... While this process of agricultural intensification has contributed to increased agricultural yields, it has also led to negative environmental impacts such as the depletion of limited resources, the generation of pollutants, and the loss and fragmentation of natural habitats (Foley et al. 2005;West et al. 2014). Recently, the implementation of heterogeneous rural landscapes with high agricultural diversity and a substantial proportion of natural vegetation areas has been proposed as an alternative to ensure food production while minimizing the impact on ecosystem services supply (Bommarco et al. 2013;Kremen and Merenlender 2018;Garibaldi et al. 2019). ...
... ES bundles arise from similar responses to ecological processes or change drivers, often resulting in tradeoffs between regulating and provisioning ES (Bennett et al. 2009;Raudsepp-Hearne et al. 2010). Landscape multifunctionality management seeks to optimize land use and land cover interactions to concurrently supply diverse ES (Bommarco et al. 2013;Kremen and Merenlander 2018;Jeanneret et al. 2021). ...
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Context Implementing heterogeneous rural landscapes with high agricultural diversity and a substantial proportion of natural habitats has been proposed to ensure food production while reducing negative impacts on ecosystem services. However, evidence of an increased supply of ecosystem services (ES) in more heterogeneous landscapes remains limited, with no consensus. Objectives To evaluate the effect of the spatial cropland system’s diversity and landscape configuration on indicators of the supply of ES in agricultural landscapes of the Rio de la Plata Grasslands region. Methods We analyzed the relationship between indicators of ES supply and the heterogeneity of 1121 microwatersheds. We assessed the Ecosystem Services Supply Index (ESSI), the Hydrological Yield (HY), and the Absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation (APAR) in agricultural areas. We calculated the average grassland patch area, the structural and functional cropland diversity, the cropland percentage, and the grasslands’ juxtaposition to assess landscape heterogeneity. Results Microwatersheds with higher cropland functional diversity showed higher values for indicators of ES supply. They were positively related to the ESSI and APAR, and negatively with HY, indicating positive effects on Carbon gains and water regulation processes. In contrast, grasslands’ juxtaposition had opposite effects to those of cropland functional diversity, so the spatial segregation of grasslands favored the ES supply. Conclusions Functional cropland diversification and the segregation of natural grasslands improved proxies of ES and counteracted the negative effects of cropland amount. These findings contribute to the design of multifunctional landscapes and suggest that cropland functional diversity and grassland configuration should be considered in food production systems aimed at preserving ES supply.
... Insect pests reduce crop quality and yield (Savary et al., 2019). Sustainable long-term crop protection practices are a high priority, in both organic and conventional agriculture, due to issues such as pesticide resistance, secondary pest outbreaks, and harm to beneficial organisms and ecological processes (Bommarco et al., 2013). One practice that can increase the resistance and resilience of crop yields to pest damage is to encourage the abundance and diversity of natural enemies (wild predators and parasites) that can control crop pests (Bommarco et al., 2013;Dainese et al., 2019). ...
... Sustainable long-term crop protection practices are a high priority, in both organic and conventional agriculture, due to issues such as pesticide resistance, secondary pest outbreaks, and harm to beneficial organisms and ecological processes (Bommarco et al., 2013). One practice that can increase the resistance and resilience of crop yields to pest damage is to encourage the abundance and diversity of natural enemies (wild predators and parasites) that can control crop pests (Bommarco et al., 2013;Dainese et al., 2019). To achieve this, natural enemies require year-round vegetative resources for shelter and overwintering, nesting and breeding, and food resources in the form of pollen, nectar, and alternative prey (Gurr et al., 2017). ...
... This includes examining strategies such as crop diversification, organic farming, and habitat conservation, which have been shown to support pollinator health and improve pollination efficiency (Kleijn et al., 2015;Pywell et al., 2015). Additionally, this review will address the benefits and challenges associated with implementing agroecological practices, offering insights into how they can be integrated into modern horticultural systems to promote sustainability and resilience Bommarco et al., 2013). ...
... Practices such as intercropping, cover cropping, and the conservation of natural habitats contribute to a more diverse and stable ecosystem (Nicholls & Altieri, 2013). This diversity enhances ecosystem services beyond pollination, including pest control, nutrient cycling, and soil fertility, creating a more resilient agricultural system that can better withstand environmental stresses Bommarco et al., 2013). ...
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Pollination is a crucial ecosystem service that directly influences the yield and quality of horticultural crops. However, the decline in pollinator populations due to factors such as habitat loss, pesticide use, and climate change poses significant risks to agricultural productivity. This paper reviews agroecological approaches to enhancing pollination services in horticultural crops, focusing on strategies that promote biodiversity, create pollinator-friendly habitats, and minimize environmental stressors. By implementing practices such as diversified cropping systems, organic farming, and the conservation of natural habitats, agroecology provides sustainable solutions to support pollinator health and ensure the resilience of horticultural production systems. The review also examines the benefits and challenges of these approaches and suggests future research directions to optimize pollination services in horticulture.
... An appropriate management of agricultural systems and crops is sought to solve many of the negative impact on the environment (Power, 2010). Crop diversity, as underlined by Bommarco et al. (2013), can be a key element of crop management intended to reduce negative effect while preserving crop yields. It can increase the efficiency use of inputs and resources at farm 1 European Union (2013) highlights that Members States (MS) should choose at which territorial level to apply the ratio. ...
... Ecological Economics 227 (2025) 108405 level via complementary of crops (Bommarco et al., 2013;Di Falco et al., 2010), but also constitute a buffer against weeds, diseases and pests (Lechenet et al., 2014). Studies in France have documented a potential increase in production and yields due to crop diversification. ...
... This not only undermines conservation objectives, but also affects the supply of many ES on which communities, especially farmers, rely. Therefore, it is vital to prioritise and identify relevant ES in each territorial context to undertake necessary actions for their conservation (Bommarco et al. 2013, Scorza et al. 2020. ...
... When ecological intensification was first introduced, the main focus was on improving soil fertility and nutrient efficiency in combination with technological advances to increase crop yields in high-producing areas (Cassman 1999). However, this concept has since been broadened to include other important ecosystem services like biological pest control, soil services and crop pollination (Bommarco et al. 2013, Muneret et al. 2019. ...
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Defined as the benefits derived from nature to humans, the Ecosystem Services (ES) concept clarifies how ecosystems contribute to human well-being. Despite its relevance, integrating this concept into decision-making processes remains a challenge. Participatory approaches have proven crucial in developing mechanisms for managing, conserving, sustainably using and valuing ES. This work aimed to analyse the perceptions of Portuguese Biosphere Reserves’ (BR) managers regarding the ES provided by these territories through a participatory workshop. During the workshop, each participant specified the most relevant ES provided by the BR. The study identified three key ES: "Cultivated terrestrial plants (including fungi, algae) grown for nutritional purposes", "Characteristics of living systems that enable scientific investigation or the creation of traditional ecological knowledge" and "Characteristics of living systems that enable education and training". Additionally, participants discussed perceived threats, opportunities and potential solutions to enhance the value of these key ES in these areas. "Climate change" and "Pollution" were identified as the most significant threats, while "Climate adaptation", "Quality of life" and "Sustainable agriculture" emerged as the main opportunities. Solutions to address threats and maximise opportunities include the establishment of a closer, systematic and articulated relationship within BR to promote sustainability and resilience. Overall, the workshop was positively evaluated and deemed productive. It was also considered a powerful tool to foster collaboration towards a more holistic promotion of BR' sustainable governance, benefitting the environment, communities and the economy.
... Traditional farming systems, which often incorporated diverse crops and farming techniques, have been replaced by monoculture farming and intensive agricultural practices. This shift has led to a decline in biodiversity at various levels, including genetic diversity within crop species, species diversity within ecosystems, and the overall health of agroecosystems (Bommarco et al., 2013;Tscharntke et al., 2012). ...
... To overcome the challenges and scale up natural farming in India, several strategies and interventions are necessary [59]. ...
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Natural farming, a sustainable agricultural practice that eschews the use of synthetic inputs, has gained traction in recent years due to its potential to address environmental and socioeconomic challenges. This chapter explores the current state, challenges, and future prospects of natural farming in India. We examine the principles and practices of natural farming, its ecological and economic benefits, and the hurdles faced by farmers in adopting this approach. The chapter highlights the need for supportive policies, research, and extension services to scale up natural farming and realize its full potential. We discuss the role of traditional knowledge, farmer-led innovations, and scientific advancements in shaping the future of natural farming. The chapter emphasizes the importance of building resilient agroecosystems, enhancing soil health, conserving biodiversity, and empowering small and marginal farmers through natural farming. We conclude by outlining a roadmap for mainstreaming natural farming as a viable alternative to conventional agriculture, contributing to food security, environmental sustainability, and rural development in India.
... Apart from nutrient and waste cycling functions discussed above, at scales relevant for fields, there is also a well-developed literature documenting other benefits of increasing and maintaining soil biodiversity, such as increased soil stability and resilience to abiotic stresses caused by both natural phenomena (storms, fires, erosion) or anthropogenic (tillage, excessive application of pesticides and fertilizers) [33,34]. Soils high in biodiversity have a higher gene pool reservoir for harnessing their different functional capabilities, including the ability to bounce back after the shocks. ...
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Current food production systems rely heavily on resource-poor small-scale farmers in the global south. Concomitantly, the agrifood systems are exacerbated by various a/biotic challenges, including low-input agriculture and climate crisis. The recent global food crisis further escalates the production and consumption challenges in the global market. With these challenges, coordinated efforts to address the world’s agrifood systems challenges have never been more urgent than now. This includes the implementation of deeply interconnected activities of food, land, and water systems and relationships among producers and consumers that operate across political boundaries. Nature-positive agriculture represents interventions both at the farm and landscape level that include a systems approach for the management of diverse issues across the land-water-food nexus. In the present article, we focus on the history of traditional farming and how it evolved into today’s nature-positive agriculture, including its limitations and opportunities. The review also explains the most impactful indicators for successful nature-positive agriculture, including sustainable management of soil, crops, seeds, pests, and mixed farming systems, including forages and livestock. Finally, the review explains the dynamics of nature-positive agriculture in the context of small-scale farming systems and how multilateral organizations like the CGIAR are converting this into transformative actions and impact. To address the climate crisis, CGIAR established the paradigm of nature-positive solutions as part of its research and development efforts aimed at transforming food, land, and water systems into more resilient and sustainable pathways.
... Simultaneously BCAs contribute to sustainable farming by reducing the need for chemical pesticides, thereby protecting pollinators and promoting ecosystem balance. Integrating pollination services with BCAs enhances sustainable agriculture, ensuring productivity, biodiversity and resilience (1). Despite their vital role, ecosystem services such as biological control have been under-researched in the context of agroecosystems (2). ...
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This study, conducted in the Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh, India, in 2024, explored the factors influencing farmers' adoption of biological control agents (BCAs). Kurnool, an agriculturally significant region, was divided into four clusters: Kallur, Pathikonda, Kodumur and Panyam. A total of 120 farmers were selected using a convenience sampling method, chosen due to logistical constraints and the exploratory nature of the research. Data were gathered through semi-structured household interviews and supplemented by key informant discussions to provide additional context. The study examined adoption of BCAs as the dependent variable, with independent variables including age, gender, education, primary occupation, farming experience, farm income, farm size, training and membership in agricultural organizations. Analysis using a forward stepwise logistic regression model identified farm size, annual income and training as significant positive factors influencing awareness and adoption of BCAs. Results showed that 25 % of the sampled farmers were using BCAs. Key barriers to adoption included a lack of knowledge, reliance on chemical fertilizers due to entrenched agricultural practices, high costs and limited access to credit. To address these challenges, the study recommends implementing targeted education programs, enhancing access to affordable credit and fostering cooperative networks and public-private partnerships to strengthen collaboration between farmers and agricultural organizations. The findings emphasize the need for comprehensive policy measures to support sustainable agricultural practices through the promotion of BCAs.
... Agricultural intensification is one of the most common and serious global disturbances (Rillig et al. 2019) and exerts a profound influence on biodiversity and ecosystem functions (Maxwell et al. 2016). Farmland is the main source of food, and the huge population pressure in the world makes humans have to increase food production through intensive practices such as tilling, fertilization, and the use of pesticides (Bommarco, Kleijn, and Potts 2013;Garland et al. 2021b). These agricultural practices have resulted in significant declines in soil health, including soil biodiversity loss, soil organic carbon and nutrient declines, and soil structure changes (Manning et al. 2018;Long et al. 2024). ...
Article
Unraveling how agricultural management practices affect soil biota network complexity and stability and how these changes relate to soil processes and functions is critical for the development of sustainable agriculture. However, our understanding of these knowledge still remains unclear. Here, we explored the effects of soil management intensity on soil biota network complexity, stability, and soil multifunctionality, as well as the relationships among these factors. Four typical land use types representing a gradient of disturbance intensity were selected in calcareous and red soils in southwest China. The four land use types with increasing disturbance intensity included pasture, sugarcane farmland, rice paddy fields, and maize cropland. The network cohesion, the network topological features (e.g., average degree, average clustering coefficient, average path length, network diameter, graph density, and modularity), and the average variation degree were used to evaluate the strength of interactions between species, soil biota network complexity, and the network stability, respectively. The results showed that intensive soil management increased species competition and soil biota network complexity but decreased soil biota network stability. Soil microfauna (e.g., nematode, protozoa, and arthropoda) stabilized the entire soil biota network through top‐down control. Soil biota network stability rather than soil biota network complexity or soil biodiversity predicted the dynamics of soil multifunctionality. Specifically, stable soil communities, in both the entire soil biota network and selected soil organism groups (e.g., archaea, bacteria, fungi, arthropoda, nematode, protozoa, viridiplantae, and viruses), support high soil multifunctionality. In particular, soil microfauna stability had more contributions to soil multifunctionality than the stability of soil microbial communities. This result was further supported by network analysis, which showed that modules 1 and 4 had greater numbers of soil microfauna species and explained more variation of soil multifunctionality. Our study highlights that soil biota network stability should be considered a key factor in improving agricultural sustainability and crop productivity in the context of increasing global agricultural intensification.
... The use of organic liquid formulations in organic farming has significant policy implications, supported by governments through policy, financial incentives, and regulatory frameworks (Darnhofer et al., 2010;Hamm et al., 2015). Clear certification standards ensure compliance and quality (Reganold and Wachter, 2016), while research and innovation require prioritized funding (Bommarco et al., 2013). Education and training initiatives are crucial for farmers, aided by capacity-building programs and farmer field schools (Klerkx et al., 2013). ...
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Organic liquid formulations (OLFs) are agricultural inputs derived from natural sources, designed for use in organic farming. These formulations, consisting of liquid solutions or suspensions containing organic compounds, nutrients, and beneficial microorganisms, play a crucial role in enhancing soil fertility, plant nutrition, and pest management, while promoting environmental sustainability and ecosystem health. Despite their eco-friendly nature, OLFs demand careful consideration for their environmental impact and safety. They biodegrade readily, reducing long-term persistence and are less harmful to non-target organisms. While OLFs offer numerous benefits, they also face limitations in potency and effectiveness compared to synthetic pesticides, often requiring more frequent applications and leading to increased labor costs. Their impact can vary with pest species and environmental conditions, and they generally provide gradual rather than immediate pest control. Availability and accessibility can be limited, posing challenges for some farmers. This chapter explores the role of OLFs in achieving success in organic farming, highlighting their benefits and limitations, and emphasizing the importance of Integrated Pest Management strategies and careful consideration of various factors to optimize their use in promoting sustainable agriculture.
... In this way permaculture design integrates the spatial logics of "land sparing" (separating intensive production zones and natural areas) and "land sharing" (managing areas with reduced intensification to preserve biodiversity in productive areas) (Fischer et al., 2014). However, permaculture goes beyond this distinction as even the most productive areas are designed to maximize biodiversity as a way to maintain resilient and productive ecosystems, echoing the logic of "ecological intensification" (Bommarco et al., 2013). ...
... Some of the key strategies and practices for integrating plant protection with sustainable intensification include:  Ecological intensification: This involves the management and enhancement of biodiversity and ecological processes to support crop production and resilience, while reducing the reliance on external inputs and negative impacts on the environment. Examples include the use of agroforestry, cover crops, and habitat management to promote natural pest control, soil health, and nutrient cycling (Bommarco et al.,, 2013).  Precision agriculture: This involves the use of information and communication technologies, such as remote sensing, geographic information systems, and decision support tools, to optimize the management of crops, pests, and resources at a fine spatial and temporal scale. ...
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In the face of growing global food demands and mounting environmental pressures, safeguarding agricultural productivity has become a critical imperative. This article explores advanced plant protection strategies that aim to bolster crop resilience, minimize yield losses, and promote sustainable farming practices. By harnessing cutting-edge technologies and adopting integrated pest management approaches, farmers can effectively combat the myriad challenges posed by pests, diseases, and abiotic stressors. From precision agriculture and biocontrol agents to resistant cultivars and predictive modeling, these innovative strategies offer promising solutions for ensuring food security in an increasingly complex and changing world. As we navigate the future of agriculture, prioritizing plant protection will be key to maintaining the viability and sustainability of our food systems.
... Preserving habitats that support diverse plant and insect communities is essential for maintaining ecosystem resilience and preventing species loss. Recent research has emphasized the importance of habitat connectivity, landscape heterogeneity, and the conservation of keystone plant species in supporting insect populations and promoting biodiversity (Bommarco et al., 2013). Additionally, studies have highlighted the role of plant-insect interactions in ecosystem restoration efforts, demonstrating how restoring native plant communities can enhance insect diversity and ecosystem stability (Barton & Schmitz, 2021). ...
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Insect genetics and genomics have undergone remarkable advancements, propelled by cutting-edge technologies. From deciphering the genetic basis of crucial traits to utilizing tools like CRISPR/Cas9 for targeted modifications, these advances hold immense promise for pest management, disease control and ecological understanding. The exploration of insect model organisms, the application of RNA interference for gene function analysis, and the insights gained from population genomics shed light on the diversity and adaptability of insects. Furthermore, the ethical considerations and ecological implications that accompany these breakthroughs. The collective impact of these advances extends beyond the laboratory, influencing agriculture, public health, and our broader interactions with the insect world.
... For instance, farmland expansion and synthetic chemical use have degraded habitats, simplified landscapes [7], reduced biodiversity, polluted water and soil, and increased greenhouse gas emissions [8][9][10]. Addressing these issues requires transitioning from conventional land-use practices to sustainable agriculture that conserves biodiversity and enhances ecosystem services [11,12]. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, organic farming offers a sustainable, ecologically adaptive approach [13,14]. ...
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Paddy field ecosystems are crucial for crop production, biodiversity conservation, and ecosystem services. Although previous studies have examined paddy field biodiversity, few have addressed how the distribution and species richness of vegetation and soil seed banks are regulated. This study investigated the distribution of wetland plants and soil seed banks in paddy fields across diverse habitat types and identified factors influencing their patterns. Surveys revealed that conventional paddy field habitats contained only a few herbicide-tolerant species (e.g., Portulaca oleracea L., Cardamine flexuosa With., and Rorippa palustris (L.) Besser). In contrast, organic paddy field habitats exhibited higher species richness and abundance. Cluster analysis and nonmetric multidimensional scaling demonstrated that soil seed bank distribution differed markedly in paddy field habitats with different farming practices and was influenced by distinct soil factors. These findings highlight the importance of understanding vegetation and soil seed bank dynamics in paddy field ecosystems to support biodiversity conservation and sustainable agriculture.
... On top of this, there is an urgent need to reduce the detrimental environmental impacts of crop production systems, through a reduction in synthetic inputs, such as mineral fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides (Baweja et al., 2020;Thomas et al., 2020). It is thus crucial to design agricultural production systems that are at the same time equally or more performant, more stable, and less reliant on external inputs (Bommarco et al., 2013). Increasing diversity in agricultural systems appears as a potential solution (Gurr et al., 2016;Reckling et al., 2022;Tamburini et al., 2020), but increasing diversity at the species level comes with technical and processing challenges that may hinder its adoption Hong et al., 2020;Lithourgidis et al., 2011). ...
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In the current quest for a more sustainable, environment-friendly agriculture, variety mixtures are often suggested as a practical option to increase the stability of food production systems. Their effects on yield have been extensively researched, yet clear conclusions remain elusive, notably in terms of mechanistic processes and optimal variety combinations. Furthermore, in the case of wheat, yield is not the only component in the equation: grain quality is crucial for the bread value chain, yet the effects of variety mixtures on wheat quality and its stability have rarely been investigated. To that end, we conducted a multi-year, multi-site wheat variety mixture experiment investigating the role of variety mixtures on the performance and stability of five traits linked to grain yield and quality, and the mechanisms underlying these effects. Eight varieties were grown in pure stands and mixtures of 2 and 8 varieties, following a full diallel design. We considered the responses of grain yield, protein content, thousand kernel weight, hectoliter weight, and Zeleny sedimentation value. Results showed that mixtures generally outperformed pure stands in terms of global performance and stability for the 5 parameters. We particularly noticed an increase in quality stability and in Zeleny sedimentation value in mixtures, showing the potential of mixtures to improve crop quality. Moreover, we highlighted the important role of light interception for increased mixtures benefits. A more detailed investigation into individual mixture performances led us to some practical rules for optimal variety combinations: we advise combining varieties with similar heights and phenologies but different tillering abilities and yield potential. This study thus shows that variety mixtures represent a promising solution to sustainably increase the stability of wheat yield and quality. With practical recommendations, our results could benefit farmers but also processors and bakers, and promote the adoption of wheat variety mixtures.
... 345 that SNH could substitute for productive inputs such as fertilizers, particularly through other 392 regulatory functions such as pollination. These results support the hypothesis of ecological 393 replacement rather than ecological enhancement (Bommarco et al., 2013 Note: * p<0.1; ** p<0.05; *** p<0.01 Table 2 671 672 9.3. Table 3 673 ...
... Agroecological restoration-which seeks to restore biodiversity and function in agroecosystems while sustaining crop production-is an alternative, complementary tool to traditional ecological restoration to help farmers achieve landscape-level environmental goals (Garcia-Polo et al., 2021;Schulte et al., 2006). Ideally, agroecological restoration promotes biodiversity that also supports key ecological functions (such as weed or pest management) that can replace intensive chemical and mechanical management, allowing agricultural systems to meet both food security and environmental needs (Bommarco et al., 2013;Doré et al., 2011;Tittonell, 2014). ...
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Agroecological restoration aims to restore biodiversity and ecosystem function in agricultural landscapes while sustaining crop production. Adopting native plants as cover crops may restore ecological value to cropping systems such as nut orchards. We focused on Oregon hazelnut orchards and compared how four seed mixes (native annuals, native perennials, conventional cover crops and unseeded controls) performed under three levels of orchard floor disturbance (flailing, flailing and scraping, and unmanaged/none) across three different orchard ages with corresponding differences in canopy shade over a 2‐year period. We evaluated cover crop performance by three criteria: the survival criteria (response to disturbance and shading), the production criteria (effects on weeds, erosion potential and soil moisture) and the ecological functioning criteria (abundance and diversity of native plants and pollinator visitations). We found that native species generally outperformed conventional cover crops and bare ground across these criteria. Plant survival was not affected by disturbance but shading reduced survival of most species. Native annuals had high cover in the first year, and native perennials had high cover across both years. Native perennial species provided the best weed reduction and erosion control while not reducing soil moisture, and hosted the highest pollinator abundances and diversity. Synthesis and applications. Our results suggest that agroecological restoration of orchards through native cover cropping is a viable strategy for improving ecological outcomes without compromising production needs.
... Agricultural practices under the sustainable intensification paradigm are designed for soil conservation, enhancing crop production and soil health (Bommarco et al., 2013). Previous studies have shown a positive effect of this agricultural management on ecosystemic services, such as yield (Bowles et al., 2020;Gaudin et al., 2015), organic carbon stocks (Tamburini et al., 2020;Romaniuk et al., 2018;Beltrań et al., 2016), pest management (Emery et al., 2021), earthworms and mesofauna abundance (Rodrıǵuez et al., 2020) and nitrous oxide emissions (Piccinetti et al., 2021). ...
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Introduction: The ecosystem services provided by soil microbial communities are critical for the resilience of agroecosystems, ensuring environmental conservation and food security. Long-term experiments comparing contrasting crop rotations are valuable tools for monitoring microbial responses, but they rarely include all crop phases within a single year. Therefore, the long-term agronomic impact may be masked by the immediate effect of the crop evaluated. In this study, we compared different crop rotations based on the Intensification Sequence Index (ISI), which considers the soil occupation time, and analyzed the impact of cover crops and two nitrogen fertilization strategies. Material and methods: We used an experiment initiated in 2006 with the following crop rotations: Soybean-Soybean, Maize-Wheat/Soybean, and Maize-Soybean-Wheat/Soybean. Soil samples were taken after the harvest of each summer crop phase (i.e., Soybean, Maize, Wheat/Soybean), and the soil prokaryotic community was monitored using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Results and discussion: We observed that ISI and crop phase were the main predictors of microbial community composition, explaining 14.7% and 13.0% of the variation, respectively. Nitrogen fertilization had a minor effect (3.12%) and was detected only after maize sampling; cover crops had no significant effect. However, the presence of cover crops showed higher alpha diversity and an increased abundance of Proteobacteria. Maize enriched the abundance of certain taxa of Planctomycetes and Verrucomicrobia, while Soybean increased the abundance of Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria. Comparatively, Soybean enriched Mucilaginibacter and Geobacter, while Wheat/Soybean enriched Brevundimonas and Roseimicrobium. Conclusion: Our results demonstrate that crop phase is as important as the long-term legacy of crop rotations in shaping the microbial community and that specific taxa responses are highly dependent on the crop phase surveyed.
... One alternative approach to increasing agricultural production in a more sustainable manner is the use of natural processes to substitute agrochemicals, while still preserving or boosting yield 12 . Examples include developing field edges to support natural enemies of crop pests, to reduce crop damage, and to reduce the use of pesticides, or cover-cropping or intercropping with legumes to populate fields with nitrogen-fixing bacteria that improve soil fertility and increase crop yields 13 . ...
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The impact of agricultural land use on biodiversity has been extensively examined through efforts to synthesize available data. Nevertheless, there is still a lack of a thorough synthesis describing the earthworm response to agricultural land-use Our meta-analysis compared undisturbed ecosystems (i.e., undisturbed grassland, primary forest) as controls against agricultural land-use treatments, with data extracted from 113 publications across 44 countries, yielding 1040 pairwise comparisons of earthworm density and biomass, and 536 pairwise comparisons of earthworm diversity. We also evaluated how agricultural land use effects on earthworms depend on soil, climate, and management practices reported in the studies. Arable cropland had significantly lower earthworm density (-18%), biomass (-15%), and species richness (-27%) compared to undisturbed sites. Conversely, higher earthworm density, biomass and species richness were observed in pastures, sites under agroforestry, crop management with fallow periods and crop-livestock integration. In regions with continental climates characterized by cool summers, agricultural land use exhibited positive effects on earthworm density and biomass. In sites with higher soil bulk density and lower organic matter content the adverse effects of agricultural land use are exacerbated. However, highly heterogeneous earthworm responses cannot be explained by the individual evaluation of climatic, soil-related, or management factors. Our results guide future efforts to address the data limitations that enable us to enhance our understanding of the interactive effects of various factors on earthworm responses to agricultural land use, as well as evidence-based and management strategies targeted at promoting sustainable agricultural systems while preserving soil biodiversity.
... Alternative approaches are therefore urgently needed. Ecological intensification is a strategy that aims to achieve this by promoting internal regulatory processes provided by biological communities while reducing external resource inputs (Bommarco, Kleijn, and Potts 2013). Soils are of key interest as they provide many regulating and supporting ecosystem functions to crops like nutrient cycling, balancing of water supply and protection from pathogens (Adhikari and Hartemink 2016). ...
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Introduction Intensive agriculture causes substantial negative impacts on agroecosystems. One approach to reduce impacts while maintaining productivity is the inoculation with beneficial microbes. Inoculants can positively affect crop growth for instance through enhancing nutrient uptake or pathogen protection. However, the efficacy of inoculants is inconsistent across different agricultural soils. In this study, we investigated to which degree the varying growth responses to an inoculant can be modelled from soil parameters. Materials and Methods As inoculant, we worked with the commercially available fungus Cladosporium tenuissimum and tested its effectivity on wheat plants. Variation between soils was specifically tested, while keeping other factors constant in pot experiments under controlled conditions. We assessed 25 field soils for their influence on wheat biomass response to inoculation (BRI). For each soil, we measured physicochemical parameters and characterised the soil fungal community composition. We then performed variable selection and exhaustive model screenings to find the best model explaining variations in BRI. Results A combined model incorporating physicochemical and fungal soil parameters outperformed models using only one of the two types of data. The best model was based on six predictors and explained 80% of the observed variability in BRI. Predictive parameters included water holding capacity and organic carbon levels as well as soil fungi of the taxa Alternaria, Cladosporium (another species than the inoculant), Acrostalagmus and Fusicolla. Organic carbon and Alternaria negatively affected the effectivity of the inoculant while the other parameters were positive predictors for inoculation success. Conclusion We showed that six soil parameters were sufficient to explain most of the variation of wheat responses to inoculation with C. tenuissimum. This result serves as proof‐of‐concept that the effectivity of inoculants can be modelled from soil parameters. It is now necessary to take this approach to practice and evaluate predictions for inoculant efficacy under field conditions.
... Ecological intensification, by harnessing nature-based processes to support yields, is one of the main available strategies to reconcile agroecosystem functionality with the maintaining of agricultural productivity (Bommarco et al., 2013;Vanbergen et al., 2020). One strategy available to farmers is the restoration of agroecological infrastructures within farmed landscape (Wezel et al., 2014;Kovács-Hostyánszki et al., 2017;Vanbergen et al., 2020). ...
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Premise Restoration of seminatural field margins can elevate pollinator activity. However, how they support wild plant gene flow through interactions between pollinators and spatiotemporal gradients in floral resources remains largely unknown. Methods Using a farm‐scale experiment, we tested how mating outcomes (expected heterozygosity and paternity correlation) of the wild, self‐incompatible plant Cyanus segetum transplanted into field margins (sown wildflower or grass‐legume strips) were affected by the abundance of different pollinator functional groups (defined by species traits). We also investigated how the maternal plant attractiveness, conspecific pollen donor density, and heterospecific floral richness and density interacted with pollinator functional group abundance to modulate C. segetum mating outcomes. Results Multiple paternity increased (=lower paternity correlation) with greater local abundance of hoverflies (syrphids) and female medium‐sized wild bees (albeit the latter's effect diminished with decreasing maternal plant attractiveness), and the presence of male bumblebees ( Bombus ) under low local floral richness. Cyanus segetum progeny genetic diversity increased with male Bombus presence but decreased with greater abundance of syrphids and honey bees ( Apis mellifera ). Conclusions Overall, field margins supported plant‐pollinator interactions ensuring multiple paternity and conservation of allelic diversity in C. segetum progeny. The contribution to plant mating outcomes of different pollinator functional groups was dictated by their local abundance or traits affecting pollen transfer efficiency. The local floral richness or maternal plant attractiveness sometimes modulated these relationships. This complex response of wild plant mating patterns to community interactions has implications for the use of field margins to restore functional pollination systems in farmed landscapes.
... The rationale behind these practices is to remove competitive species from the root zone of the vine, thereby ensuring maximum water and nutrient availability in the soil Giese et al., 2014;Steenworth et al., 2016), reducing weed presence in the canopy [which can be an issue during harvest] (Guerra et al., 2022;Wolf et al., 2008), and reducing frost risk (Battany, 2016). However, with tightening restrictions on herbicide use in vineyards (Walsh & Kingwell, 2021;Wynn & Webb, 2022), and a shift towards ecological intensification of agroecosystems [i.e., more plant cover, less disturbance] (Bommarco et al., 2013;Bowles et al., 2016), there is growing interest in under-vine cover cropping (e.g., Vanden Heuvel & Centinari, 2021). Arguments, both for and against maintaining bare soil under vines exist; however, there is relatively little empirical evidence in support of either approach, particularly in viticultural regions where irrigation is necessary. ...
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Reducing herbicide application in viticulture is of increasing importance due to tightening regulations in multiple export markets, and consumer demands. As a result, alternative vineyard floor management options are becoming increasingly sought after in the context of sustainable viticulture. This trial aimed to quantify the effects of different under-vine ground cover species on soil properties and vine productivity and to reassess whether bare soil under-vine compares with a covered under-vine zone. In 2014, six under-vine treatments, including straw mulch, herbicide, medic (Medicago L.) mixes, and grasses (Wallaby grass [Rytidosperma sp. L], fescue [Festuca sp. L], and Cocksfoot [Dactylis sp. L]) were established in an irrigated vineyard field trial at Langhorne Creek, South Australia. In 2020, data on soil physical and chemical properties, moisture content, and leaf nutrient status were collected from the site. Yield data from 2016–2021 were also collected. Cover crop species seeded in the under-vine space play a major role in defining vine productivity but do not necessarily have a negative impact. Analysed using a linear mixed model, yields over six seasons were no different between the herbicide control, straw mulch, and the medic treatments. That is, there was no yield penalty with specific cover crop treatments. However, significant negative effects on yield were observed relative to the herbicide control, with more aggressively growing perennial grass treatments. In Australia, seed blends including Medicago species provide viticulturists with new tools to enhance their vineyard’s soil health and hence sustainability of their operations.
... While these agroecosystems are often espoused for the benefits they provide to wildlife, how do they benefit from the wildlife they support? Semi-natural agricultural landscapes ( Fig. 1) will facilitate more regulating and cultural ecosystem services than a conventional intensive agricultural system and not necessarily at the expense of high provisioning services (Raudsepp-Hearne et al., 2010;Clough et al., 2011;Bommarco et al., 2013;Cerqueira et al., 2015). For example, in experimental rotations of wheat (Triticum aestivum), rapeseed (Brassica napus), and broad beans (Vicia faba), fields with low-yielding arable edges replaced by wildlife habitat had no net loss of yield (and in fact 25-35% greater yield of beans) than control fields, where no wildlife habitat was added (Pywell et al., 2015). ...
Chapter
Ecosystem services obtained by returning wild animals to agricultural landscapes can outweigh the disservices (e.g., livestock predation) of those same animals. We foresee three key management trends that will facilitate a balancing of economic and environmental gains in animal rewilding: (1) capturing wild provisioning services, (2) coordinating broad spatial heterogeneity in land use, and (3) employing coexistence conservation tactics. A resurgence of appreciation for wild animal products would provide opportunities for landholders to obtain new or supplementary income. Further gains could be facilitated by creating heterogeneous landscapes with various land sharing strategies that shift ecosystems away from intensive human use towards higher quality wild animal habitat. Finally, increased implementation of tactics that may drive or enable the adaptation of livestock, crops, their predators, as well as human perceptions and management strategies, could facilitate the coexistence of wild animals and agriculture that will help to produce net positive outcomes.
... Agriculture and biodiversity are two interconnected elements of agricultural landscapes, with a significant impact on ecosystem health and society as a whole (Tscharntke et al., 2012). Modern agriculture, dominated by intensive practices such as monoculture and excessive pesticide use, has led to the loss of biological diversity and the degradation of natural habitats (Bommarco, Kleijn & Potts, 2013). While agriculture has often been perceived as a threat to biodiversity, it has been increasingly recognized in recent decades that sustainable agriculture can play an essential role in biodiversity conservation (Perfecto, Vandermeer & Wright, 2009). ...
Article
The integration of digital technologies in agriculture has the potential to revolutionize biodiversity conservation efforts. This article explores the role of regulations and recommended practices in promoting the adoption of digital technologies for biodiversity conservation in agricultural practices. Through a comprehensive review of the literature and analysis of current trends, the article highlights the importance of regulatory frameworks and recommended practices in shaping the adoption and implementation of digital technologies in agriculture. It examines various policies and initiatives aimed at stimulating the use of digital tools for monitoring, reporting, and mitigating the impact on biodiversity. Furthermore, the article discusses the challenges and opportunities associated with the adoption of digital technologies in agricultural practices for biodiversity conservation. It concludes by proposing recommendations for improving the regulatory framework and promoting the sustainable use of digital technologies to enhance biodiversity conservation in agriculture.
... Kedua, adanya efek sinergis pada layanan, atau kontribusi antara hasil dan kualitas (IFAD, 2013;Qin et.al., 2015). Ketiga, peran informasi yang digunakan dalam mempengaruhi distribusi, kelimpahan dan komposisi komunitas untuk keberhasilan pengelolaan layanan dan upaya memenuhi peningkatan permintaan produk pertanian (Bommarco et al., 2013). Keempat, keuntungan ekonomi dan biaya yang terkait dengan agroekologi dan intensifikasi ekologi menjadi bagian integral dari pertanian (de Molina & Guzmán Casado, 2017;). ...
... The unifying concept of ecological synchrony can be applied to social-ecological systems. Calls have been made for greater ecological intensification in agroecosystems to take advantage of ecological cycles, thereby reducing anthropogenic inputs and harm to intensively managed systems (Bommarco et al., 2013). Framing these issues through the lens of synchrony could be a useful approach to adapting and mitigating the effects of climate change. ...
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Different aspects of ecological systems, biotic or abiotic, often fluctuate in coordinated patterns over space and time. Such high concordance between ecological processes is often referred to as ecological synchrony. Anthropogenic activities, including and beyond climate change, have the potential to alter ecological synchrony by disrupting or enhancing existing synchrony. Despite many local studies, we have a limited systematic understanding of how ecological synchrony is shaped by management in human-dominated landscapes at regional to continental scales. From a macrosystems perspective, we review how anthropogenic activities, particularly beyond climate change, alter ecological synchrony across levels of ecological organization, from the ecosystem level to the population level. For each level, we use a large-scale case study to demonstrate ways to quantify the impacts of human modifications on synchrony using big data from remote sensing, surveys, and observatory networks. For example, we detected possible homogenization of population dynamics of bird species in North America. These changes in ecological synchrony, although in different forms, often represent challenges to ecological and social systems. Collaborative research efforts that integrate emerging open data streams moving forward will be able to provide insights into the effects of different anthropogenic drivers and the consequences of changes in synchrony.
... Kedua, adanya efek sinergis pada layanan, atau kontribusi antara hasil dan kualitas (IFAD, 2013;Qin et.al., 2015). Ketiga, peran informasi yang digunakan dalam mempengaruhi distribusi, kelimpahan dan komposisi komunitas untuk keberhasilan pengelolaan layanan dan upaya memenuhi peningkatan permintaan produk pertanian (Bommarco et al., 2013). Keempat, keuntungan ekonomi dan biaya yang terkait dengan agroekologi dan intensifikasi ekologi menjadi bagian integral dari pertanian (de Molina & Guzmán Casado, 2017;). ...
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Petani sawit berperan penting dalam produksi minyak sawit dunia dan sektor minyak sawit Indonesia dengan lebih dari 40 persen yang telah mencapai 4,2 juta hektar, dimana lebih dari 3,1 juta hektar dimiliki oleh petani swadaya. Namun, petani swadaya selama ini kurang mendapat perhatian terutama dalam diskusi program produksi keberlanjutan dan dampak lingkungan. Dengan demikian, petani swadaya tidak dapat mengakses peluang pasar, khususnya pasar internasional yang menuntut adanya standarisasi dan sertifikasi kebun kelapa sawit. Kondisi ini juga diperparah oleh beberapa faktor internal petani swadaya seperti wilayah kebun yang tersebar dan tidak memiliki organisasi petani sehingga produktivitas kebun menjadi lebih rendah jika dibandingkan dengan petani plasma. Disamping itu, sertifikasi sebagai standar telah menjadi persyaratan wajib di beberapa negara pengimpor karena dapat memberikan manfaat usaha secara keberlanjutan (Mol & Oosterveer, 2015); metode yang dapat diverifikasi untuk menilai tingkat kinerja keberlanjutan; ukuran kemajuan terhadap pembangunan berkelanjutan (Poveda & Young, 2015; D’Hollander, 2016; Langley & Tsoukas, 2017; MacCarthy, 2017); meningkatkan transparansi rantai suplai dan meningkatkan hubungan dengan pemasok (EYGM, 2016; Aaronson & Wham, 2016). Namun, dampak positif langsung dari sertifikasi lebih kecil daripada dampak langsung karena akses ke pasar dan kerentanan tidak dapat serta merta diperbaiki melalui sertifikasi (Barry, et al., 2012; Kronenberg 2014; Hidayat et.al., 2015; Oya et al., 2017), tetapi skema sertifikasi yang dilembagakan akan memberikan manfaat produksi yang lebih menguntungkan meskipun tidak produksi berkelanjutan (Hidayat et.al., 2015). Oleh karena itu, Indonesia sebagai salah satu negara pengekspor minyak sawit melalui standar Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO) dengan Keputusan Menteri Pertanian No.19/Permentan/ OT.140/3/2011 membentuk norma produksi berkelanjutan dan untuk menangani industri yang meliputi perizinan dan manajemen perkebunan, penanaman dan proses, pemantauan dan pengelolaan lingkungan, tenaga kerja, sosial, manajemen ekonomi, dan peningkatan bisnis yang berkelanjutan. Pemerintah Indonesia juga menerbitkan Undang-Undang No. 19/2013 untuk meningkatkan kehidupan petani kecil melalui No. 11/Permentan/OT.140/3/2015 untuk sistem sertifikasi Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO). Namun, tidak mudah untuk menerapkan ISPO, tetapi beberapa bukti empiris menunjukkan adanya hubungan antara organisasi petani yang terbentuk dan pemangku kepentingan publik dan swasta akan memberikan kesempatan kepada petani untuk mengakses aset produktif yang dapat memperluas kapasitas usaha, mampu menangkap peluang perubahan ekonomi, dan berperan dalam pembuatan kebijakan (Barham & Chitemi, 2009; Bijman & Hu, 2011; Fairfield et al., 2011; Bijman, et al., 2012; Zimba, 2013; Lowitt et al., 2015). Dengan demikian, hal yang mendesak untuk meningkatkan kinerja yang dapat ditempuh melalui peningkatan peran organisasi petani karena akan memberikan pengertian adanya peningkatan profitabilitas dan produktivitas, efisiensi tinggi dan pengembalian dari input eksternal, stabilitas hasil yang lebih baik, pengurangan emisi gas rumah kaca, peningkatan ketahanan ekologi, dan penyediaan layanan lingkungan. Oleh sebab itu, ada berbagai faktor pendorong eksternal atau faktor kontekstual yang mempengaruhi kecenderungan organisasi untuk menjadi aktif berkaitan dengan keberlanjutan diidentifikan sebagai konteks bidang ekologi, organisasi dan konteks individu. Hal ini dikonfirmasi oleh hasil bahwa kelompok petani memiliki pengaruh langsung dan tidak langsung terbesar masing- masing pada aspek lingkungan dan legalitas kemudian diikuti oleh peningkatan pertanian, kesepakatan harga tandan buah segar. Peningkatan pada pertanian memiliki efek tidak langsung dan langsung pada pembangunan berkelanjutan tentu saja telah memperkuat konsensus yang muncul bahwa mengatasi tantangan baru membutuhkan intensifikasi pertanian berkelanjutan di pertanian kecil dan besar di seluruh dunia (SDSN, 2013). Penelitian empiris Nurliza & Dolorosa (2017) juga membuktikan bahwa organisasi petani sawit swadaya memiliki pengaruh tidak langsung dan langsung pada aspek lingkungan dan legalitas, sedangkan legalitas terbukti berpengaruh positif secara langsung dan tidak langsung terhadap aspek berkelanjutan. Sementara itu, peningkatan pada usaha kebun akan memberikan efek tidak langsung dan langsung pada pembangunan berkelanjutan, tetapi dengan asumsi mampu mengatasi tantangan intensifikasi pertanian berkelanjutan seperti peningkatan kinerja atau peningkatan profitabilitas dan produktivitas, efisiensi tinggi dan pengembalian input eksternal, stabilitas hasil yang lebih baik, pengurangan emisi gas rumah kaca, peningkatan ketahanan ekologi, dan penyediaan layanan lingkungan (SDSN, 2013). Oleh sebab itu, fokus pada peran dan pengembangan oranisasi petani khususnya petani sawit swadaya diharapkan dapat memberikan manfaat sebagai wadah dalam memfasilitasi dan menjembatani berbagai aspirasi kepentingan petani dan stakeholders baik pemerintah maupun swasta. Selain itu, organisasi petani sawit swadaya tersebut juga memainkan peran penting dalam pembangunan masyarakat pedesaan, mendukung proses pengambilan keputusan yang demokratis, pengembangan kepemimpinan dan pendidikan secara terintegrasi untuk memenuhi sistem sertifikasi berkelanjutan industri kelapa sawit yang berdaya saing.
... Second, the synergistic effects on services, or trade off contribution between the yields and quality (IFAD, 2013;Qin, Li, & Yang, 2015). Third, the role of the information used to influence the distribution, abundance and community composition for successful management of services and meeting growing demands for agricultural products (Bommarco et al., 2013). Fourth, economic advantages and costs related to agroecology and ecological intensification to become an integral a part of farming (de Molina & Guzmán Casado, 2017;). ...
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Currently, independent smallholders are facing the crucial challenge of certification requirements, namely, a lack of farmers’ organization, cost barrier; not possessing mandatory legal documents; lack of best practices or well-recorded activities; and limited skill and knowledge. Therefore, it is urgently necessary to understand the discrepancy between knowledge and competence to overcome the critical issues in the certification to achieve the sustainable development of palm oil production. The data was analyzed through in-depth interviews of 150 respondents based on the Indonesian sustainable palm oil (ISPO) with a non-hierarchical clustering method. The result showed that the largest gap between knowledge and competence level was in the sustainable business improvement aspect, while farmers’ organization and farm management aspect were in the smallest gap in all clusters. Thus, an intervention, extension and accessible information groups by motivation are highly required for selfimprovement and evaluation of the information pattern to minimize the gaps.
... The performance of CPS has a profound linkage with ecosystem services (Bommarco et al., 2013). Studying CPS and assessing their performance has a vital role in understanding the implication on food systems (Amin et al., 2022). ...
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Analysis of grain production performance can provide reference information to explore multiple cropping options and further improve the resource use efficiency of farming methods. This study investigated the spatiotemporal dynamics of grain production performance and efficiency of major crop production systems (CPS) in the Ethiopia’s Blue Nile Basin. The results show that only 39% of the basin is currently cultivated, although a significant cropland expansion (10%) was recorded between 1985 and 2020. The study identified 11 major CPS, mostly practiced in the basin. Of these, single cropping based on the main rainy season (Meher-Only) covers the largest area (26%), followed by Meher-Residual-Intermittent (12%) and Meher-Belg-Dependable (11%). Extended-Meher, Meher-Residual-Dependable, Meher-Residual-Intermittent, and Meher-Belg-Dependable are the four more powerful CPS with higher efficiency. Comparatively, CPS practiced in Wet-Woyna-Dega and Wet-Dega have better overall performance. Findings confirm that agricultural space management (land) and green-water (rainfall) utilization are the most influential factors, followed by land use planning and land use systems (CPS) invention. As landscape suitability for grain production governs future performance, in the low elevation and flood plains parts of the basin, the possibility of creating additional space into the food system is very high. In mountainous and high-altitude regions, the efficiency of grain production will decrease because incorporating additional arable land into the food system is trivial. In the last three decades, in BNB, only 10% of arable land (equivalent to 30 million quintals of food) has been added to the good system, which can support approximately 6 million people. Compared to the population growth of the basin (12 million 1985–2020), its contribution to the food system was less than 50%. This confirms that multiple cropping systems, such as Residual moisture-based CPS, have played a significant role in boosting the food system in the basin. Therefore, improving grain production performance/efficiency requires targeted investments, including the invention of more adaptable crop varieties, efficient cropping practices, and the introduction of advanced agricultural space and water management technologies. The results of the study will help identify important policy gaps and suggest possible options to enhance residual farming and other multiple cropping systems.
... Instead of utilizing synthetic pesticides, organic farmers use a range of alternatives such as crop rotation, composting, green manure, and beneficial insects to manage pests. Pollinators, beneficial insects, and birds benefit from organic farming, demonstrating the potential of this practice to support biodiversity conservation (Bommarco et al., 2013;Hole et al., 2005). ...
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India's economy, employment, gender equality, and human nutrition are all significantly impacted by horticulture, an important agricultural sector. It includes floral arrangements, fruits, veggies, spices, and sauces. To increase production, we need capacity building, agricultural mechanization, and cutting-edge technology. Within a market-based production system, sustainable agricultural practices seek to protect or enhance natural resources. In the long term, a sustainable strategy is advantageous to individuals, the global economy, and the environment. A huge population's food needs might not be satisfied by field crops alone, but horticulture supports economic and environmental restoration, empowers women, and protects biodiversity. Sustainable horticulture growth requires creative solutions to address issues including social unrest, climate change, and environmental degradation in India.
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1. The addition of nectar-rich flower patches in human-modified ecosystems is a common practice to mitigate pollinator declines and boost pollination. However, the benefits of these additions for pollinator communities and pollination services are rarely tested, especially in urban environments. 2. In a city-scale experiment we added floral resources to urban allotments and monitored the effects on bees, hoverflies and moths, and tested for improved seed set in a model crop (tomato, Solanum lycopersicum). 3. The addition of wildflowers did not benefit all insect communities. Only social bee abundance (Bombus and Apis) benefitted from increasing floral resource area whereas other insect taxa showed no changes in abundance potentially due to the divergence in foraging patterns of moths, hoverflies, social bees and solitary bees. The addition of wildflower patches enhanced pollination by supporting a 25.3% increase in tomato seed set, providing evidence that wildflower interventions can improve urban pollination. Seed set was higher in more urban sites, suggesting an 'oasis effect' where pollinating insects are concentrated into limited greenspaces. This highlights the precarity of pollination services in highly urban areas. 4. Our results suggest that the practice of planting wildflower patches can positively affect pollination services in urban areas. The continued promotion of flower patch addition is likely to benefit some key insect taxa, however, the common wildflower species in seed mixes may not benefit hoverflies and moths compared to bees. The taxon-specific foraging patterns we observed should inform the design and development of pollinator-friendly wildflower seed mixes.
Chapter
The chapter explores how biotechnological interventions, guided by human needs and ethical considerations, offering robust solutions for the agricultural sector. The narrative begins with an overview of the current state of industrial crop production, highlighting the challenges such as climate change, pest resistance, soil degradation, and limited natural resources. These challenges underscore the necessity for innovative approaches that go beyond conventional methods. Biotechnology emerges as a transformative tool, providing a suite of techniques including genetic engineering, molecular breeding, and genome editing, which can significantly enhance crop traits such as yield, nutritional value, and stress tolerance. The chapter delves into specific case studies where biotechnological interventions have led to substantial improvements in industrial crops. Examples include the development of genetically modified (GM) crops that are resistant to pests and diseases, thereby reducing the need for chemical pesticides and contributing to environmental sustainability. A significant portion of the discussion is dedicated to the mechanisms of action of various biotechnological tools. CRISPR-Cas9, for instance, is highlighted for its precision and efficiency in genome editing, allowing for targeted modifications that can result in desired traits without the introduction of foreign DNA. Such advancements underscore the potential of biotechnology to create crops that are better suited to withstand environmental stresses, which are becoming more prevalent due to climate change. In conclusion, the chapter asserts that human-centric biotechnological interventions are indispensable for the sustainable development of industrial crops. By aligning technological progress with human values and environmental stewardship, these interventions can drive agricultural practices toward a more sustainable and resilient future.
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Today, the term “sustainable intensification” is frequently used to characterize how agricultural and food production will develop in the future in order to solve the issues of resource conservation, climate change, food security, and the growing global population. While some people understand sustainable intensification to mean boosting output through more effective but possibly more intensive use of technology and inputs, environmental protection, which includes the preservation and renewal of natural capital and the output of ecosystem services, must also be considered. There is growing agreement that sustainable intensification ought to actively promote environmental advantages in addition to preventing further harm to the environment. This includes addressing issues of consumption, waste, biodiversity conservation, and resource use while ensuring sufficient overall levels of production to meet human needs. “Agroecology” is also now receiving increasing attention as an approach to agriculture that attempts to reconcile environmental, sustainability, and production goals by emphasizing the application of ecological concepts and principles to the design and management of agricultural systems. Agroecology can be seen as part of a broader approach to sustainable intensification focusing on ecological and knowledge intensification alongside technological intensification. Agroecological-based sustainable intensification interventions such as conservation tillage, legumes, cover crops, and catch crops in rotations, integrated pest management, soil conservation, on-farm mechanization, smart, precision technologies for irrigation and nutrient use efficiency, high-yielding varieties, and animal–crop integration can be used for maintaining sustainability.
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The ever-increasing demand for agricultural products due to global human explosion has resulted into deforestation and forest fragmentation leading to biodiversity loss. These paradigms have urged to identify and adopt agroforestry practices that uphold and restore biodiversity. The high elevation traditional agropastoral system prevalent in the Himalaya is one among such practices, but biodiversity wealth and ecosystem functioning of this system are not understood properly. Here, we have undertaken a study to understand the potentiality of multifunctional agropastoral mosaics located in Sikkim, Eastern Himalaya, India, in retention and conservation of temperate avifauna. We used point count method along set transects spread across five study sites spanning elevation range of 2300–3700 m to sample birds. We observed 88 bird species during the study among which 56 species including four Eurasian high montane biome species and seven Sino-Himalayan temperate forest biome species were observed in agropastoral system. Similarly, the community composition between the agropastoral system and nearby forest ecosystem (taken as control sites) differed significantly between the systems indicating the high conservation significance of agropastoral landscape mosaics for high elevation birds. Species richness and density of birds grouped into different functional categories were equivalent (or even higher in agropastoral) in both systems across the seasons. We found that these birds provide potential ecosystem services such as pest control, seed dispersal, nutrient decomposition, waste disposal, and pollination. Our results suggest that the agropastoral mosaics reflecting high habitat heterogeneity complement natural forest in retention and conservation of high elevation birds in the Himalaya. Hence, appropriate conservation measures must be undertaken to safeguard this unique multifunctional ecosystem and its avifaunal diversity.
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The Anthropocene is posing extraordinary challenges for global agriculture. Agri-food production is increasingly impacted by concurrent biotic and abiotic stressors, climate-triggered pests or diseases, (pesticide) resistance breakdown and the unrelenting appearance of invasive biota. Farmers have relied upon simple, add-on constitutive crop defenses and synthetic pesticides for decades, but those tools prove ever more defunct. Here, we argue that dynamic, pluralistic and adaptable crop defenses can safeguard harvests in the face of erratic pest threats. When transitioning towards such nature-based crop defenses, plants prove an infinite source of inspiration. Inducible and/or indirect defenses that rely upon trichomes, sugar rewards, substrate-borne vibrations, plant volatiles, root exudates or allelochemicals have become the center of scientists’ attention. The ensuing plant health innovations regularly rely upon the action of resident beneficial organisms, are low-cost, practicable and environmentally sound, and custom-made for more resilient forms of agriculture. By thus harnessing on-farm biodiversity and agroecological processes, agri-food production can be intensified without disregard of human or environmental health, or ‘One Health’.
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The aim of the research, conducted from April to October 2018–2019, was to characterize the bee populations ( Apiformes ) in phytosociological diverse grassland areas of Cisowsko-Orłowiński Landscape Park (C-OLP), located in Małopolska Upland. Such a characteristic was a crucial condition to perform further steps aimed at preventing threats to these insects. The transect method and Moericke traps were applied to sample bees. 126 bee species were recorded in four research areas with Apidae family representatives being dominant (44.9%). The transect method proved more efficient than the traps since it provided 123 insect species. Species diversity H’ and equivalence J’ indices reached the highest parameters in fields (FI) and meadows (ME) and the lowest in xerothermic grasslands (XG). Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient demonstrated positive and strong correlation of variables H’ and J’ and S. It applied to both the transect method and the traps, the latter demonstrating bigger correlation.
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Around the year 1975, the rice crop yields in Maharashtra, India, started declining. Strangely, this was correlated to the introduction of frog dissection in colleges in this state. How are they linked? During this period, colleges in India introduced frog dissection for their science students. Truckloads of frogs were caught from paddy fields and sent to colleges where they were used in laboratory experiments. The frogs are carnivores and eat pests that thrive on paddy. As their populations declined, the pests went up in numbers and brought down the crop yield.
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With the rollback of insecticides, novel tools for pest control are urgently needed. Aphids are particularly a major concern with few sustainable control alternatives. Ecological intensification has been promoted as a way of “inviting" back nature’s self-regulating abilities into agricultural production systems. Although such measures enhance the presence of natural enemies in agroecosystems, we demonstrate that in an ecologically intensified apple orchard, biocontrol of rosy apple aphid was minimal. We verified why the biodiverse settings did not result in enhanced ecosystem services, i.e., biological control of the rosy apple aphid. Close monitoring of food–web interactions in thousands of aphid colonies showed that tending ants dominated responses, while those of natural enemies were weak or absent. However, application of artificial aphid honeydew diverted ants from tending aphids and flipped the myrmecophily-dominated state into favoring numerical responses of a guild of natural enemies. Responses were swift and controlled both Aphis pomi and Dysaphis plantaginea, provided intervention was synced with aphid and predator phenology. Although myrmecophily in aphids is well-known on its own accord, it has been completely overlooked in ecological intensification. To unlock the aphid-biocontrol potential provided through ecological intensification, myrmecophily needs to be disrupted. Although particularly true for perennial systems, generally practices that reduce soil disturbance favor ants and may amplify aphid pests, thereby reducing biocontrol impacts in ecological intensification efforts. Harnessing ecosystem services requires careful analysis and good understanding of agroecosystem intricacies.
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Agricultural soil has great potential to address climate change issues, particularly the rise in atmospheric CO2 levels. It offers effective remedies, such as increasing soil carbon content while lowering atmospheric carbon levels. The growing interest in inoculating soil with live microorganisms aims to enhance agricultural land carbon storage and sequestration capacity, modify degraded soil ecosystems, and sustain yields with fewer synthetic inputs. Agriculture has the potential to use soil microalgae as inoculants. However, the significance of these microorganisms in soil carbon sequestration and soil carbon stabilization under field conditions has yet to be fully understood. Large-scale commercial agriculture has focused on the development and use of inoculation products that promote plant growth, with a particular emphasis on enhancing yield attributes. Gaining more profound insights into soil microalgae’s role in soil carbon cycling is necessary to develop products that effectively support soil carbon sequestration and retention. This review comprehensively explores the direct and indirect mechanisms through which soil microalgae contribute to soil carbon sequestration, highlighting their potential as microbial inoculants in agricultural settings. This study underlines the need for more research to be conducted on microalgae inoculation into agricultural soil systems aimed at mitigating carbon emissions in the near future.
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This text combines two basically different views on pest control namely the scientific researcher's view on pest control and the pesticide regulator's views on pesticide control aiming at a common and pragmatic ecological approach. A set of practicable ’tools’ are discussed that can be used to monitor and reduce environmental impact on agro-ecosystems where the ultimate goal is to move towards a more environmentally sustainable agriculture. General principles governing farming systems and pest control strategies are illustrated with pesticide use and pesticide risk reduction measures in coffee and rice cultivations. Adaptive pest control based on Integrated Pest Management with a rational use of pesticides as a last resort is suggested to be the most viable way forward.
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SummaryWe measured the impact of natural enemies on the population development on the bird cherry-oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi) on conventional and organic farms. By pairing farms with similar landscape features but different farming systems, we were able to separate the effects of farming practice and landscape features on the influence of natural enemies on R. padi abundance. Natural enemies had a greater impact on R. padi establishment on organic farms than on conventional farms. Irrespective of farming system, landscapes with abundant field margins and perennial crops were associated with low R. padi establishment. After establishment, there was no difference in ground-living enemy impact on R. padi population growth rate between farming systems, but impact was greater in landscapes where arable land was contiguous.Wir untersuchten die Wirkung natürlicher Feinde auf die Populationsentwicklung der Haferblattlaus (Rhopalosiphum padi) in konventionell und organisch bewirtschafteten landwirtschaftlichen Betrieben. Indem wir Betriebe paarten, die ähnliche Landschaftseigenschaften aber unterschiedliche Betriebsformen aufwiesen, konnten wir die Wirkung der Bewirtschaftung und der Landschaftseigenschaften auf den Einfluß der natürlichen Feinde auf die Abundanz von R. padi trennen. Die natürlichen Feinde hatten in organisch bewirtschafteten Betrieben eine größere Wirkung auf die Ansiedlung von R. padi als in konventionell bewirtschafteten Betrieben. Unabhängig von der Bewirtschaftungsform waren Landschaften mit zahlreichen Feldrainen und perennierenden Feldkulturen mit einer geringen Ansiedlung von R. padi verbunden. Die Wirkung bodenlebender Feinde auf die Wachstumsrate der Populationen von R. padi nach der Ansiedlung unterschied sich nicht zwischen den Bewirtschaftungsformen. Die Wirkung war jedoch in Landschaften größer, die zusammenhängende Ackerflächen aufwiesen.
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Food production requires application of fertilizers containing phosphorus, nitrogen and potassium on agricultural fields in order to sustain crop yields. However modern agriculture is dependent on phosphorus derived from phosphate rock, which is a non-renewable resource and current global reserves may be depleted in 50–100 years. While phosphorus demand is projected to increase, the expected global peak in phosphorus production is predicted to occur around 2030. The exact timing of peak phosphorus production might be disputed, however it is widely acknowledged within the fertilizer industry that the quality of remaining phosphate rock is decreasing and production costs are increasing. Yet future access to phosphorus receives little or no international attention. This paper puts forward the case for including long-term phosphorus scarcity on the priority agenda for global food security. Opportunities for recovering phosphorus and reducing demand are also addressed together with institutional challenges.
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There is a growing body of evidence to suggest that the simplification of land uses associated with a strong dependence on agrochemical inputs is decreasing environmental quality, threatening biodiversity, and increasing the likelihood of pest outbreaks. The development of farming systems with greater reliance on ecosystem services, such as biological control of insect pests, should increase the sustainability of agroecosystems. However, the factors responsible for the maintenance or enhancement of natural pest control remain unclear. The goal of this review is, therefore, to expose which elements, from the field to the landscape scale, influence natural enemy populations and pest regulation. We present here the principal effects of seminatural habitats, farming systems, and crop management on the abundance of insect pests and their biological control, with a view to evaluating their relative importance and identifying key elements that regulate natural pest control interactions. Because of the range of spatial and temporal scales experienced by these organisms, we advocate, in studies investigating trophic relations and biological pest control, a clear description of cropping systems and an explicit consideration of seminatural habitats and more generally of the surrounding landscape. Through this review, we also indicate gaps in knowledge and demonstrate the interest of linking agronomy and landscape ecology to understand trophic interactions, maximize natural pest control, and limit pesticide applications. Quantifying the relative importance of both local and landscape scales is a fundamental step in the design and assessment of ecologically sound integrated pest management strategies for farmers.
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Biodiversity and carbon (C) cycling have been the focus of much research in recent decades, partly because both change as a result of anthropogenic activities that are likely to continue. Soils are extremely species-rich and store approximately 80% of global terrestrial C. Soil organisms play a key role in C dynamics and a loss of species through global changes could influence global C dynamics. Here, we synthesize findings from published studies that have manipulated soil species richness and measured the response in terms of ecosystem functions related to C cycling (such as decomposition, respiration and the abundance or biomass of decomposer biota) to evaluate the impact of biodiversity loss on C dynamics. We grouped studies where one or more biotic groups had been manipulated to include a richness of ≤10 species or >10 species in order to reflect ‘low’ and ‘high’ extents of diversity manipulations. There was a positive relationship between species richness and C cycling in 77–100% of low-diversity experiments, even when the richness of just one biotic group was manipulated, whereas positive relationships occurred less frequently in studies with greater richness (35–64%). Moreover, when positive relationships were observed, these often indicated functional redundancy at low extents of diversity or that community composition had a stronger influence on C cycling than did species richness. Initial reductions in soil species richness resulting from global changes are unlikely to alter C dynamics significantly unless particularly influential species are lost. However, changes in community composition, and the loss of species with an ability to facilitate specialized soil processes related to C cycling, as a result of global changes, may have larger impacts on C dynamics.
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The cultivation of tropical Asian rice, which may have originated 9000 yr ago, represents an agricultural ecosystem of unrivaled ecological complexity. We undertook a study of the community ecology of irrigated tropical rice fields on Java, Indonesia, as a supporting study for the Indonesian National Integrated Pest Management Programme, whose purpose is to train farmers to be better agronomists and to employ the principles of integrated pest management (IPM). Two of our study objectives, reported on here, were (1) to explore whether there exist general and consistent patterns of arthropod community dynamics related to natural or intrinsic levels of biological control, and (2) to understand how the existing levels of biological control are affected by insecticide use, as well as by large-scale habitat factors relating to differing patterns for vegetational landscapes, planting times, and the length of dry fallow periods. We performed a series of observational studies and two experimental studies. Abundant and well-distributed populations of generalist predators can be found in most early-season tropical rice fields. We took samples from plants and water surface using a vacuum-suction device, and from the subsurface using a dip net. Our results show that high populations of generalist predators are likely to be supported, in the early season, by feeding on abundant populations of detritus feeding and plankton-feeding insects, whose populations consistently peak and decline in the first third of the season. We hypothesize that since this abundance of alternative prey gives the predator populations a "head start" on later-developing pest populations, this process should strongly suppress pest populations and generally lend stability to rice ecosystems by decoupling predator populations from a strict dependence on herbivore populations. We experimentally tested our hypothesis of trophic linkages among organic matter, detritivores and plankton feeders, and generalist predators and showed that by increasing organic matter in test plots we could boost populations of detritivores and plankton-feeders, and in turn significantly boost the abundance of generalist predators. These results hold for populations found on the plant, on the water surface, and below the water surface. We also demonstrated the link between early season natural enemy populations and later-season pest populations by experimentally reducing early-season predator populations with insecticide applications, causing pest populations to resurge later in the season. Overall, these results demonstrate the existence of a mechanism in tropical irrigated rice systems that supports high levels of natural biological control. This mechanism depends on season long successional processes and interactions among a wide array of species, many of which have hitherto been ignored as important elements in a rice ecosystem. Our results support a management strategy that promotes the conservation of existing natural biological control through a major reduction in insecticide use, and the corresponding increase in habitat heterogeneity. detritivores and plankton feeders; field experiment; green revolution; insecticide use and pest outbreaks; integrated pest management; Java, Indonesia; rice-field ecology; rice landscape patterns; synchronous vs. nonsynchronous plantings.
Article
Soil biodiversity vastly exceeds aboveground biodiversity, and is prerequisite for ecosystem stability and services. This review presents recent findings in soil biodiversity research focused on interrelations with agricultural soil management. Richness and community structure of soil biota depend on plant biodiversity and vice versa. Soil biota govern nutrient cycling and storage, soil organic matter (SOM) formation and turnover. Agriculture manipulates plants, soils and SOM. With intensification, regulation of functions through biodiversity is replaced by regulation through agricultural measures. Fertilizers and agrochemicals exert strong effects on soil biodiversity and functioning. Resulting community shifts feed back on soil functions such as carbon and nutrient cycling and pest control. Therefore, agricultural systems with less inputs may promote self-regulating systems and higher biodiversity.
Article
Under the current scenario of rapid human population increase, achieving efficient and productive agricultural land use while conserving biodiversity is a global challenge. There is an ongoing debate whether land for nature and for production should be segregated (land sparing) or integrated on the same land (land sharing, wildlife-friendly farming). While recent studies argue for agricultural intensification in a land sparing approach, we suggest here that it fails to account for real-world complexity. We argue that agriculture practiced under smallholder farmer-dominated landscapes and not large-scale farming, is currently the backbone of global food security in the developing world. Furthermore, contemporary food usage is inefficient with one third wasted and a further third used inefficiently to feed livestock and that conventional intensification causes often overlooked environmental costs. A major argument for wildlife friendly farming and agroecological intensification is that crucial ecosystem services are provided by “planned” and “associated” biodiversity, whereas the land sparing concept implies that biodiversity in agroecosystems is functionally negligible. However, loss of biological control can result in dramatic increases of pest densities, pollinator services affect a third of global human food supply, and inappropriate agricultural management can lead to environmental degradation. Hence, the true value of functional biodiversity on the farm is often inadequately acknowledged or understood, while conventional intensification tends to disrupt beneficial functions of biodiversity. In conclusion, linking agricultural intensification with biodiversity conservation and hunger reduction requires well-informed regional and targeted solutions, something which the land sparing vs sharing debate has failed to achieve so far.
Article
Numerous studies have demonstrated that diverse predator assemblages can be more effective at controlling prey populations. Yet, other studies have shown no effect of predator diversity on prey mortality, or even negative effects (for example due to intraguild predation or interference). Much research emphasis has been placed on the traits of predators that maximise functional complementarity. However, comparatively less attention has been paid to the traits of the prey or habitat that may maximise predator diversity effects, even though there must be a variety of prey niches available to be partitioned in order for niche complementarity to occur. Following this logic, we review six hypotheses for when diverse enemy assemblages should be most effective: when 1) prey communities are diverse; 2) prey have complex life cycles; 3) prey are patchily distributed in space or time; 4) studies are conducted at larger spatial and temporal scales; 5) plant structures are complex; 6) prey are abundant. Many of these hypotheses lack direct tests, particularly in agricultural systems, but we find little or no direct or indirect support for hypotheses 1, 4, 5 and 6. However, previous work does provide some support for hypotheses 2 and 3. We discuss methods to test these hypotheses directly, and suggest that natural enemy diversity may only benefit the biological control of arthropods in heterogeneous systems.
Article
Crop rotation of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] with grain sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench], and application of N fertilizer or manure generally increases grain sorghum yield. Little is known about rotation and fertilization effects on soybean yield in the Great Plains. Grain yields were measured from 1981 to 1987 in a cropping experiment started in 1980 on a Sharpsburg silty clay loam (fine, montmorillonitic, mesic Typic Argiudoll). The cropping treatments included continuous soybean, continuous grain sorghum, and grain sorghum-soybean rotation. Fertilizer treatments consisted of control, manure (15.8 Mg dry matter ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹l) and N (45 kg ha⁻¹ for soybean and 90 kg N ha⁻¹ for sorghum). Volumetric soil water content was determined with a neutron probe in 1985, 1986, and 1987. Soil water content was unaffected by fertilizer treatment. Water content in the upper 30 cm was generally greatest with continuous grain sorghum and least with continuous soybean. Soil water depletion to 120 cm in September was 10 to 36 mm greater with soybean than with grain sorghum. Crop rotation increased soybean yield, but N application did not. Manure application reduced soybean yield in 1986, but had no effect in the other years. Rotation and fertilization increased sorghum grain yield. The soybean yield advantage from crop rotation decreased as 1 April to 31 May rainfall increased. Cropping-system induced differences in soil water content early in the growing season may be partly responsible for higher soybean yield with crop rotation. Published as Paper no. 8535 Journal Series, Nebraska Agric. Res. Div. Partial financial support was provided by the Int. Sorghum and Millet Collaborative Res. Prog. (INTSORMIL), US AID grant DAN-1254-G-SS-5065-00. Please view the pdf by using the Full Text (PDF) link under 'View' to the left. Copyright © . .
Book
Significance of Soil Organic Matter to Soil Quality/Health - An Overview, R. Weil and F. Magdoff Organic Matter Management Strategies, F. Magdoff and R. Weil Soil Organic Matter Fractions and Their Relevance to Soil Quality/Health, M. Wander Stimulatory Effect of Humic Substances on Plant Growth, Y. Chen, M. De Nobili, and T. Aviad The Role of Soil Organic Matter and Soil Quality in Soil-Plant-Disease Interactions, A. Stone and H. Darby Contributions of Fungi to Soil Organic Matter in Agroecosystems, K.A. Nichols and S.F. Wright Connecting Belowground and Aboveground Food Webs: The Role of Organic Matter in Biological Buffering, P.L. Phelan Tillage and Residue Management Effects on Soil Organic Matter, A.J. Franzluebbers Strategies for Managing Soil Organic Matter to Supply Plant Nutrients, S. Seiter and W. Horvath Soil and Crop Management Effects on Soil Microbiology, A.C. Kennedy, T.L. Stubbs, and W.F. Schillinger Interactions between Organic Matter, Earthworms and Microorganisms in Promoting Plant Growth, C.A. Edwards and N.Q. Arancon
Article
Productivity of crops grown for human consumption is at risk due to the incidence of pests, especially weeds, pathogens and animal pests. Crop losses due to these harmful organisms can be substantial and may be prevented, or reduced, by crop protection measures. An overview is given on different types of crop losses as well as on various methods of pest control developed during the last century. Estimates on potential and actual losses despite the current crop protection practices are given for wheat, rice, maize, potatoes, soybeans, and cotton for the period 2001–03 on a regional basis (19 regions) as well as for the global total. Among crops, the total global potential loss due to pests varied from about 50% in wheat to more than 80% in cotton production. The responses are estimated as losses of 26–29% for soybean, wheat and cotton, and 31, 37 and 40% for maize, rice and potatoes, respectively. Overall, weeds produced the highest potential loss (34%), with animal pests and pathogens being less important (losses of 18 and 16%). The efficacy of crop protection was higher in cash crops than in food crops. Weed control can be managed mechanically or chemically, therefore worldwide efficacy was considerably higher than for the control of animal pests or diseases, which rely heavily on synthetic chemicals. Regional differences in efficacy are outlined. Despite a clear increase in pesticide use, crop losses have not significantly decreased during the last 40 years. However, pesticide use has enabled farmers to modify production systems and to increase crop productivity without sustaining the higher losses likely to occur from an increased susceptibility to the damaging effect of pests. The concept of integrated pest/crop management includes a threshold concept for the application of pest control measures and reduction in the amount/frequency of pesticides applied to an economically and ecologically acceptable level. Often minor crop losses are economically acceptable; however, an increase in crop productivity without adequate crop protection does not make sense, because an increase in attainable yields is often associated with an increased vulnerability to damage inflicted by pests.
Book
In the face of decreasing biodiversity and ongoing global changes, maintaining ecosystem functioning is seen both as a means to preserve biological diversity as well as for safeguarding human wellbeing by securing the services ecosystems provide. The concept today is prominent in many fields of ecology and conservation biology, such as biodiversity research, ecosystem management, or restoration ecology. Although the idea of ecosystem functioning is important, the concept itself remains rather vague and elusive. This book provides a novel analysis and integrated synthesis of different approaches to conceptualizing and assessing ecosystem functioning. It links the natural sciences with methodologies from philosophy and the social sciences, and introduces a new methodology for a clearer and more efficient application of ecosystem functioning concepts in practice. Special emphasis is laid on the social dimensions of the concept and the ways it influences research practice. Several case studies relate theoretical analyses to practical application.
Article
Agriculture is facing up to an increasing number of challenges, including the need to ensure various ecosystem services and to resolve apparent conflicts between them. One of the ways forward for agriculture currently being debated is a set of principles grouped together under the umbrella term “ecological intensification”. In published studies, ecological intensification has generally been considered to be based essentially on the use of biological regulation to manage agroecosystems, at field, farm and landscape scales. We propose here five additional avenues that agronomic research could follow to strengthen the ecological intensification of current farming systems. We begin by assuming that progress in plant sciences over the last two decades provides new insight of potential use to agronomists. Potentially useful new developments in plant science include advances in the fields of energy conversion by plants, nitrogen use efficiency and defence mechanisms against pests. We then suggest that natural ecosystems may also provide sources of inspiration for cropping system design, in terms of their structure and function on the one hand, and farmers’ knowledge on the other. Natural ecosystems display a number of interesting properties that could be incorporated into agroecosystems. We discuss the value and limitations of attempting to ‘mimic’ their structure and function, while considering the differences in objectives and constraints between these two types of system. Farmers develop extensive knowledge of the systems they manage. We discuss ways in which this knowledge could be combined with, or fed into scientific knowledge and innovation, and the extent to which this is likely to be possible. The two remaining avenues concern methods. We suggest that agronomists make more use of meta-analysis and comparative system studies, these two types of methods being commonly used in other disciplines but barely used in agronomy. Meta-analysis would make it possible to quantify variations of cropping system performances in interaction with soil and climate conditions more accurately across environments and socio-economic contexts. Comparative analysis would help to identify the structural characteristics of cropping and farming systems underlying properties of interest. Such analysis can be performed with sets of performance indicators and methods borrowed from ecology for analyses of the structure and organisation of these systems. These five approaches should make it possible to deepen our knowledge of agroecosystems for action.Highlights► Results of plant science research are important for ecological intensification. ► Under certain conditions farmers’ knowledge and natural ecosystems functions are also useful to IE. ► Meta-analysis and comparative studies should be used more intensively in agronomy.
Article
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